NUCLEAR REACTOR ENGINEERING

Transcription

1 NUCLEAR REACTOR ENGINEERING REACTOR SYSTEMS ENGINEERING FOURTH EDITION VOLUME TWO

2 NUCLEAR REACTOR ENGINEERING REACTOR SYSTEMS ENGINEERING FOURTH EDITION VOLUME TWO SAMUEL GLASSTONE & ALEXANOER SESONSKE Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.

3 1994 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Chapman & Hall,lnc. in 1994 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 4th edition 1994 AII rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, ar by an information starage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Glasstone, Samuel, Nuclear reactor engineering / Samuel Glasstone and Alexander Sesonske. - 4th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: v. 1. Reactor design basics - v. 2. Reactor systems engineering. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Nuclear reactors. 1. Sesonske, Alexander, II. Title. TK9202.G '31-dc CIP

4 Contents PREFACE xiv CHAPTER 8 THE SYSTEMS CONCEPT, DESIGN DECISIONS, AND INFORMATION TOOLS 487 INTRODUCTION SYSTEMS Introduction, 488; PWR Nuclear Steam Supply System, 489. THE COMPUTER As A DECISION TOOL System Modeling, 490; System Interactions, 490; Design Interactions and Intersystem Dependencies, 491; Sensitivity Analysis and Design Parameter Interactions, 491; Feedback, 491; Optimization, 492; Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence, 493; Computer Code Sources, v

5 vi Contents INFORMATION As A DECISION TOOL Introduction, 495; Abstracts, 496; Nonarchival Literature Sources, 496; Data Centers, 497; Data Access Networks, 498; Information Age Challenges, CHAPTER 9 ENERGY TRANSPORT 501 INTRODUCTION 501 The Role of Energy Transport in Reactor Design, 501; Thermodynamic Viewpoint, 502; Design Methods, 503. HEAT SOURCES IN REACTOR SYSTEMS 503 Fission Energy, 503; Spatial Distribution of Energy Sources in Reactor Core, 505; Average and Maximum Power in Single Fuel Channel, 507; Power and Flux Flattening, 508; Other Heat Sources, 509. HEAT-TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES 509 Introduction, 509; Conduction of Heat, 509; Convection of Heat, 511; Conduction with Convection Boundary Conditions, 512; Radiation Heat Transfer, 515; Systems with Internal Heat Sources, 517; Conduction in Irregular Geometries, 529; Transient Heat Conduction, 530; Transient Heat Transfer, 534. HEAT TRANSFER TO ORDINARY FLUIDS 535 Introduction, 535; Laminar and Turbulent Flow, 535; Heat- Transfer Coefficients of Ordinary Fluids, 539; Heat-Transfer Coefficients of Gases, 541. HEAT TRANSFER TO LIQUID METALS Introduction, 541; Heat Transfer in Reactor Rod Bundles, 543. BOILING HEAT TRANSFER Pool Boiling, 543; Flow Boiling, 546; Boiling Crisis, 548; Prediction of Burnout Conditions, 549; Boiling Heat- Transfer Coefficients, 550. CORE FLUID FLOW Introduction, 552; Flow Pressure Drop, 552; Pressure Drop in Turbulent Flow, 554; Velocity Head Losses,

