Button Mushroom Cultivation

Transcription

1 Button Mushroom Cultivation Nazir A. Munshi Gh. Hassan Dar M.Y. Ghani Shaheen Kauser Najeeb Mughal Division of Plant Pathology Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir Shalimar, Srinagar (J&K) India

2 Printed : May 2010 Published by : Communication and Publication Centre Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir Shalimar Srinagar Jammu and Kashmir Laser typeset by Xpedite Computer Systems, D-20, 2nd Floor, Ranjit Nagar Commercial Complex, New Delhi and printed at M/s Print Process, 225 DSIDC Complex, Phase-I, Okhla Industrial Area, New Delhi

3 Foreword Mushrooms are high protein low fat fungi of great economic value. In modern times when human being is concerned about cholesterol and coronary health conditions mushrooms serve as a very good diet supplement. For vegetarian people mushrooms are the gift of Nature. Several kinds of edible mushrooms are available in the country, many of them are grown in-house and many like Guchi collected from forests and fetch good income to the people involved in this business. Button mushroom are widely cultivated and marketed as people like it most. However, flat head Pleurotus mushrooms are commercially cultivated and marketed. Chinese people have a great liking for Pleurotus as well as button mushrooms. The Division of Plant Pathology as advised took initiative and established mushroom production, training and research unit under the aegis of SKUAST-K at Shalimar. Mushroom Research and Training Centre (MRTC) has trained a good number of people from all corners of Kashmir valley; many of them, including women, are producing and marketing mushrooms as self-employment activity. MRTC prepares a substantial quantity of spawn thus facilitates mushroom production activity in Kashmir valley. I am very happy that experience at Shalimar on button mushroom production has been documented in the form of a technical bulletin. It is very informative, comprehensive and well-written and provides relevant details about all aspects of button mushroom cultivation in temperate regions. I compliment Prof. G.H. Dar and Dr. N.A. Munshi and their associated for this publication. I am sure that mushroom growers and traders will find it informative and useful. Prof. Anwar Alam Vice-Chancellor

4 Contents 1. Introduction 1 2. Cultivation of Button Mushroom 3 Compost preparation 4 Spawn-run 12 Casing 14 Cropping and harvesting 16 Marketing Common Diseases and Pests of Mushroom and their 20 Management Mushroom diseases and their management 20 Mushroom pests and their management Economics of Mushroom Cultivation 28

5 Introduction The cultivation of edible mushrooms is a biotechnological intervention for the conversion of various lignocellosic agro-wastes into proteins. The commercial mushroom cultivation is an appropriate agribusiness, suiting the agro-climatic conditions of Jammu and Kashmir State. Its cultivation involves low-cost eco-friendly technology wherein locally available farm wastes are utilized as raw material. The temperate climate conditions prevailing in Kashmir valley are quite conducive for mushroom cultivation almost throughout the year. Added advantage is that the venture is least dependent on electricity. Being a labour intensive indoor activity, mushroom cultivation generates sufficient employment for unemployed youth and provides support to women folk and other weaker section of the society. Mushrooms not only contribute in meeting the human food requirement but also have enormous medicinal and pharmaceutical value. Mushrooms are well-suited to supplement diets which lack proteins and in sense they are rightly called vegetable meat. Carbohydrate and fat contents of edible mushrooms are quite low. Owing to these attributes, these serve as low-caloric diet recommended to heart patients. The absence of starch in mushroom makes it an ideal food for diabetic patients and owing to its cholesterol-reducing property, mushrooms are ideal for the persons worried about their fattiness. The polysaccharides present in mushrooms have anti-tumour and immunological properties. The vitamin contents in mushrooms are comparable with most vegetables. Mineral contents in mushrooms are higher than fruits and vegetables. In advanced countries like USA, Japan and China a large number of medicines (mushroom neutriceuticals) are prepared from mushrooms in the form of tablets, capsules and extracts which fetch revenue worth billions of dollars. This second potential use of mushroom industry is expected to become a dominant segment as the trend to use mushrooms for medicinal use is on rise with wider consumer satisfactions and acceptability. These two segments of mushroom industry will not compete but will compliment each other. About 2,000 species of macrofungi are reported to be prime edible 1

6 mushrooms, but only about 80 species are grown experimentally, 40 cultivated economically, around 20 cultivated commercially and only 5 produced on an industrial scale. Among the commercially cultivated mushrooms, white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) is extensively cultivated throughout the world and contributes more than 40% of the total 4.0 million metric tonnes of mushrooms produced world-wide. 2

