Jan C O N T A C T : ( ) / Electronic copy available at:

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1 Kenya: Food Security Brief Food security in Kenya has been in decline due to social, economic and physical factors. In order to overcome food insecurity, policies in Kenya should address food availability, food access and food use. As such, the foundation for a comprehensive policy for food security should involve improvements in the agriculture and livestock sector; land and resources management; disaster and conflict management; health and nutrition; water and sanitation and attention to the overall management of policies. Patricia A. Bunyasi Independent Policy Analyst Jan C O N T A C T : ( ) / P A T R I C I A B U N Y A S Y A H O O. C O M Electronic copy available at:

2 Kenya: Food Security Brief Food security is defined as a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO, 2002). Food security in Kenya has been in decline due to social, economic and physical factors. Social and economic factors include reduced production and increased demand with causes cited including the following; environmental (droughts); diverting of food crops to biofuels; increased cost of production due to the increase costs of such things as fuel and transportation. This causes the price of food to be inflated due to supply side limitations. Food security is threatened when countries have a low surplus of food; they rely on food imports and in those where household incomes do not increase along with increases in food prices. In order to overcome food insecurity, policies in Kenya should address food availability, food access and food use. As such, the foundation for a comprehensive policy for food security should involve improvements in the agriculture and livestock sector; land and resources management; disaster and conflict management; health and nutrition; water and sanitation and attention to the overall management of policies. The following deals briefly with these six key areas. Agriculture & livestock Sector The agricultural sector in Kenya supports 70% of the population and contributes to 26% of the GDP (WB). As a result, agriculture is often referred to as the backbone of the Kenyan economy. In addition to the role it plays in the economy, the agricultural sector is linked to food security because subsistence farmers rely on their own food production for sustenance. On average in rural areas 30% of food consumed is purchased and 70% is from subsistence farming. In urban areas it is 98% purchased and 2% from subsistence farming (FAO, 2004). Taken together, these statistics make it clear that any efforts undertaken to increase food security (as well as to increase quality of life through poverty reduction and income generation) must include changes in policies that affect agriculture. Growth in the Kenyan agricultural sector is hindered by low productivity; lack of new technologies; inability to reach economies of scale; over reliance on rain-fed agriculture; lack of access to markets; lack of investment and lack of credit for small scale farmers. Curtailing these faults goes a long way in ensuring food security. The following paragraphs discuss aspects of the agriculture sector that need special attention in order to realize food security. Productivity A vibrant agricultural sector has a direct effect on increased rural employment, income generation and it will increase foreign exchange reserves through export if it experiences growth. To attain these results, policies that increase productivity and growth should be the main focus. Recent growth trends in agriculture provide a guide for strategies to increase production. A look at recent growth in maize production in Kenya attributes the growth to increases in household fertilizer use; adoption of high yield seeds; increase in the number of markets for producers and as a result, the reduction in distance travelled for sellers of inputs. The dairy sub-sector has 1 Electronic copy available at:

3 experienced growth due to adoption of improved breeds; investment in new technologies and knowledge sharing. Kenya has focused on seven commodities as the basis of their agricultural policies: maize, wheat, milk, meat for consumption and export and tea and coffee for export and income generation. Policies should target these commodities (and sub-sectors), as well as aim for diversification. Small Holder Farms Smallholder farmers account for 75% of production and 75% of employment in the agriculture sector (ADB). Particular attention to their needs increases efficiency, productivity, farmer incomes and household food security. The obstacles faced by small holder farmers are essentially those that are related to production. In a nutshell, the costs of production are too much to bear for small holder farmers that already suffer from poverty. Production costs include land, water, fertilizer, cost of feedstock and the cost of transport to market. In order to ease the financial burdens associated with farming, policies should include subsidies aimed at decreasing production costs. They should include access to credit and or micro-financing services for small and medium enterprises to afford costly inputs such as fertilizer and feedstock. The lack of economies of scale acts as an obstacle to growth. Economies of scale are important in increasing market power and allowing the producer to make available a product (in this case food) to the consumer at a reduced cost due to decreases that occur in production costs. Efforts in realizing economies of scale should include the support of farming institutions such as cooperatives or consortiums. Farming institutions can also assist in the areas of financing and marketing. A review of the new cooperative act and revitalization of the cooperative movement should be pursued as these institutions can aid in the transition of farmers from the subsistence level to agribusiness by providing direct support. Another form of support available to small holder farmers comes in the form of extension services. Information and knowledge sharing through extension services provides farmers with the skills needed to increase productivity and eventually their incomes through the sharing of best practices. Increased access to extension services is a necessary part of capacity building. Efforts to increase the number, quality and availability of such programs need to be undertaken. The services and the manner in which they are offered should take into consideration the special characteristics of the region as there will be variations in the needs of individuals according to the specific context and site. Extension services can benefit farmers by educating them on the value and uses of new technologies. In summary, in order to increase productivity, there needs to be increased investment in agricultural research and extension, uptake of new technologies and provision of smart subsidies for inputs (such as fertilizer) that have been proven to increase farm productivity. Increased production means producers can meet the demand for food for both domestic consumption and through exports. An understanding of the crosscutting effects of other sectors on agriculture (and therefore the impact on food security) is useful in the creation of a comprehensive approach. Coordinating efforts from relevant sectors is necessary in achieving food security. The following is a quick discussion on the role of other sectors in food security. 2 Electronic copy available at:

