Contents. Preface About the Authors Acknowledgments
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1 Contents Preface About the Authors Acknowledgments Nomenclature xv xix xxi xxiii 1 Introduction 1 Overview Groundwork Motivation Aims Approach Scope Outline of the book 5 2 Thermodynamic analysis: fundamentals, energy and exergy 9 Overview Introduction Energy analysis Exergy analysis The exergy method of analysis Improving efficiency with exergy analysis: illustration for electricity generation Illustration of exergy analysis for electrical resistance space heating Illustration of exergy analysis for thermal energy storage Thermodynamic nomenclature and terminology Thermodynamic balance equations and basic quantities Balance equations Quantities in balance equations The reference environment Natural-environment-subsystem models Reference-substance models Equilibrium and constrained-equilibrium models Process-dependent models Efficiencies Conventional energy and exergy efficiencies Alternative efficiencies 28
2 viii Cogeneration and district energy systems 2.8 Properties for energy and exergy analyses Implications of energy and exergy analyses on related research and development Correlating energy and exergy analyses with allocations of research efforts Measures to reduce exergy losses Steps for energy and exergy analyses Illustrative example Description and subdivision for analysis of system considered Performance of conventional mass and energy balances Selection of reference-environment model Evaluation of energy and exergy flow rates Performance of exergy balances and determination of exergy consumptions Selection and evaluation of efficiencies Interpretation of results Exergy values for typical commodities encountered in cogeneration and district energy Exergy values for thermal quantities Exergy values for other thermodynamic quantities Extensions of exergy methods Closure 48 3 Cogeneration systems 49 Overview Introduction Fundamentals Cogeneration and related energy systems Cogeneration definition Cogeneration vs. thermal electrical generation Cogeneration benefits Cogeneration uses and operation Cogeneration applications Cogeneration and energy storage General cogeneration system model Description of a general cogeneration system Energy and exergy balances Efficiencies Trade-off between cogeneration electrical and thermal outputs Systems for electricity generation and cogeneration Thermal electricity-generation systems Cogeneration systems 71
3 Contents ix 3.7 Case study: reciprocating engine heat and power generation for wastewater treatment Cogeneration system Anaerobic digesters Biogas conditioning Biogas storage tank System benefits Closure 77 4 Heating and district heating systems 79 Overview Introduction General heating system model Analyses for general heating system Energy and exergy balances Efficiencies Systems for heating Heating technologies and their characteristics Fuel-based heating Electricity-based heating Waste heat recovery Ground-based heating Solar-based heating Heat pumps Systems for district heating Description Advantages of district heating Operation and applications History Energy sources for district heating Types of district heating systems Case study: solar/biomass district heating in Marstal, Denmark System description System installation history Cogeneration plant operation Energy distribution network Economics System benefits Closure Chilling and district cooling systems 107 Overview Introduction General cooling system model 108
4 x Cogeneration and district energy systems 5.3 Analyses for general cooling system Energy and exergy balances Efficiencies Systems for cooling Cooling technologies and their characteristics Vapor-compression chiller systems Absorption chiller systems Free cooling Systems for district cooling Description and categorization Distribution and capacity Applications and examples Types of district cooling systems Case studies Case study: district cooling network in Paris, France Case study: free cooling plant in Paris, France Closure Integrated systems for cogeneration and district energy 129 Overview Introduction District energy Trigeneration and multigeneration Cogeneration-based district energy Variations of cogeneration-based district energy Comparison of cogeneration-based district energy with alternative and conventional systems General system model and operation modes Description of a combined cogeneration/district energy system Energy and exergy balances Efficiencies Alternative measure of system efficiency Systems for integrated cogeneration/district energy Case study: cogeneration for district heating in Houston, Texas, USA Cogeneration system Chilled water system Energy storage District energy network System benefits Operational performance Closure Comparison of systems for integrated cogeneration and district energy 149 Overview 149
5 Contents xi 7.1 Introduction Descriptions of cases considered Efficiency measures for cases considered Performance and efficiency of chillers Performance and efficiency for cogeneration and heating Performance and efficiency of integrated cogeneration/ district energy Closure Economics of cogeneration and district energy 161 Overview Introduction Fundamentals General economic considerations Estimation of TCI Economic evaluation Revenue requirements Profitability evaluation methods Cogeneration economics case study Case-study scenario Fixed and total capital investment Cogeneration project economics Fuel costs, start-up costs and WC Plant facility investment and modified accelerated cost recovery system Product costs Applications of cogeneration economics case study Historical application Modern application Economic considerations for cogeneration/district energy systems Economic considerations for generation and distribution Economic considerations for consumers Analogy between allocating wastes and economic costs for cogeneration Investigations of economics of cogeneration and district energy Heating and district heating Cooling and district cooling Cogeneration and district energy Closure Environmental impact of cogeneration systems: wastes and their allocation 185 Overview Introduction Motivation Outline of chapter 187
6 xii Cogeneration and district energy systems 9.2 Wastes from cogeneration Allocation methods for cogeneration wastes Selected methods for allocating cogeneration wastes Rationale for allocating cogeneration wastes Further discussion and comparison of allocation methods for cogeneration wastes Section closure Case study 1: steam-based cogeneration System description Energy and exergy values Waste allocation results Case study 2: hot water-based cogeneration with district energy System description Energy and exergy values Waste allocation results Case study 3: comparison of waste allocations for cogeneration and equivalent independent plants Scenario description Energy and exergy values Waste allocation results Closure Climate change and cogeneration: addressing carbon dioxide emissions 215 Overview Introduction Carbon dioxide emissions from cogeneration Allocation methods for carbon dioxide emissions from cogeneration Simplified selected methods for allocating carbon dioxide emissions for cogeneration Basic considerations in allocating carbon dioxide emissions for cogeneration Exergy vs. energy in allocating cogeneration CO 2 emissions Case study: comparing CO 2 emissions allocations for cogeneration and independent plants and use for determining and trading CO 2 emissions credits Recap of case study 3 of section 9.6: comparison of waste allocations for a cogeneration system and equivalent independent plants Carbon dioxide allocation results CO 2 emissions credits for trading purposes from switching to cogeneration from equivalent independent plants Closure 235
7 Contents xiii 11 Modeling and optimization of cogeneration-based district energy systems accounting for economics and environmental impact 237 Overview Introduction Energy equilibrium model and its mathematical formulation Methodologies for analysis of economic impacts Partial social welfare change Payback-period method Methodologies for analysis of environmental impacts Case study Description of scenarios Parameter values for the illustrative model Resulting partial social welfare changes and improvements Closure Developments and advances in technologies and systems for cogeneration and district energy 247 Overview Introduction Cogeneration and extended cogeneration Cogeneration Trigeneration and multigeneration Heating and cooling Heating Cooling District energy Integrated systems for cogeneration and district energy Economics of systems and technologies related to cogeneration and district energy Economics of heating and cooling Economics of district energy Economics of cogeneration Economics of trigeneration and multigeneration Economics of cogeneration-based district energy Reducing environmental impact and climate change with cogeneration and district energy Heating, cooling and district energy Cogeneration and related systems Trigeneration and related systems Cogeneration-based district energy systems Optimization of systems related to cogeneration and district energy Optimization of distributed energy systems Optimization of cogeneration systems Optimization of extended cogeneration systems 270
8 xiv Cogeneration and district energy systems Optimization of district energy systems Optimization of systems integrating cogeneration or trigeneration and district energy Closure Closing and future considerations 279 Overview Summary Closing remarks Future considerations 282 References 287 Index 315
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