7 Cultivation of Button Mushrooms Button mushrooms can be cultivated commercially anywhere in the valley as the essential environmental conditions required are easy to maintain and requisite raw material, both substrate and supplement, are readily and locally available. Mushroom cultivation involves two types of activities viz., outdoor and indoor activities. Outdoor activities: These include pre-wetting of substrate and composting which can be done in any season. But during indoor activity temperature requirement for spawn-run (vegetative growth) is 22 to 25 C and for crop production (fructification) 14 to 18 C. If temperature is too low, spawn-run will be either retarded or arrested and if it is too high, weed-fungi (competitor fungi) will grow. The mushroom requires nearly saturated atmosphere with moisture (relative humidity of 85 90%). However, direct application of water on compost during spawn-run is injurious to the crop. To ensure healthy crop, production rooms must have proper ventilation as it maintains congenial environmental conditions and circulates adequate fresh air. During crop production CO 2 level should not go more than 0.10 to 0.15% which can be maintained by giving 4 to 6 air charges/hour or introducing 10 cubic ft fresh air per sq ft bed area/hour. Drought must be avoided as it will cause rapid desiccation. At the same time rooms should have sufficient protection and insulation so that it is not subjected sudden fluctuation in temperature. The congenial environmental conditions for spawn-run and crop production in the valley is observed from 15 th February to 15 th May and from 1 st September to ending November (a temperature of C for first 15 days can be maintained with the help of sawdust-based heating stoves locally called bukharies ). It means that composting for first crop should start in the first week of January and for second crop in the last week of July. For cultivation of white button mushroom following steps are required: (i) Compost preparation (ii) Spawn-run (iii) Casing (iv) Cropping and harvest (v) Marketing 3

8 COMPOST PREPARATION Compost is a selective decomposed substrate for growing white button mushroom. Composting leads to indefinite microbial degradation of organic wastes. The process of composting involves microbial decomposition of organic material, synthesis of microbial protein and conditioning of fibrous materials to absorb and retain moisture. The microbial action not only induces changes in the physical and chemical properties of compost but also minimizes the growth of competitive microbes. The quality of mushroom compost depends on: Nature and quality of basic material Organic and in organic supplements Management of compost during composting Nature and quality of basic material: The basic raw material for mushroom production is straw. Traditionally, mushroom producers use wheat straw and mule dung from stables. But now a day s baled straw and poultry manure is used as substitutes to mule dung. Complete omission of mule dung gave birth to synthetic compost. In Kashmir wheat or paddy straw is mostly used as substrate for mushroom production. However, SKUAST-K has developed technology for utilization of low-cost agro-wastes like linseed straw, maize straw, soybean straw, paddy husk and fallen leaves of chinar, apple, poplar and mulberry for the production of button and dhingri mushrooms. Organic and inorganic supplements: In synthetic compost, the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium should be present in a definite ratio. For good compost, the C : N ratio must be about 17 : 1. The amount of nitrogen supplement is calculated in such a way so as to maintain total nitrogen content of 2.0 to 2.5% in the starting material. Organic nitrogen sources are always better than inorganic ones because they, besides nitrogen, supply carbon, potassium, phosphorus and exhibit better heating capacity. Cotton seed meal, linseed meal, soybean meal wheat bran, wheat flour, ground rye grains, rice bran, molasses, corn syrup and fruit concentrates are easily available organic nitrogen sources. Inorganic nitrogen substances like ammonium salts, cyanomide and urea are also used but special precautions are required for using nitrates. The poultry manure can be used as replacement to some part of the organic nitrogen supplement to achieve good yield. It also adds a significant amount of fine dry matter to the compost which helps in the improvement of its texture. The compost should have definite dry matter: water: air ratio during composting in order to have an optimum heating 4

9 of compost. If straw in synthetic compost is very fine, less poultry manure should be used. The composting process must, therefore, be regulated in such a manner which yields higher amounts of protein and minimum ammonia. Keeping all the requirements in view SKUAST-K have evolved two composting formulae SK-3A and SK-3B based on locally available substrates and supplements for optimal production of quality mushroom. The quantity of ingredients required in SK 3-A for preparing compost for 65 polythene bags of 10 kg capacity is as under: Ingredient Wheat straw Poultry manure Rice bran Corn liquor Linseed meal Urea Potash Gypsum Quantity 300 kg 200 kg 50 kg 5 litres obtained from 5 kg maize grain 7 kg 5 kg 2 kg 10 kg In case of SK 3-B the ingredients are same except that 300 kg wheat straw is replaced with 400 kg paddy straw and the amounts of poultry manure and gypsum are enhanced from 200 kg to 300 kg and 10 kg to 15 kg, respectively. Management of compost during composting: There are two main methods of composting, viz., long method and short method. The long method takes about 35 to 40 days whereas short method takes only 22 to 26 days. Long method composting The compost is prepared on well-cleaned, preferably cemented floor, either in open field or under a shed. If composting in done in open field then heap has to be protected from rains by covering it with water or terpelene. Composting can also be done inside in a well ventilated room. Straw is first chopped into pieces of 20 to 30 cm size. Then straw is either spread on floor and wetted thoroughly by sprinkling water over it or kept overnight in water filled drums or tubs. Poultry manure, rice bran and other ingredients except gypsum are mixed with wet straw and stacked into piles of 1.5 m height and 1.0 m width. The heap is then compressed by applying light pressure. The ingredients can also be applied to wet straw layer by layer while raising the pile. 5