6 Contents vii 556; Two-Phase Flow, 558; Two-Phase Pressure Drop, 558; Limiting Flow with Compressible Fluids, 561; Natural Circulation Cooling, 562. SUBCHANNEL ANALYSIS AND SYSTEM CODES CORE DESIGN CONSTRAINTS General Considerations, 565; Peaking and Hot-Channel Factors, 566; Idealized Axial Temperature Distributions, 567; Heat-Flux-Related Limitations in Pressurized-Water Reactors, 573; Factors and Subfactors, 576; Enthalpy Rise Hot-Channel Factor, 578; Statistical Core Design Techniques, 580; Boiling-Water Reactors, 581; Gas-Cooled Reactors, 583; Fast Liquid-Metal-Cooled Reactors, CHAPTER 10 REACTOR FUEL MANAGEMENT AND ENERGY COST CONSIDERATIONS 589 INTRODUCTION PRE-REACTOR FUEL OPERATIONS Production, 590; Isotopic Enrichment, 590; Isotopic Feed Material and Separative Work Requirements, 591; Fabrication of Fuel Assemblies, 594. IN-CORE MANAGEMENT Introduction, 594; Fuel Burnup, 595; Staggered Refueling, 596; Fuel Management Terminology, 598. PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR CORE MANAGEMENT The Initial PWR Core and Subsequent Reload Patterns, 598; Burnable Absorber Rods, 602; PWR Fuel Assembly Design Trends, 603; The Fuel Reload Design Process, 604; Levels of Core Modeling, 604; Neutronic Analysis Methods, 605; Reload Core Pattern Design Considerations, 605; Automation and Optimization, 607; The Haling Principle, 607. BOILING WATER REACTOR CORE MANAGEMENT Introduction, 608; Control Cell Core, 610; BWR Fuel Assembly Design Trends, 610; BWR Spectral Shift Operation, 611; BWR Core Modeling Methods,

7 viii Contents NUCLEAR FUEL UTILIZATION Introduction, 612; The Conversion Ratio, 613; The Breeding Ratio, 615; Thorium Utilization, 618; Plutonium Utilization, 619; Proliferation Risk, 620. NUCLEAR ENERGY COSTS Introduction, 620; Time Value of Money, 621; Capital Costs, 623; Operation and Maintenance Costs, 625; Fuel Costs, 625; Electric Power Generation Costs, 626; Role of Rate Regulation, 627. NUCLEAR MATERIAL SAFEGUARDS NUCLEAR CRITICALITY SAFETY Introduction, 629; Design Approaches and Analysis, CHAPTER 11 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR POWER AND WASTE MANAGEMENT 632 INTRODUCTION Environmental Concerns, 632; Emissions from Fossil-Fueled Power Plants, 633; The Greenhouse Effect, 634; Overview of Nuclear Power Effects, 634. RADIATION EXPOSURE P A THW A YS Introduction, 635; Regulatory Bases for Exposure Pathways, 636; Radiation Exposure Pathways, 636; Radiation Levels "As Low As Is Reasonably Achievable," 638. THE SPENT-FuEL MANAGEMENT CHALLENGE ON-SITE SPENT-FuEL STORAGE Introduction, 640; Spent-Fuel Logistics, 640; Pool Storage Capacity Enhancement, 641. CHARACTERISTICS OF SPENT FUEL STORAGE AND DISPOSAL OPTIONS Introduction, 644; Retrievable Storage, 645; Permanent Disposal, 646. MIGRATION OF WASTE RADIONUCLIDES Lessons from the Oklo Reactor Waste,

8 Contents ix THE REPROCESSING OPTION 648 Introduction, 648; Head-End Treatment, 649; Solvent-Extraction Separation Processes, 650; Other Separation Processes, 654; Fuel Reprocessing Waste Management, 656; Characteristics of Solidified High-Level Waste, 657. REACTOR RADW ASTE MANAGEMENT Sources of Radioactivity, 659; Reactor Radwaste Systems, 660; Pressurized-Water Reactors, 661; Boiling-Water Reactors, 663. WASTE HEAT MANAGEMENT Condenser Cooling Requirements, 663; Regulation of Thermal Discharges, 666; Treatment of Thermal Discharge, CHAPTER 12 NUCLEAR REACTOR SAFETY AND REGULATION 673 INTRODUCTION Technological Risk and Public Perception, 673; Public Acceptance of Nuclear Power Plants, 674; Defense in Depth, 675. ACCIDENT PREVENTION Introduction, 675; Quality Assurance: Codes and Standards, 676; Redundancy and Diversity, 677; Inherent Reactor Stability, 678; Reactor Protection System, 678; Reactor Trip Signals, 680; Shutdown Cooling, 680. ENGINEERED SAFETY FEATURES Introduction, 681; The Emergency Core-Cooling System, 682; Containment Systems, 685. ABNORMAL EVENT ANALYSIS Categories of Abnormal Events, 691; Events of Moderate Frequency, 693; Events of Low Probability, 696. LICENSING DESIGN BASIS EVALUATION Control Element Ejection, 698; Spent-Fuel Handling Accident, 699; Loss-of-Coolant Accident, 699; Emergency Core-Cooling Criteria,