4 Trade & Markets Markets provide a place in which producers can sell their products, generate incomes and supply food to consumers. As such, they are of great importance to agriculture and food security. At the basis of any market economy is the interaction between supply and demand. In a perfect system, equilibrium is reached when the consumer and producer agree on a price for a commodity. In order for this to happen, producers must be able to supply goods. On the demand side, consumers must be able to afford the goods for the exchange to occur. Markets in Kenya are experiencing constraints on both the supply and demand side, resulting in imbalances in the market that have negative impacts on food security. Supply side constraints include lack of access to markets (including inputs markets); lack of storage for crops; post-harvest loss; access to inputs markets and inadequate infrastructure to supply food. Demand side constraints include incomes that are insufficient to purchase foods. It is under these constraints that food insecurity occurs. This is because the demand for food (exacerbated by increases in population) is increasing while both the ability to supply and afford food is either in decline or stagnant. In the Kenyan market, threats to food security present themselves in the form of food shortages; the inability of people to absorb price increases in the cost of staple foods and the inability to transport food from a surplus area to one in which shortages occur. At the regional and international level, Kenya lacks bargaining power and is at the mercy of market distorting trade policies. Trade distorting policies include overall access to global markets, trade restrictions on imports, and the effects of domestic tariffs and subsidies on Kenyan exports. When Kenyan producers are able to access markets, the competitiveness of Kenyan goods is at issue due to problems with value addition. Improvements in value addition should include adoption of higher value seeds, consistency in standards and improvements in processing. Policies that restore equilibrium and are driven by the special needs of Kenyan farmers are important because the competitiveness and economic success of farmers and that of the agriculture sector in general, relies heavily on the ability of farmers to access markets and to sell their products in domestic, regional and international markets. At the local, national and regional level, policies should focus on limiting supply side constraints. The specifics should include storage facilities to prevent crop loss; creation of infrastructure to aid in market access; strengthening efforts to coordinate national and regional commodities exchange boards; and increases in incomes to allow consumers to afford food. Tariffs and other barriers to trade in the East African Community should be removed. Disbanding of food cartels and monopolies should also be pursued. At the international level, advocacy for inclusion of Kenyan agricultural products on the global market is needed. Policies of developed nations that impact production and trade in developing nations should be denounced as unfair. An example is export subsidies provided for farmers in developed nations. These subsidies encourage over production; reduce imports and cause the creation of a surplus that winds up in developing countries. The surplus then competes with local products as they are often more affordable to the consumer. The result is that it effectively excludes farmers in developing nations from markets. Advocacy should include a call to examine the role that speculation has on global food prices. 3

5 Transport & Energy Poor infrastructure results in increased transport costs and lack of physical access to markets. There is a need for the development of rural infrastructure to facilitate market access, such as roads and modern information and communication technologies. During the recent famine, stories have emerged of areas with food surpluses, yet they are unable to deliver the foods to areas with shortages. This is a reflection of the state of infrastructure in Kenya. Energy is important in agriculture because it fuels industrial processes. Access to affordable and reliable energy allows one to use technologies that can increase productivity, efficiency and the overall quality of life for individuals. Less time spent working can free up an individual to pursue income generating activities. All efforts to provide Kenyans with sustainable and affordable forms of energy should be pursued. Water and Sanitation The majority of agriculture in Kenya is rain-fed and compromises yields due to floods, droughts and uneven or unpredictable rainfall patterns. Irrigation schemes tend to focus on large scale producers. Irrigation schemes that benefit small scale producers need to be assessed and implemented, with special attention being paid to the ASALs. Climate change will continue to disrupt rainfall patterns. In response to this, water harvesting projects that include storage infrastructure need to be undertaken. Proper, adequate sanitation is needed to ensure the general health and safety of individuals and food. Youth and Gender Women make up 86% of farmers in Kenya (UNEP) and youths under the age of 15 are 43% (WB) of the population, with 75% being under the age of 30 (WB). A focus on youths reflects a commitment to ensuring that future generations are equipped to meet possible challenges they may face in the agriculture sector. Policies that address the special needs of women can increase their capacity to meet the nutrition and subsistence needs of their families, since they have the dual role of farmers and primary caretakers. Women often experience land insecurity, which affects food security. Gender sensitive policies should be adopted. Land and resource management: Land in Kenya has ties to food security because it is a source of subsistence and livelihood. Livelihood is defined as a means of support, with the use of land forming the basis of livelihoods in agricultural communities. The cultivation of the land provides food for subsistence and is the base of income for many, as their surplus crops are sold at local markets. If individuals are accorded land rights and titles, they can determine how their land is used and their rights are not infringed upon. Individuals exercise their rights to livelihood through the exploitation of land. Ultimately, the control of the land or proper representation in land deals allows individuals to be active agents in regards to their livelihoods and concerns over food security. 4