10 The pile can also be made with the help of a wooden mould. It has three wooden boards, one end board and two side boards. The side boards can be attached with the end boards by clamps. The mixed compost ingredients are put in the mould and slightly compressed. The side boards are detached from the end board and are moved forward length-wise. Again mixed ingredients are put in the mould. This way long pile of compost can be made. If a long pile is made then perforated pipes are placed vertically in the pile for aeration. It is essential to turn the pile many times as per the below given schedule. The turning should be given in such a manner that every portion of compost should come in the centre where faster decomposition occurs and compost is subjected to maximum heating which is necessary for management of pests and diseases. Stack the heap 0 day 1 st turning 7 th day 2 nd turning 14 th day 3 rd turning 21 st day 4 th turning 28 th day add 10 to15 kg gypsums 5 th turning 32 nd day spray with meinaticide Final turning 35 th day spray with insecticide After each turning, water should be sprinkled to make up the water loss due to evaporation. Compost when ready for spawning should have following qualities: Light brown in appearance No smell of ammonia Chopping of paddy straw 6

11 Wetting of chopped paddy straw Keeping chopped paddy straw over night in drums filed with water Making compost (with hands) 7

12 When lightly squeezed in the hand the moisture in compost should be released in the form of little dampness only and the compost fragments should only just bind together. The compost should be fully decomposed and have C : N ration of 17 : 1 and moisture contents of 65 70%. If during composting moisture is low, bacterial action is arrested and nitrogen escapes as ammonia Pressing compost pile (with the help of wooden boards) Staking compost pile (with the help of wooden mould) 8

13 Compost staked into pile (about 1½ meter in height) Turning of compost pile Opening compost pile (after observing brown colour, checking NH 3 smell and ph value) 9

14 Compost pile opened and other volatile forms of nitrogen. At a very high moisture level, anaerobic conditions set in and which brings down the decomposition process. Short method composting The process of conversion of straw mixture into a suitable selective medium through composting (or fermentation) occurs in two distinct phases, viz., phase-i and phase-ii. In phase-i after pre-wetting and mixing of raw material, as in long method, heap is induced to initiate the quick composting process. The stacks are made in open or under open-sided compost sheds. The material is turned several times. This phase lasts for days after pre-wetting. The temperature of the central portion of stack reaches C, enough to kill most of the pests and competitor/ parasitic moulds. However, the outer layers of pile do not attain such temperature. Phase-II composting is referred as peak-heating or pasteurization or sweat-out. The composting process is carried out under controlled environmental conditions and continued until compost is judged nutritionally suitable and selective for the growth of mushroom mycelium. This phase normally lasts for days. It is primarily the control of environment that distinguishes phase-ii from phase-i. The conditioning of compost takes place at approximately 52 C. 10

15 This process is mostly performed in specially designed bulk chambers or pasteurization rooms. Since this facility is not available with our growers in rural areas SKUAST-K has developed a low cost method for carrying out phase-ii composting. The procedure of composting is as under: Chopping : Straw is chopped into pieces of cm length. Pre-wetting : Chopped straw is spread on the floor and thoroughly wetted by sprinkling water over it or kept over-night in water filled drums or tubs. Phase-I Day-4 Day-2 Day-0 Day-2 Day-4 Day-6 Phase-II Day-8 All ingredients, except urea and gypsum, are mixed with wetted straw. Heap of mixed straw is raised in such a manner that after every 30 cm thick layer, mixed straw in heap is pressed tightly to favour anaerobic fermentation. 1 st turning is given, urea mixed and compressed heap again raised. 2 nd turning is given and pile made without any pressure to favour aerobic decomposition. 3 rd turning 4 th turning 5 th turning Sixth turning is given and heap completely covered with double layer of black plastic terpelene. Perforated pipes (10 cm dia.) one kept in the pile horizontally and vertically at a distance of 30 cm in such a way that reach to the interior of heap so as to favour continuous fresh air circulation for aerobic decomposition. Proper aeration helps in conversion of ammonia into microbial protein and pasteurization kills pests and pathogens and makes the substrate suitable only for mushroom growth. 11