9 x Contents SEVERE ACCIDENTS PWR Sequences, 706; BWR Sequences, 707. THE SOURCE TERM Introduction, 707; Barriers to the Escape of Radioactivity, 708; Radionuclide Importance Factors, 708; Fission Product Transport Overview, 708; Fission Product Chemistry, 709; Fine Particle Dynamics, 712; Aerosols, 713; Explosions, 714. SAFETY MODELING METHODS Introduction, 715; Licensing "Evaluation" Models, 716; System Modeling Methods, 717; Representative Best Estimate System Modeling Codes, 720; Modeling of Fluid and Structure Interactions, 721; Severe Accident Modeling, 721. SITING REQUIREMENTS Introduction, 723; Radiological Criteria of Site Acceptability, 723; Radiation Dose Calculations, 725; Emergency Response Planning, 730; Seismic Design Criteria, 730; Other Natural Events, 731. ACCIDENT EXPERIENCE AND ANALYSIS Introduction, 732; The Three Mile Island Accident, 732; Impact of the Three Mile Island Accident, 733; Chernobyl, 734; Impact of the Chernobyl Accident, 737. SEVERE ACCIDENT MANAGEMENT Introduction, 738; Information and Analysis, 738; Supporting Instrumentation, 739; Accident Management Strategy Development, 739; Equipment Modification and Personnel Training, 739. RELIABILITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT Introduction, 739; Deterministic and Probabilistic Analysis, 740; Elementary Binary State Concepts, 741; Fault Tree Analysis, 743; Quantitative Fault Tree Analysis, 744; Event Trees, 745; Computer Modeling, 747; Risk Assessment Studies, 748. LICENSING AND REGULATION OF NUCLEAR PLANTS Introduction, 750; Design Certification, 751; Early Site Permit, 751; Combined Construction and Operating License, 752; State-Level Regulation,

10 Contents xi NUCLEAR REACTOR SAFEGUARDS 753 Introduction, 753; Protection against Sabotage, 753. CHAPTER 13 POWER REACTOR SYSTEMS 759 INTRODUCTION PRESENT PRESSURIZED-WATER REACTORS Introduction, 760; Reactor Vessel and Core, 760; Control and Safety Systems, 765; Coolant Circulation and Steam Generating Systems, 766. EVOLUTIONARY PRESSURIZED-WATER REACTORS Introduction, 769; Design Features, 770. PRESENT BOILING-WATER REACTORS Introduction, 774; Core and Vessel, 776; Coolant Recirculation System, 778; Control System, 779; Feedwater Temperature and Fuel Cycle Length, 781. EVOLUTIONARY BOILING-WATER REACTORS Introduction, 781; System Features, 783; Standardization and Certification, 783. HEAVY -W A TER-MODERATED REACTORS Introduction, 783; Design Specifications and Core Features, 785; Heat Removal, 785; Control System, 788; Safety Features, 789; The Evolutionary CANDU 3, CHAPTER 14 PLANT OPERATIONS 791 INTRODUCTION PLANT OPERATIONAL STRATEGY Generation Dispatching, 792; Operating Cycle Length and Outage Management, 792. PLANT CONTROL Normal Operational Maneuvers, 793; The Control Room,

