Forest biomass extraction for livestock feed and associated carbon analysis in lower Himalayas, India. Rajiv Pandey

Transcription

1 Forest biomass extraction for livestock feed and associated carbon analysis in lower Himalayas, India Rajiv Pandey Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change An International Journal Devoted to Scientific, Engineering, Socio-Economic and Policy Responses to Environmental Change ISSN Volume 16 Number 8 Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change (2011) 16: DOI /s

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3 Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change (2011) 16: DOI /s ORIGINAL ARTICLE Forest biomass extraction for livestock feed and associated carbon analysis in lower Himalayas, India Rajiv Pandey Received: 28 February 2011 / Accepted: 10 May 2011 / Published online: 24 May 2011 # Springer Science+Business Media B.V Abstract Accounting the changes in the net carbon (C) sink-source balance is an important component for greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) inventories. However, carbon emission due to the vegetation biomass extraction for household purposes is generally not accounted in forest carbon budget analysis due to miniscule volume and non-availability of data. However, if vegetation remains in the forests, then vegetation biomass decomposes after natural death and decay and fixes some carbon to soil and releases some directly to the atmosphere. The study attempts to quantify the carbon removal against the biomass extraction for livestock feed by collecting primary data on feed from 316 randomly selected households engaged in livestock rearing in the lower Himalayas, Uttarakhand, India and carbon flow components due to livestock production. The analysis results that average daily forest fodder consumption was 13 kg per Adult Cattle Unit (ACU) and total of Million tonnes (Mt) consumption of forest biomass by total livestock of Uttarakhand. This results into absolute annual carbon removal of 3.25 Mt from Uttarakhand forests against the livestock fodder. However, overall carbon flow including the enteric fermentation and manure management system of livestock estimated as per IPCC guidelines, results into emissions of 9.42 Mt CO 2 eq. Therefore, biomass extraction for household purposes should be accounted in regional carbon flow analysis and properly addressed in the GHG inventories of the forests and livestock sector. Suitable measures should be taken for emissions reduction generated due to forest based livestock production. Keywords Anthropogenic disturbances. Carbon accounting. Carbon flow. Fodder. Leakage. Sink and source. Understorey biomass R. Pandey (*) Biodiversity and Climate Change Division, Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education, Dehradun, India pandeyr@icfre.org R. Pandey rajivfri@yahoo.com

4 880 Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change (2011) 16: Introduction Terrestrial vegetation is a central component of the global carbon cycle, storing more than 650 billion tonnes of carbon with 44% in the biomass, 11% in dead wood and litter, and 45% in the soil (FAO 2010). Forests contain more than 45% of terrestrial carbon (Bonan 2008), and annually exchanging approximately 10% of that carbon with the atmosphere (Schimel 1995). Therefore, minor alterations to forest carbon storage or cycling may have substantial impacts on atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations (CO 2 ) and therefore, global climate system. Moreover, quantifying carbon and carbon flow in the dynamic terrestrial systems has been a challenge for researchers and high degrees of uncertainty are associated in the most of available estimates (Grace 2004; Bradford et al. 2009). The uncertainties in carbon budget of the terrestrial systems can be addressed by accounting all components of carbon flow between and within the various systems. In the context of forests, the uncertainty in the estimate may be minimised by properly accounting all associated components of forest ecosystem, which influences the carbon sequestration, such as heterotrophic respiration, loggings, other disturbances, soil processes and litter production (Schulze et al. 2000; Randerson et al. 2002). The present paper attempts to address the carbon flow due to the human disturbances by quantifying the extracted green biomass from forest for livestock feed by the forest dependent community of Uttarakhand, India. The overall objective is to provide a measure of forest carbon flow against biomass extraction, so that the carbon component should be effectively accounted in the policy perspective and accordingly facilitate for green house gas emission reduction strategy. The importance of forest biomass/carbon pool estimation has been discussed since long such as Brown (1997). However, present analysis will also facilitate the packages for precise estimation of carbon credit through accounting leakage in terms of fodder for the market based carbon projects, though indirectly, which is one of the major barriers for the development of carbon projects (Brown et al. 2002; Schwarzeetal.2002). Forests are major source of feeds and fodder for livestock for forest dependent communities in India (Planning Commission 2006). The livestock feed from forests contains green biomass from tree leaves, shrubs, grasses, and other herbaceous plants. This forest biomass is organic matter resulting from primary production through photosynthesis minus consumption through respiration and harvest. This green biomass is vegetative carbon, through meagre in comparison to total tree biomass of forest. On large scale, the forest biomass for fodder may be of sizable volume and contribute significantly to carbon emission, if removed. Moreover, if biomass is not removed from forests, the green biomass decomposes in due course of time after becoming the part of forest leaf litter. The decomposition of dead organic material contribute to the global carbon cycle, and is a fundamental global biogeochemical process (Salinas et al. 2011) by releasing part of carbon to the atmosphere and storing rest of carbon as organic matter (humus) into the soil. The rates of carbon release from dead vegetation to the atmosphere depend on variety of factors, such as nature of vegetation, the composition of soil, and the humidity level (Gorte 2009). Contrary to this, the biomass loss results into small and sometimes undetectable changes in C stocks, however total soil carbons usually declines due to the disturbances occurred during biomass collection in forests (Steinfeld et al. 2006). Reliable and up-to-date information on the state of forest resources including carbon stock, use of forests for recreation and other services, contribution to national economies etc. is crucial to support decision-making for policies and programmes in forestry and sustainable development at all levels (Kleine et al. 2009). Accounting of the carbon within