16 Day 20 Removal of terpelene covering 7 th turning and mixing of gypsum. Day 22 Turning and opening of pile. Day 23 Filling of compost in containers. Spawning should be done immediately with a rapid decline of compost declines temperature to 25 C. Note: Chopped straw is better than unchopped as the straw length of composting period is influenced by the nature and size of fibrous material as well as by the aeration of compost pile. Further, the size of pile also affects the yield. Smaller piles have relatively large surface area for exposure thus almost all the parts of pile receive good aeration. At each turning watering is done to favour faster decomposition. Heap covered with double layered polythene and pipes inserted for aerobic decomposition (after 6 th turning) SPAWN-RUN Once the compost has been prepared either by long or short method, it is ready for spawning with mushroom mycelium. Spawn (mushroom mycelium) is prepared on sterilized wheat grains which needs regular quality check and is produced only in well established spawn laboratories by concerned specialists. The success of mushroom 12

17 cultivation and its yield much depends on the purity and quality of the spawn used. Spawning is the process of mixing the spawn with compost. Spawn is added to compost at the rate of 0.5% by weight and intimately mixed. Depending up on the growing system employed spawning is done by various methods. 1. Double layer spawning: Spawning is done in two stages, 1 st by scattering the spawn on beds when half-filled with compost and then after the complete filling of containers. The spawn is gently pressed and containers covered with newspaper sheets. 2. Top layer spawning: In this case the spawn is planted just on the surface after filling the container with compost up to brim. Then a thin layer of compost is spread out over the spawn. This method is preferred if compost is more wet. 3. Through spawning: The spawn grains are mixed throughout the compost. 4. Shake up spawning: In this case compost is thoroughly shaken up after one week of spawning and replaced in containers. After that either it is cased at once or few days later. 5. Spot spawning: The grain spawn is put in the holes at certain distance with a pointed stick or fingers. Care is taken to ensure the close contact of inoculum with the surrounding compost so that mycelium develops quickly. The environmental conditions required for successful spawn-run are: (i) A compost temperature of about 24 C; (ii) High relative humidity to prevent the compost from drying; Spawn of white button mushroom 13

18 (iii) (iv) (v) Spawning and filing of compost in polythene bags Carbon dioxide level up to 2% which can be achieved by recirculating air within the spawn running room; Room temperature of 22 to 25 C during spawn-run; Watering, if necessary, to be done by spraying water on paper; Spawn-run takes 10 to 15 days for complete colonization of the compost. Spawn taken directly from the growing room (fresh spawn) grows faster than the spawn kept stored at 2 C. CASING To promote sporophore production in button mushroom, a relatively biological inert material is added as surface layer to the fully colonized compost. This casing layer is usually 3.8 to 5.0 cm deep and usually applied after approximately 2 weeks of spawning. This casing layer must have a neutral or alkaline ph. In addition to the stimulation of fruiting, the casing provides anchorage for the sporophores and serves as water holding reserves. Casing layer prevents quick drying of spanned compost. After casing is complete, a period called case-running follows wherein casing itself is colonized by mycelium. Optimal environmental conditions for two mycelial-run phases are essentially the same. A bacterium named Pseudomonas putida has been found active in promoting the fruiting in button mushroom. The activity of P. putida in casing soil is the result of 14

19 environment created by growing mycelium. It is suggested that P. putida releases iron which stimulates fructification. A number of mixtures could be used as casing soil. They are: 1. Soil: peat mixture in 2 : 1 or 3 : 1 ratio 2. Soil and sand mixture in 2 : 1 ratio 3. Well-rotten cow dung mixed with light soil in 3 : 1 ratio. It is advisable to procure soil from barren land. Characteristics of casing material (a) It should have good water holding capacity; (b) It should have good aeration capacity; (c) Its texture should not be altered by watering; (d) It should be neutral in reaction (ph between 7.0 and 7.5); (e) It should be free from diseases, insects and un-decomposed vegetables matter. Sterilization of casing soil Soil is home of many micro-organisms including competitor and parasitic moulds. To use it as a casing material it is essential to sterilize it in such a way that harmful micro-organisms get killed. Sterilization of casing material is done either by chemicals or heat. Sterilization may also be done by passing steam from boiler into soil through perforated pipes. The temperature is raised to 60 C and maintained for 5 hours. Chemical sterilization Soil is commonly sterilized by the application of 2% formalin (formaldehyde). About 500 ml formalin is diluted with 10 liters of water Peat 15