6 Land is of value to the rural poor in developing nations because it is a means to gain income through farming and other activities. As a result, the acquisition of land by foreign investors can impinge on access to land for the poor. Historically, Kenya is plagued by inequality in land distribution along race, class, gender and ethnicity. Due to the value of land, the rights of the poor and marginalized have to be taken into account when issues of land are discussed because they are generally overlooked. In order to increase revenue for development, African nations often promote investments in land resources. These projects are dominated by foreign investors seeking large pieces of land, with the goal of achieving economies of scale. The current discussion around land grabbing is related to the issue of biofuels production and its effects on food security. In acquiring land, investors are limited to what is not already in use, and what is suitable for production. 80% of suitable land is in Africa and South America and it is considered reserve agricultural land. Reserve agricultural is land that is not already under cultivation or is forested. Land availability for biofuels production is further limited by demand for food, environmental protection, water reserves, competing land uses, soil management and soil quality. The quality of land is also important for cultivation and land is labeled accordingly. This is defined by categorizing it according to how suitable it is for cultivation. So, reserve agricultural land is further labeled according to its potential use by such terms as marginal and idle. While some make the argument that there exists land that is marginal and abandoned that can be used, it depends on the crop variety and such things as access to water and access to markets. A glimpse at the land tenure or the rights to use of individuals and groups reveals the following. Many individuals in Kenya do not have formal land rights in the form of titles or access to institutions that deal with land reform. Although the process of titling and registration is viewed as valuable in efforts to reduce poverty, promote investment and ensure improved management of land resources, it is found to be expensive and slow to implement. Also, individuals living under customary traditions live on land that is owned by the state. As a result, they do not have the ultimate say on what the land can be used for, or to dictate the use of the land. The customary system also imposes ownership and inheritance of lands, with many groups prohibiting women from the right to inherit land. As a result, issues of land involve human rights, individual rights, food security and livelihoods as agriculture supports 70% of the population. Despite an existing framework for land management and transfers, land deals come with complications when their sale and acquisition involve those with secondary land rights and when the disregard for laws and regulations occurs. In Africa, information on land and its uses tends to be limited and needs to be clearly defined, and agreed upon in order to approve appropriate projects. Land tenure rights and agreed upon codes of conducts for involved parties can preserve the rights of groups, but only if they are enforced and followed diligently. In Kenya, physical access to food is hindered by lack of physical access to land as land is a resource used to produce food by the poor. This notion was expanded by the United Nations Human Rights Council s Right to Food campaign (2008) that views the marginalization of individuals through denied access to land and any action or inaction by a state that interferes with the Right to Food to be human rights violations. Essentially, the argument against biofuel production in Sub Saharan Africa is one founded in the belief that it will indeed interfere with 5