5 Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change (2011) 16: forest ecosystems and changes in carbon stocks resulting from human activities is essential towards the better role of forests in climate change policy at regional, national and global scales (Winjum et al. 1998). Contrary to this, in general, forest biomass extraction for fuelwood and fodder is unaccounted in terms of carbon due to miniscule volume and lack of precise data. The estimation of biomass that has been removed or lost is necessary as emission of forests carbon is also based on the content of the forest (Houghton 2005). Keeping in view, in the present study, the absolute estimate of carbon in terms of biomass removed from the forest for livestock fodder is being addressed without considering the debate that the sustainable extraction of biomass from forests is carbon neutral. Besides this, the various components of carbon emissions and savings due to livestock production in the mountainous region is also being considered keeping in view of influences caused in the natural carbon cycle. 2 Methods 2.1 Study region Uttarakhand, a federal state of India with geographic area of 53,485 km 2 lies in the northern part of India between to N latitude and to E longitude. Climate in the state is temperate at hills and tropical in plain region with average annual rainfall of 1,550 mm. The state has 37 forest types from eight forest type groups viz tropical moist deciduous, sub-tropical pine, Himalayan moist temperate, Himalayan dry temperate, sub alpine, moist alpine scrub and dry alpine scrub (Hilly Region); and tropical dry deciduous forests (Plain Region) as per Champion and Seth 1968 classification scheme. The forest canopy distribution in the state is 4,762 km 2 under very dense forest (with more than 70% canopy cover), 14,165 km 2 under moderately dense forest (with 70 40% canopy cover), 5,568 km 2 under open forest (with 40 10% canopy cover) and 271 km 2 under scrub (with less than 10% canopy cover) (FSI 2009). Human inhabitants in this mountainous state are found upto an altitude of 3,500 m above sea level with dense population between 1,200 and 2,000 m. The total population of the state is 8.48 million with 74.33% of rural share as per Census Mixed cropping farming system is practiced across the region. The livestock population, consisting mainly cow, ox, buffalo, goat and mule is adult cattle units (ACU) in 2003 and assumed to be same for the study (Livestock Census 2005; Pandey 2010). 2.2 Sample surveys The methodology adopted in this study included biomass survey for assessing carbon stock, following the IPCC (2003) Good Practice Guidelines. Gross margin data were collected through household survey and Focus Group Discussions across the state. Structured and pretested questionnaires were used to collect primary data on livestock feed stuffs from 364 randomly selected livestock rearing households distributed in 66 villages across the state in In the region, livestock fodder was derived from a variety of sources and for convenience, categorized into three sources such as forest, non forests (includes agriculture and other own lands) and market. The feedstuffs for livestock include all types of grasses (dried and fresh), tree leaves, agricultural residue, minerals etc. The biomass consumption quantity i.e. biomass extracted for livestock feed derived or obtained from various sources were estimated and extrapolated for whole state under the assumptions that all households