20 Casing soil (Mixing peat and garden soil) and used for 1 cubic meter of casing soil. The casing material is spread over a plastic sheet and sprayed with formalin. The treated soil is piled up in a heap and covered with another plastic sheet for 48 hours. The soil is then uncovered and stirred frequently to remove the traces of formalin fumes. This casing material is fit for use on week after treatment, when it is free form smell of formalin. Soil solarization Solarization of casing material reduces the population of competitor and parasitic moulds to a large extent. Casing material is spread over plastic sheet to a depth of 5 cm after light spray with water over casing material. It is covered by transparent polythene sheet and kept in such condition of 30 days. Casing should be done evenly otherwise the portions where casing soil is thin, mycelium will come up and stoma will be formed which may hinder the pin head formation. Further in case of uneven casing, watering will also be uneven. CROPPING AND HARVEST Once the mycelium has reached the surface of casing, mushroom is induced to fruit by reducing air temperature to C and carbon dioxide concentration in air to 1,000 ppm. A fine spray of water should be given over the casing to maintain 70 80% humidity. It is essential that fresh air 16

21 should circulate over and around the container or tiers. Excessive humidity during cropping should be avoided because it results in heavy concentration of carbon dioxide. More the volume of mushroom grown in a room, more will be the need of fresh air. Mushroom fruiting occurs in well-defined flushes or breaks. The first flush begins about 3 weeks after casing and continues to do so at almost weekly intervals. It generally takes 7 to 8 days to reach button stage from the first appearance of pin heads. The humidity of mushroom house will determine whether there is any need of watering the bed. If the atmosphere is dry then frequent watering is essential. Watering should be done in the form of gently spray with a fine jet, otherwise the casing soil may get disturbed, hard pans on the surface may develop and oxygen supply will be affected. Mushrooms are picked up by gentle twisting of mushroom head clockwise and anti-clock-wise and then mushroom is pulled up very softly. If there are many pin heads around a mushroom to be picked, then it is advisable to cut the mushroom with the help of a sharp-edged knife, so that nearby pins do not get disturbed. When all the mushrooms of the desired size have been picked up, the holes formed should be filled up with sterilized soil immediately. The surface of bed should be kept leveled and wherever new casing has been disturbed it should be made firm by giving a gently pat. The duration of cropping varies depending up the Mushroom crop in polythene bags Mushroom crop in aluminum trays Mushroom crop baskets Mushroom crop in plastic trays 17

22 Mushroom crop in wooden trays Mushroom crop in plastic trays kept on shelves in a well ventilated bit room prevailing circumstances. In case of tray system it varies from 6 to 7 weeks and in case of shelf system from 6 to 8 weeks. In large commercial farms four or five flushes are picked before the crop is removed to make raise next crop. The individual flushes tend to produce progressively fewer mushroom. The greatest weight of mushroom are normally produced in the first flush. In Kashmir valley mushroom cultivation is done as an indoor activity in rooms of residential houses. But specially built mushroom houses without any environmental control system or provision of pasteurization 18

23 Mushroom crop in plastic trays kept on shelves in a well ventilated bit room facilities also exist. Growers use tray system, shelf system or bag system. Trays vary considerably in size but are mostly of m size and cm deep. In shelf system compost is filed into shelves, about three or four tiers high. Presently mushroom cultivation is mostly done in polythene bags of 10 kg capacity. However, mushroom cultivation may be done in any type of container whether polythene bag, polythene trays, plastic trays, aluminum tray, wooden boxes, used fruit boxes cement bags and in peeled willow baskets (covered with polythene sheet). MARKETING Mushrooms are sold either in fresh form or canned/freeze-dried form. Fresh mushroom are packed in low density polythene bags and sold in open market. Their shelf life is barely 2 days. Cannel and freeze-dried mushrooms can remain even for one year but freeze drying is costly technology. 19