11 xii Contents EXPERT SYSTEMS AND NEURAL NETWORKS IN PLANT OPERATIONS Introduction, 801; Expert Systems for Operator Support, 801; Expert Systems Development, 802; Neural Network Development, 802. PLANT MAINTENANCE Introduction, 802; Plant Aging, 803; Life-Cycle Management, 804. REGULATORY ASPECTS OF OPERATIONS REACTOR DECOMMISSIONING Introduction, 805; Technical Options, 805; Decommissioning Experience, CHAPTER 15 ADVANCED PLANTS AND THE FUTURE 808 INTRODUCTION What Is Needed, 808; Plant Size, 810; Advanced Systems Common Design Features, 810; Types of Passive Systems, 811. THE AP600 Introduction, 812; Passive Features, 814; Other Innovations, 815. SIMPLIFIED BOILING-WATER REACTOR Introduction, 816; Natural Circulation, 816; Other Passive Features, 819; Other Innovative Features, 820. MODULAR HTGR Introduction, 820; Modular Concept, 821; Fuel Microspheres, 822; Prismatic Core, 822; Nuclear Steam Supply System, 824; Gas- Turbine Option, 824; Passive Features and System Safety, 824; Economic Potential, 826. ADVANCED LIQUID-METAL-COOLED REACTOR Introduction, 827; Plant Description, 827; Fuel System, 830; Concept Potential, 830. OTHER PASSIVE SYSTEMS Introduction, 832; The PIUS Reactor, 832; The Safe Integral Reactor (SIR),

12 Contents xiii COMMERCIALIZA non ISSUES 834 Introduction, 834; The Size Issue, 834; Other Issues, 835. THE FUTURE 836 APPENDIX 839 INDEX 1-1

13 Preface Dr. Samuel Glasstone, the senior author of the previous editions of this book, was anxious to live until his ninetieth birthday, but passed away in 1986, a few months short of this milestone. I am grateful for the many years of stimulation received during our association, and in preparing this edition have attempted to maintain his approach. Previous editions of this book were intended to serve as a text for students and a reference for practicing engineers. Emphasis was given to the broad perspective, particularly for topics important to reactor design and operation, with basic coverage provided in such supporting areas as neutronics, thermal-hydraulics, and materials. This, the Fourth Edition, was prepared with these same general objectives in mind. However, during the past three decades, the nuclear industry and university educational programs have matured considerably, presenting some challenges in meeting the objectives of this book. Nuclear power reactors have become much more complex, with an accompanying growth in supporting technology. University programs now offer separate courses covering such basic topics as reactor physics, thermalhydraulics, and materials. Finally, the general availability of inexpensive xv

14 xvi Preface powerful micro- and minicomputers has transformed design and analysis procedures so that sophisticated methods are now commonly used instead of earlier, more approximate approaches. In light of this picture, giving priority to needed perspective, even at the expense of some depth which is now available elsewhere, was considered appropriate. Also, since it was important to keep the length of the book about the same, necessary new material could only be accommodated by deleting some old material. Significant new material has been added, particularly in the areas of reactor safety, fuel management, plant operations, and advanced systems. However, material that generally continues to meet the objectives of the book has been retained, both to preserve its flavor and to keep the revision effort within reasonable bounds. Also, after the passing of Dr. Glasstone, I felt it inappropriate to change the basic approach of the book. Readers of the book will want to use computer-based methods to supplement the text material, as appropriate. Space did not permit a meaningful presentation of the methodology required. All problems listed at the end of the chapters may be solved with hand calculations. Although I have continued the use of SI units, as begun in the Third Edition, complete adoption by industry has been slower than anticipated. Therefore, some problems utilize English units. A two-volume format has been adopted for this edition to provide readers with some flexibility. The chapters have been rearranged somewhat to provide volume coherence, with basic material concentrated in the first volume. An Instructor's Manual is also available for qualified instructors, to be ordered directly from the publisher. The suggestions made by A. L. B. Ho, L. E. Hochreiter, B. K. Malaviya, V. H. Ransom, 1. R. Redding, G. R. Odette, and T. G. Theofanous are gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are due to the Chapman & Hall team that published the book, particularly Marielle Reiter for production administration and Barbara Zeiders for editorial assistance. Finally, I wish to thank my wife for her help and encouragement during the preparation of the book. Alexander Sesonske San Diego, California March 1994