6 882 Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change (2011) 16: of the state follow uniform livestock rearing practices and collect fodder from forests. The information was verified by personal observations, by weighing the feeding items for at least two households. The fodder consumption pattern per day per households was also monitored and collected from at least one household from each village in different seasons: summer, rainy and winter for reliability. 2.3 Biomass carbon estimation The biomass carbon against livestock feed was measured based on the collected and extracted biomass from forests for the feeding purposes. In general, biomass material contains about 40% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen and 53.3% oxygen by weight. The variability of approximately 9% depends on the nature of the biomass material (Levine 1996). Although most studies have used the carbon proportions between 40% and 50% depending on the wood components (IPCC 2004), the present study considers the conservative value of 40% carbon content. This was with the notion that the mixed biomass comprises of mostly green components of small branches, leaves, and grasses with very low proportion of twigs from forests. Conservative value of carbon content has been adopted to have realistic estimates in view of the errors, associated with such data. The average moisture content on dry basis (mcdb) was considered 60% (Kumar 2009). Algebraically, the carbon was estimated as follows: C Biomass ¼ Biomass ð1 mcdbþ Proportion of Carbon Content 2.4 GHG and livestock production The livestock production process in the mountain regions of Uttarakhand revolves around production of the farmyard manure (FYM) and energy for farm operation through draught power. Therefore, the livestock production influences the global carbon cycle by releasing CH 4 (due to enteric fermentation and manure management systems) and N 2 O (due to manure management systems). These animals provide energy for farm operation, and facilitates saving of fossil fuel used for mechanization, therefore prevent GHG emissions. These emissions were estimated based on the information obtained primarily from secondary sources. The precaution has been taken to prefer local estimates, if available; otherwise, regional values were considered GHG s emissions from livestock production The emissions in livestock production are associated with ruminant digestive system and confined animal management operations for composting, as manure in the region is processed in liquid-based systems. CH 4 and N 2 O emissions from livestock production The release of CH 4 due to enteric fermentation and CH 4 and N 2 O due to manure management systems were estimated as per the Tier 1 approach of IPCC (2006) by considering the regional values. Carbon in FYM due to manure production The FYM is used for cultivation through mixing with soil; therefore, the associated carbon is not being released in the atmosphere, directly. Thus, the contained volume of carbon will not be the part of emissions. In the mountainous region, a large adult ruminant based on traditional feeding system provides approximately

7 Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change (2011) 16: ,140 kg of FYM, per year, as per study in Nepal (Tulachan and Neupane 1999). The settings of mountainous regions are similar to the study region, therefore, it was assumed that this estimates may be suitable for one ACU. Further, the proportion of organic carbon in FYM ranges from 24% to 40% (Chhonkar 2003) and 36.00% (Sidhu and Narwal 2007) depending upon the type of animals and nature of feed. Therefore, for the present analysis, the highest range of organic carbon of FYM was considered GHG s emission prevention due to animal draught power The farm animal environmental contribution was estimated based on set of three parameters: (1) substitution rate of bullocks with tractors, (Dikshit and Birthal 2010) (2) annual fossil fuel (diesel) required per tractor to do the work of replaced animals, (Mishra and Dikshit 2004) and (3) conversion factors to estimate emissions from burning of required quantity of diesel (IPCC 1997). Therefore total emissions due to forest biomass extraction and livestock production may be measured as per following equations. Emissions due to forest biomass extraction and livestock production ¼ Biomass carbon extracted from forests þ emissions due to enteric fermentation and manure management systems Carbon captured in FYM Emission prevention due to animal draught power This may be converted to specific to forest contribution by considering the proportionate share of forests for feed for all emissions and removals. However, this will be a crude estimate based on the assumptions that the carbon flow is uniform with respect to the each unit of feed, irrespective of contents. 3 Result and discussions 3.1 Fodder estimation for livestock In this region, livestock has low productivity and is crucial for household welfare through making provisions for manure and drought power for crop cultivation and milk for consumption. The average number of livestock per household was estimated to be 1.58 cows (reared by 76% households), 0.97 buffalo (reared by 55% households); 1.36 goat (reared by 32% households) and 1.16 oxen (reared by 60% households). These livestock were primarily dependent on forests and farm produces for their feed. Fodder collection from forests comprises of small bundles and was a routine phenomenon for females of the region. Forest grazing was also a major activity, reported by 60% of livestock rearing households. Table 1 contains the quantity (in kg) of livestock feed obtained from different sources based on the survey as per methodology. These are mineral mixture, oilseeds & cake, bran, salts from market; dry fodder (includes all fodder) from non forest area and forest fodder from forests. The dry fodder from non forest area was straw and dry grasses received from agriculture farms with low proportion of green tree foliage. The green fodder from forest includes tree foliage and shrubs, besides dried grasses. The average quantity consumed per day by the one ACU ranges from 9.85 to kg with the mean of 13 kg from forest area. Thus the total daily forest biomass consumption by one ACU was kg, which amounts