24 Common diseases and pests of mushroom and their management Like other agricultural crops, mushrooms are also subject to many biotic and abiotic stresses which hinder its profitable cultivation. Among the various biotic agents inflicting considerable damage to mushrooms include fungi, bacteria, nematodes, insects and mites. Abiotic factor such as temperature, relative humidity and high or low moisture content in compost and casing may exhibit adverse effects on mushroom growth and development and render the crop vulnerable to diseases and pests. MUSHROOM DISEASES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT Many deleterious fungi are encountered in compost and casing materials during the cultivation of white button mushroom. Some of them act as competitor moulds and the influence spawn-run whereas others attack fruiting bodies at various stages of growth. Depending upon the stage and severity of infection, quality of compost and the prevailing environmental conditions, these moulds often cause complete crop failure. In Kashmir valley piles are raised in open on un-cemented floor during mushroom cultivation. Pasteurization of compost and casing is not done properly. Spawn-run and mushroom production is done in the same room. These rooms are generally ill-ventilated and possess ill-hygienic standards. The crop is subjected to the vagaries of temperature fluctuation as no proper insulating material is used. The growers are untrained, a situation inviting a number of weed fungi, parasitic moulds and abnormalities. The most common diseases and abnormalities are as under: Weed fungi or competitors Green mould (Trichoderma viride) This mould disease appears as thick cushioned white patch with greenish fungal growth on spawned and cased bags which gradually change to bluish green in colour. If this fungus attacks the spawned trays, the spawn-run is affected. If it appears on casing soil, the pin-head formation of mushrooms is retarded. The green mould fungus is a vigorous 20

25 colonizer of organic material and dead mushroom tissue. Improper phase- II composting and high humidity are also responsible for the spread of this disease. The spores of this fungus are carried away by air, water and careless handling. False truffle disease (Pseudobalsamia microspora or Diehliomyces microspora) This disease is more prevalent in summer. The fruiting body of this fungus appears in mushroom beds as a round, cream-coloured, wrinkled and convoluted surface depicting brain-like appearance. The mushrooms in bed and top of casing soil are characteristically small (resembling fused pinheads). These bodies on maturity turn reddish brown and release spores. Lack of ventilation and high humidity are the main factors favouring the appearance of this disease. The only control measures are to minimize temperature fluctuations and provide adequate ventilation. The spawnrun temperature and cropping bed temperature should not exceed 22 C. High humidity in mushroom houses should be avoided. Brown plaster mould (Populaspora byssina) The disease appears as large roughly circular patches of white mould on the surface of casing material. These patches later on turn brown and form powdery granules which can be easily recognized under a hand lens. The fungus also colonizes compost. The presence of fungus has been associated with wet compost. This disease is commonly found in mushroom farms of the valley and if uncontrolled it cause drastic reduction in mushroom production. For disease control prepare compost properly. Also, provide proper watering and maintain suitable temperature during spawn-run and cropping. Inky caps (Coprinus spp.) The fungi with long slender stalks and thin cap appear either on compost heap or in compost bags before casing in production room. The fungus develops rapidly and decays in a black liquid. The mycelium of this fungus is grey and in-distinguishable from mushroom mycelium. Inky cap appearance is considered as an indication of under-composting and presence of excessive ammonia or high nitrogen in compost. These fungi deplete food material from compost and hamper spawn run and yield. Cinnamon mould (Peziza spp.) The association of Cinnamon mould is attributed to the use of peat in casing mixture. This mould appears as small dark brown, gelatinous 21

26 disc- or cup-shaped circular structures (apothecia) which are about 1 cm across. Mostly few solitary fruiting bodies are produced but in some cases un-restricted growth of fungus appear as circular colonies which are initially grey white but soon turn brown. Cinnamon mould is a nuisance besides causing crop loss. Parasitic moulds (parasitic diseases) Wet bubble disease (Mycogone perniciosa) Wet bubble disease is characterized by the development of white feltlike mycelial growth on fruiting bodies of button mushroom. It spreads and covers the entire cap. The sporophores are eventually reduced to a white, soft and foul smelling mass. The disease is also characterized by the development of distorted masses of mushroom tissues, which initially are white and fluffy but become brown with age and then decay. These distorted mass called Sclerodamoid mass when mature may be up to 10 cm across. Mushrooms are attacked at the base of stalk and disease may cause brown discoloration and decay. Dry bubble disease (Verticillium fungicola, V. malthousei, V. psalliotae) Dry bubble disease symptoms vary with the age of mushroom. In case of early infection disease appears on mushrooms as small and undifferentiated masses of tissue upto 2 cm in dia. When disease affects the crop at later stage they are often imperfectly formed with partially differentiated cap or with distorted stipes and titled caps. Such affected mushrooms are covered in a fine white grey mycelial growth and although discoloured they are dry and do not rot. Occasionally, more fully differentiated mushrooms are affected and they show small pimple like out-growth from the top of cap or blue grey spots (1 2 cm dia.) on the cap surface. Such spots often have yellow or bluish-grey halo around them. Downward splitting of stipe gives it shattered appearance. Contaminated casing is probably the most common initial source of Verticillium on mushroom farms. Primary introduction may also be through air borne spores as well as by the spores carried by flies, mites or pickers. Cobweb disease (Cladobotryum dendroides syn. Dactylium dendroides) The disease exhibits characteristic coarse mycelial growth over the affected mushroom, hence is named as cobweb disease. Mushrooms are attacked at any developmental stage. The pathogen rapidly colonizes mushroom which eventually turns brown and rots. The mycelium colour 22