7 the Right to Food. Opponents of land grabbing for biofuels production believe that in light of current food shortages (regardless of the cause) any new cultivation of land should be for food production to be supplied at the local level. The locally available food will mitigate the impact of increasing food prices and curb the reliance on food aid. Critics also point out that land that is cultivated on a large scale will intensify the competition for natural resources, in this case land and water that are needed to grow food or cash crops. It should be noted that land fragmentation is often cited as a source of food insecurity as smaller portions of land are available for food production and are not economically sustainable. The methods surrounding the cultivation, use of land and land management are important to consider. Can less land be used more effectively versus greater amounts of land? Further, one has to consider whether or not the demand for biofuels requires land intensification or greater amounts of land. According to the World Bank, 34% of growth in production in SSA resulted from yield increases, with the majority from the expansion of land (World Bank, 2010). Clearly, more efficient uses of land can be implemented that produce higher yields regardless of whether the crop being farmed is for biofuels or food. This can lessen the concern of encroaching on land that could be used for planting crops for consumption by utilizing land that is currently set aside for crop production in a more efficient manner. Currently the agricultural land policies lack specifics on what is considered appropriate use of land creating reservations about the potential impacts on society. Tackling unequal land distribution can have great impact in the effort to increase food security and the overall quality of life for the rural poor. Inequity in land distribution leads to inequity in the social, economic and political benefits derived from land resources if certain groups are excluded or denied access. Another consideration is the general effects of land degradation, population growth and urbanization on food security. An increase in population means an increase in demand for food, and increased urbanization means greater reliance on food from rural areas. Improvements in storage of foods can eliminate food waste, with the surplus used to stabilize food prices when there are shortages or changes in food prices. It also means that land for food production must be maintained in general, to meet the increase in demand. The FAO estimates that by 2020, 60 million individuals in Sub Saharan Africa will be driven from their land as a result of land degradation. Land degradation can affect food security through decreases in nutrition and productivity. The combined impacts of land degradation and the population increases on Kenyan food security need to be considered in order to keep the plight of the poor and hungry front and center. Disaster & Conflict Management The GOK has been slow to respond to natural and man-made disasters. The impact of natural disasters such as droughts and famine can be reduced through better preparedness. This should involve the proper use of early warning and response systems and the creation of food reserves in strategic areas such as the Horn of Africa. The GOK should invest in realizing agriculture s potential for climate change adaptation and mitigation. Adaptation includes better land management; introducing new crop varieties and changing planting dates. Mitigation includes improving energy efficiency and crop yields. 6

8 The containing of conflicts between groups also serves the goal of food security as it minimizes the creation of displaced persons that need food assistance and the competition for resources such as the means to subsistence and livelihoods. When conflicts and disasters occur, the response should be quick and effective. Health and Nutrition Kenyans suffer from chronic malnutrition and reduced caloric intake mainly due to the inability to afford adequate amounts of food. The burden of diseases such as Malaria, HIV/AIDS and water borne diseases affects the agricultural sector as it impacts the ability of individuals to be productive, which in turn affects their ability to reap the economic benefits from their participation in the agricultural sector. Continued support for programs aimed at increasing the income, health and productivity of this population is of great importance. Programs should also educate the public on appropriate uses of food, since proper feeding and adequate nutrition is vital to the general health and well being of individuals that are ill. Agencies should be created to disseminate nutrition information. The nutritional value of foods is affected by nutrient depletion in soil. Farming techniques that deplete soil quality should be discouraged. Techniques that restore soil nutrients or minimize their depletion should be adopted. There is a need for a national body that is responsible for food safety and ensuring nutrition standards. This type of certification should take into account international standards so agricultural goods can be sold on international markets. Overall Management: Transparent, efficient and adequate management of all sectors is needed to achieve food security. Also, there needs to be adequate data collected at the local, national and international level that spans the agricultural, energy, trade and transport sectors. It is also important that the interaction of the sectors mentioned and the effects that they have on one another are properly understood and accounted for in analysis. When information is accurate and timely, informed decisions can be made. There is a need to harmonize the legal, regulatory and institutional frameworks. A synchronized and consistent approach to policy is needed at all levels to achieve desired outcomes and minimize negative impacts. There must also be a strict commitment to codes of conduct and an upholding of all promises made under any arrangements. Appropriate measures need to be taken in order to remedy any issues that might arise, if any conditions should change in the state of food security. The GOK should work with NGOs and NSA to encourage and participate in coordination efforts of existing initiatives and the sharing of best practices. Investment In general, investment in the agricultural sector has been low in developing nations. This is detrimental to the encouragement of the creation of new technologies and the diversification of the sector. Greater research and investment is needed for improvement and creation of new technologies that can increase productivity and increase food security. There needs to be a greater strengthening of the linkages between research, extension services and farmers. 7