8 884 Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change (2011) 16: Table 1 Feed quantity (in Kg) consumed by livestock in Uttarakhand Sources/items Daily quantity (Kg) consumed by an ACU Annual quantity (Mt) consumed by all ACU of State From market Mineral mixture, Oilseed & Others From non forest areas Dry fodder (Straw, Grasses etc.) From forest areas Forest fodder (Leaves, twigs, grasses) Dry fodder (Grasses) Sub total forest areas Total Based on the primary survey and estimated for state to be 57% contribution for livestock feed. Therefore, the annual forest biomass collection for the total livestock of Uttarakhand was Mt in Livestock production and carbon The carbon flow due to forest biomass as livestock feed should consider the amount of carbon contained in the biomass and associated emissions and savings due to livestock production system. The estimates of emissions due to the forest biomass extraction vary because of multiple uncertainties, such as annual forest biomass extraction rates, and the amounts of carbon released from soils due to disturbances occurred during collection. Besides this, the biomass extraction and services gained from the livestock under mixed farming systems of mountainous region also affected the carbon cycle by releasing methane from the breakdown of animal manure and enteric fermentation; release GHG s due to land-use changes for farm feed production and for grazing besides land degradation (IPCC 1997, 2003) and saving of emissions due to the use of livestock for ploughing (Dikshit and Birthal 2010). The forest contributes 13 kg of biomass for livestock feeding. This biomass is equivalent to the annual carbon release of 0.76 t by one ACU. Therefore, the total carbon released in due to the biomass extraction from forests for livestock feed to the total population of livestock was 3.25 Mt, which means fodder extraction from forests results into an annual loss of Mt CO 2 eq. in Uttarakhand, India. On yearly basis, India s forests are capable of removal of Mt CO 2 eq. (Kishwan et al. 2011). This accounts all addition and removal from forests. That is, if properly managed the fodder extraction from forests, then a state with 4.3 million ACU would facilitate for enhancement of the capability of India s forests to the tune of approximately less than 9%. This suggests that if adequately addresses the forest fodders contribution to the livestock across the India, the forests role for mitigation would have been increased further Carbon release under baseline scenario In baseline scenario, this biomass would have been remaining in forests and felled for disintegration in due course of time. The fallen materials convert into leaf litter,