27 of pathogen changes to pink or red and the cobweb appearance is replaced by a mycelial mat. Brown or pink-brown spots with poorly defined edge are associated with the disease. The pathogen is a soil inhabiting fungus and may be introduced into casing through soil or through spores or mycelium of the pathogen spread on debris. Unless the spore inoculum is heavy the disease mostly appears in later flushes of crop. Management of Weed fungi and Parasitic Moulds The effective management of diseases caused by competitator and parasitic moulds can be achieved by following the practices mentioned as under: Prophylactic measures: It is always preferable to prevent the entry of pathogenic inoculum into the mushroom production chain. Once the pathogens gain entry, it is difficult to eliminate them without chemical use a practice which needs to be avoided in a crop to be consumed within a short period (a few days) after harvest. The various prophylactic measures need to be adopted: 1. Proper sanitation and maintaining hygienic conditions are primary requirements for successful mushroom production. Keep away all the materials which may help in the establishment of pathogenic organisms/insect-pests in mushroom production chain. The mushroom production rooms and trays should be sterilized with 2% formaldehyde solution after every crop; 2. Use clean water for wetting the straw during compositing; 3. Prepare compost under roof cover and turning of compost should be in such a manner that the whole pile gets decomposed otherwise there is every apprehension that any undecomposed material left in pile may harbour pathogenic organisms/pests. Improper decomposition also hampers the spawn-run and mushroom development. 4. Maintain proper moisture content in compost. High or low moisture content in compost may favour development of unwanted fungi. 5. Don t prepare compost directly on bare soil surface. It should be prepared either on cemented or puka floor. 6. Pasteurize and condition the compost properly so that pathogenic inoculums and other pests are eliminated. 7. Maintain proper temperature and relative humidity during spawnrun and casing. It ensures optimum production of mushrooms and also restricts the growth of unwanted fungi. 23

28 Table 1. Management practices against common diseases of button mushroom Disease Causal organism Management Dry bubble Wet bubble Cinammon mould Inky caps Brown plaster mould False truffle disease Green mould Cobweb (i) Verticillium fungicola (ii) V. malthousei (iii)v. psalliotae Mycogone perniciosa Peziza sp. Coprinus sp. Populaspora byssina Pseudsbodasamia microspora or Dichdiomyces microspora Trichoderma viride Cladobotrym dendrrides Heat treatment of infected casing layer at 63 C for one hour. Use Dithane % at the time of casing, pin head formation and after the crop flushes. Remove diseased mushrooms and sterilize beds with 2% formalin; Spray 0.5 g/m 2 immediately after casing. Apply Dithane % after casing; Maintain proper moisture content in casing layer. Use properly pasteurized compost and casing material; Avoid excessive watering; Rogue-out fruiting bodies of weed fungi to avoid further spread. Ensure proper composting and use sufficient gypsum in compost; Spray crop beds with 1% formalin; Apply % or Dithane Z-78, mancozeb, captan or %. Avoid high temperature (26 27 C) during spawn-run and after casing; Remove affected truffles and apply 2% solution on the affected patches. Spray Dithane 0.2% or 0.05%. Apply 1 g in L water/ m 2 or Prochlorag manganese complex (sporogon) 1.5 g a.i/m 2 of bed 9 days after casing. 24

29 8. Treat the casing material with 2% formaldehyde and cover it with polythene sheets for 48 hours. Then turn the casing material, again cover it for 48 hours and then leave it open. The casing material should have no fumes at the time of casing. Chemical management: The use of chemicals/fungicides in a crop which is consumed generally within 2-4 days after harvest is not generally advocated. However, it sometimes becomes imperative and unavoidable to recommend chemical use for safe commercial mushroom production as well as to save the crop from further losses. The use of biological agents and botanicals are still in infancy so can not be relied upon authoritatively for efficient management of mushroom diseases. The diseased mushrooms should be removed promptly and beds/ mushrooms sterilized with 2% formalin. The management of various diseases in mushroom can be achieved with the use of fungicides as mentioned in Table 1. MUSHROOM-PESTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT The pests affecting successful commercial mushroom farming include insects, mites and nematodes. These pests inflict huge economic losses to mushroom growers throughout the world. In Kashmir also insects and nematodes damage mushroom and are a persistent menace to mushroom growers. The important insects and nematodes associated with mushroom cultivation and their management is as under: Nematodes Two important nematodes associated with mushroom farming in Kashmir are Aphelonchoides spp. and Rhabiditida spp. Aphelonchoides spp. This parasitic nematode (Aphelonchoides spp.) causes degeneration of mushroom mycelium in compost. If nematodes are present in compost at spawning, the mycelium of spawn grows slowly and degenerates thus mushrooms are not formed. Mycelium in affected areas is completely destroyed and compost turns black. The surfaces of nematode-infested areas sink and depict irregular appearance as a result of compost decomposition. Rhabiditida spp. These nematodes are associated with the disappearance of spawn and breakdown of compost into a black soggy mass. Normal-looking spawn- 25