9 Budget allocation is important, and at least 10% annually of the budget should be allocated to the agricultural sector. Increased allocation should result in improvements in service delivery and operations. The spending should be on agricultural development (research, mechanization) and recurrent expenditure (salaries, extension services). Although increased investment is needed in the public sector, it is important to note that most of the work-production, processing, marketing, financing and value added are done by the private sector. In general, sectors that are privatized experience greater growth, but only if the transition from public to private ownership is done correctly. In order to encourage faith in policies and increase investor confidence, the transition must be done when guidelines have been determined and when there is consistency and harmony to policies. Support in the form of infrastructure and increases in capacity should be undertaken. Another area to look at is the strengthening of social safety nets. Although developing nations have budget constraints, documented social programs that are effective account for about 1% of the GDP. These programs can target the hardest hit, which tend to be women and children. Policies need to be engendered as women make up the majority of the poor and are often responsible for supplying food for subsistence. Conclusion: Food security is plausible in Kenya if proper policies are put in place. In order to fully realize food security, the objectives for agriculture, food and nutrition policies should center on the following: 1. The goal of all policies and efforts undertaken should be to ensure basic food security for the nation and increase nutritional standards for all while minimizing dependency and promoting self sufficiency. Reliance on food aid is not sustainable in the long run as it depends on many factors beyond the control of Kenyans. Also, a body that oversees certification, food safety and nutrition standards should be created. 2. To improve standards of living in rural and urban areas through increased income from agriculture, livestock and other industries. Increased income allows one to absorb price increases in food. 3. To increase foreign exchange earnings for the nation by increasing the production and the level of exports of cash crops. Foreign exchange reserves allow for foods to be imported in times of shortage. In order for this to occur, measures to attain market equilibrium and to create market entry points are vital. The GOK should increase support of regional bodies that facilitate trade and existing initiatives to create commodity exchange boards. There is a need for advocacy for Kenyan goods to be allowed entry into global markets. The overall impact of global trade policies on Kenya needs to be examined. 4. To develop and introduce new technologies to increase the productivity of labor and land. New techniques can result in increases in food availability through increased production and increases in the availability of foods of greater nutritional value. Surplus food can be distributed in times of shortage. Extension services are a means of disseminating accurate, relevant and valuable information and their efforts need to be strengthened and supported. Irrigation schemes that invest and assist small scale farmers should be adopted. 5. To promote integrated and sustainable use and management of land and other natural resources. There is a need to harmonize the legal, regulatory and institutional 8

10 frameworks. This causes improvements in land, water, disaster and conflict management. Policies should be just, equitable, transparent and diligently implemented. The GOK should invest in realizing agriculture s potential for climate change adaptation and mitigation. 6. To develop human resources within the sector in order to increase the productivity of labor. 7. To provide support services to agricultural sector. This should include strengthening the link between research, information, markets and the farmer. Producers need assistance in lobbying, co-ordination, value addition and marketing of goods. Strengthening existing farming institutions is important. 8. To coordinate and create food distribution systems and bodies. This requires attention to infrastructure and co-operation from the trade, transport, energy and health sectors. Food distribution systems should include grain reserves for local and regional consumption that are located in strategic areas such as the Horn of Africa. Working with internal and external organizations allows for the sharing of best practices and avoids repetition and redundancy. The GOK should strengthen their disaster and conflict management and response systems. 9. To promote specifically the access of women and youth to land, credit, education and relevant information. 10. Land and resource management policies should be structured in a manner that prevents the misappropriation of resources by both internal and external parties. Land deals should not interfere with food production and should be only be undertaken after careful examination of relevant circumstances. Access to land is of value due to its ties to poverty, food security and human rights. Policies that exclude women and other marginalized groups should be abandoned in favor of more inclusive policies that take into account the negative impacts of improper land use and distribution such as fragmentation and reductions in soil quality. 9

11 Bibliography 1. OECD. Rising Food Prices: Causes and Consequences Loening, J; Durevall, D; Birru, Y. Feb Inflation Dynamics and Food Prices in an Agricultural Economy: The Case of Ethiopia. Working Papers in Economics. No University of Gothenburg. Avail at 3. Trends in Regional Agricultural Production in Kenya. By James Nyoro and Thomas Jayne. Tegemeo Institute for Agricultural Policy and Development. Avail at 4. Economic Commission for Africa. Dec Land Tenure Systems and Their Impacts for Food Security and Sustainable Development for Africa. Avail at 5. Cotula, L; Vermeulen, S; Leonard, R; Keely, J. IIED. FAO. IFAD Land Grab or Development Opportunity? Agricultural Investments and International Land Deals in Africa. 6. Bunyasi, Patricia. African Center for Technology Studies. Biofuels in the African Context Bunyasi, Patricia. Kenya CAADP NSAs Communiqué What effect will biofuel production have on forest land and poor people s access to it? Avail at 9. Cotula, L; Vermeulen, S; Leonard, R; Keely Land Grab or Development Opportunity? Agricultural Investments and International Land Deals in Africa.. IIED. FAO. IFAD. 10. Toulmin, C. Securing Land and Property Rights in Sub Saharan Africa: The Role of Local Institutions. Avail at 10