9 Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change (2011) 16: which would release carbon to atmosphere and incorporates carbon as organic matter in the soil after decomposing. This specific information for the study area is not available. Moreover, the same was also not available across world and large uncertainty prevails for available estimates as also highlighted by Gorte Therefore, segregation of the carbon retained in the soil and released in the atmosphere could not be attempted Carbon release under grazing scenario The chopped biomass extracted from forests for livestock feed accounts for 3.25 Mt carbon. In addition to the removal of this biomass carbon, chances of release of carbon were also possible due to soil disturbances during collection of biomass for feed and grazing by the animal. However, keeping in view of the scarcity of such literature and very low volume, the present study does not consider this issue for further analysis. Emissions due to livestock production The CH 4 and N 2 O emissions from the total livestock of Uttarakhand are estimated as per methodology (Table 2). The estimates are equal to the emissions of 2.87 Mt CO 2 Eq. due to the livestock enteric fermentation and manure management system prevailing in the region. Carbon in FYM due to livestock production Based on this analysis the total FYM production will be 4.88 Mt. Out of this the minimum and maximum contribution of organic carbon would be 1.17 Mt (24%) to 1.95 Mt (40%). Therefore, it is considered with brevity that approximately 1.95 Mt organic carbon i.e Mt of CO 2 eq is being mixed with soil i.e. return to the nature. GHG s emission prevention due to animal draught power The required information for emission prevention was number of working animal i.e. oxen in the region. This was estimated based on the proportion of working animal in the cattle population. The estimated proportion through survey yields to 42%. Therefore total number of working animals (oxen) was This figure is equivalent to numbers of tractors for the complete replacement of working animals. The annual diesel consumption of these tractors would be 0.30 Mt. Apparently, annual savings of 0.30 Mt of fossil fuel is taking place in the Uttarakhand due to animal energy use. Based on the figure, it was estimated that 0.26 Mt carbon was prevented because of working animals, which is equivalent to prevention of 0.10 Mt of carbon dioxide emission (Table 3). Table 2 Emissions due to livestock production in Uttarakhand Activity Emission factor a Emission (Mt) Emission (Mt) CO 2 Eq. b Methane emissions from enteric fermentation Methane emissions from manure management N 2 O Emissions from manure management c E a Default value for Indian Subcontinent; b Based on 100 years value of global warming potential; c N excretion rate for Asian region for other cattle category, Default emission factor for manure management for direct N 2 O emissions is for cattle bedding with active mixing due to prevailing livestock rearing practices in the region; Manure management system value for deep bedding under other cattle category

10 886 Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change (2011) 16: Table 3 Prevention of GHG emission due to use of draught animal power Parameters Standard (per unit basis) Values for region Number of tractor required to replace working animal (Substitution rate) a Annual consumption of diesel by tractor (tonnes) b Carbon fraction of diesel c Fraction oxidized c Conversion factor from carbon released to CO a (Dikshit and Birthal 2010); b (Mishra and Dikshit 2004); c (IPCC 1997) This analysis leads to Mt CO 2 eq. emission due to biomass consumption; 2.87 Mt CO 2 eq. due to digestive and manure management systems and savings of 0.10 Mt of CO 2 eq against animal draught power and returned 7.15 Mt of CO 2 eq to the land as part of manure in terms of organic carbon. Therefore, in totality, the carbon removal was 7.54 Mt of CO 2 eq. However, the proportion of forest contribution was only 57% as per primary survey, therefore this has to be accounted for all possible carbon flow, except biomass consumption. Therefore, in totality, the emission due to forest biomass consumption by livestock was equal to 9.42 Mt CO 2 eq. This can be concluded that forest fodder for livestock act as source. 4 Conclusion and lesson learned The study enables the carbon emission due to the forest fodder against livestock feed hence highlights the contribution of this unaccounted anthropogenic activity in carbon budget. It may provide inputs for future GHG mitigation protocols and inventories besides analysing environmental benefits of climate conventions. The estimate of carbon may facilitate the emission trading schemes such as clean development mechanism of afforestation and reforestation projects, particularly for leakage components. This estimate enables trade off for emission reductions on carbon markets and biomass extraction for livestock feed by community and facilitate for REDD + mechanism to achieve sustainable development. On the other side, this huge extracted biomass, a major source of carbon emission, leads to reduction in quality of the forest and thus may be a tool for assessing thr complex process of forests degradation (Lambin 1999; Bajracharya 2008). The carbon emission due to forest degradation may be addressed through participation of communities (Verolme and Moussa 1999) and implementing effective policy and programmes including suitable forest management practices to address the anthropogenic needs (Malhi et al. 2002). Therefore, forest management addressing livestock feed through inputs with low emission potential would also be a complementary tool for emission reduction. It is essential that carbon sinks are not allowed to divert resources and attention should be more focused towards the longterm solution to the great carbon disruption. The study highlights the emission from the livestock production for forest feed. Therefore, low emission feed stuffs such as use of mineral supplements and non-protein nitrogen contents of fibrous feed; supplement the poor quality roughage with agriculture by-products; improve ruminant s digestion through better feeding and chemically treated feed for livestock may also explored besides controlling the unproductive livestock population.

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