30 run compost may be infested with high population of saprophytic nematodes, even though mushroom production may appear good. Saprophytic nematodes sometimes form moist glistening swarms which appear as upright cylindrical aggregates swaying to and fro on the surface of casing. Nematodes are transported to crop through infested compost, peat moss, soil, dust particles and mushroom files. Management of nematodes Mushrooms being highly sensitive to toxic nematicides practically leave no room for the use of toxic nematicides. However, as mushrooms have attained the status of cash crop, a need for non-toxic, non-persistent and easy to apply nemeaticide is felt deeply. Out of many chemicals nematicide is 80 ppm when spread on nematode infested bed surface during spawn-run 4nhanced the sporophore production manifolds and left no residues. The biological management is certain to play a significant role in future to contain nematodes. Arthrobotrys oligospora and A. superba reduce nematode count and increase yield substantially. A. oligospora could be grown on compost only in presence of nematode on which it feed and in absence of its host, the growth of the fungus is restricted by A. bisporus. Efficient pasteurization of compost and casing material and proper sterilization of cropping room after the crop is over, indeed the best and most practical way nematode management. Ensure strong mushroom mycelial growth in the compost by efficient pasteurization and conditioning of the compost (55 60 C) for 8 hours. Mushroom flies Sciarid fly (Lycoricella castanesens) and phorid fly (Megaselia spp.) are two most important insect-pests of mushroom in Kashmir valley. If unchecked they cause huge economic losses to commercial growers. The flies reduce the yield by damaging compost and feeding on mycelium. The flies are attracted by the odour of the substrate. High humidity and compost moisture favour the egg and larval development. Adult flies have long legs, thin wings and shiny black head. They look like bonsai mosquitoes. The larvae puncture the stem of mushrooms leaving black tunnels that severely reduce crop yields. In addition these flies serve as vectors of disease causing organisms, besides, and also create a significant nuisance to the pickers. 26

31 Management of mushroom flies Adult flies are attracted by the smell of growing mycelium, therefore strict sanitary measures be vigorously followed for at least 4 weeks after spawning. Spent compost should be removed from the mushroom house and destroyed. The breeding and roosting sites of flies (grass surrounding a mushroom farm and still water) must be eliminated and 0.05% be periodically applied. For adults flies insecticides like malathion or 0.05% or neem oil extract be incorporated into the compost or sprinkled over the casing. 27

32 Economics of mushroom cultivation Economics of white button mushroom cultivated on small scale in polythene bags is as under: A. Non-recurring expenses (fixed) capital cost Rupees 1. Construction cost of growing rooms without = 1,22, insulation), size (capacity 750 Rs 200/sq ft. 2. Scrab wooden shelves = 20, Miscellaneous cost = 5, Total = 1,47, B. Recurring expenditure Rupees 1. Paddy straw 45 q (@ Rs 120/q) = 6, Chicken manure 33 q (@ Rs 50/q) = 1, Rice bran 6 q (@ Rs 500/qt) = 3, Maize grain 57 kg (@ Rs 10/kg) = Linseed meal 50 kg (@ Rs 12/kg) = Urea 57 kg (Rs 61/kg) = Potash 23 kg (@ Rs 5/kg) = Gypsum 169 kg (@ Rs 4/kg) = Casing soil = 5, Polythene bags (10 kg 15 kg (@ Rs 100/kg) = 1, capacity) 11. Fuel charges = 1, Electricity charges = 2, Labour for 3 months = 6, Miscellaneous costs = 3, Total = 32, C. 15% per annum and = 36, % per annum on A D. Recurring expenses on 4 crops ( ) = 1,28, Total expenses (C+D) 36,850 1,28,852 = 1,65, Total production mushroom from kg/bag = 1, Total production from 4 crops/year = 5, Total income from sale of Rs 60/kg = 3,15, Net profit per year = 1,49, Benefit : cost ratio = 1 : 1.11 (Data based on information furnished by mushroom growers of Dabrun and Vesu Anantnag and Pallipora Budgam) 28