SECTION E: AIR QUALITY

Transcription

1 SECTION E: AIR QUALITY HIGHLIGHTS P P P P P P P P P P A major driver for deteriorating air quality has been China s rapid economic development that has led to acceleration in the rates of industrialization and urbanization. Population pressure and changing sectors like transport and infrastructure. Coal is a major source of China s primary energy. The burning of large amounts of SO 2 into the atmosphere. During the study period ( ), China s overall urban air quality levels have improved, but only 2.4% of the monitored cities reached the national air quality Grade I standard in This apart, seven Chinese cities were among the ten most polluted cities in the world, and of 500 cities in China, less than 1% meet the air concentration standards recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). also becoming a growing source of concern. Over one-third of the 10. Indoor air quality is another source of concern and according to a research conducted by China Consumer s Association; formaldehyde concentration in indoor air samples exceeds standards by 73.3% in Beijing and 79.1% in Hangzhou. The major impact of atmospheric pollution has been on human health and air pollution is becoming a major cause for early mortality in urban China. Apart from human health, air pollution has negative consequences in other sectors. These impacts are manifested by the prevalence of smog, decrease in crop yields, and damage to infrastructure caused by acid rain. The government has taken several initiatives for improving the atmospheric environmental quality standard. China s Environmental Protection Authority is responsible for prevention and control of air pollution. In terms of evaluation, the government has adopted a three-level evaluation standard. Policy and technology interventions have been put in place for reducing air pollution. China s Five-Year Plans have taken steps for prevention and control especially from acid rain and SO 2 emissions. China still has a long way to go in terms of having a good renewable energy mix. For this, it could strengthen science and technology research to promote development of renewable energy could also play an important role in the development of renewable energy resources.

2 Introduction China s rapid economic development has led to an acceleration in the rates of industrialization and urbanization. The increased expansion accompanying China s economic growth have led to a deterioration of air quality in Chinese cities, having implications on human health and ecosystems. Seven Chinese cities are among the ten most polluted cities in the world, and of 500 cities in China, less than 1% meets the air concentration standards recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). This chapter addresses the state of air quality in China over the past ten years, the primary causal factors for the increase in air pollution, the impacts of the deteriorating air quality, and the policy interventions used to address air pollution in China. Finally, this chapter proposes further policies to encourage the abatement of air pollution in China. State of air quality Urban air quality In China, there are 560 cities designated for air quality-monitoring activities, which include 113 cities designated for major environmental protection activities. The three major pollutants monitored are inhalable particulate matter (PM 10 ), sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ), and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ). For the atmospheric environmental quality standard, India and China have both adopted the three-level evaluation standard, which for the respective levels is different. India uses a reference minimum value to establish air quality standards. The low-level standard is not more than 0.5 times the reference value; the moderate-level standard is not more than times the reference value; the high-level standard is not more than times the reference value; and the critical-level standard is more than 1.5 times the reference value. In contrast, China uses the concentration range of a pollutant to determine the air quality SO 2 3, the second-level standard is 0.02 mg/m 3 < SO mg/m 3, third-level standard is 0.06 mg/m 3 < SO 2 3, and worse than the third-level standard is SO 2 > 0.10 mg/m 3. In the past ten 10 years ( ), China s overall urban air air-quality levels have improved. The percentage of cities that meet Grade II and III standards has increased, while the percentage of cities performing worse than the Grade III standards has decreased (Figure 200 Environment and Development: China and India

3 3.20). Of the 560 cities monitored for air quality, 2.4% reached the national air quality Grade I standard in 2007, 58.1% met air quality Grade II standard, 36.1% met the Grade III standard, and 3.4% performed worse than the Grade III standard. The percentage of cities unable to meet the Grade III standard is a 5.7% decrease compared with 2006 statistics. Of the 113 cities designated for major environmental protection activities, numbers were even more promising: 44.2% of cities met the Grade II standard, 54.9% met the Grade III standard, and 0.9% was unable to meet the Grade III standards. The percentage of these cities unable to meet Grade III standards is a 6.2% decrease from 2006 statistics and a 39.7% decrease from 1999 statistics. However, many of the cities with improving air quality are those cities with a low population growth in medium and small cities, and cites with one to two million people are among those with the worst air pollution levels in the country. 2.3 Figure 3.20 Change trend of urban air quality in China Source Data source: China Environmental Quality Bulletin ( ), Ministry of Environmental Protection One of the major components in urban air quality in China is the particulate matter pollutant (PM 10 ). Over one-third of the monitored cities reported concentrations of PM 10 higher than the Class II standard for PM 10 (Figure 3.21). In 2006, 4.8% of 453 cities met the Class I standard, 61.6% of cities met the Class II standard, 27.4% of cities reached the Class III standard, and 6.2% were worse than the Class III standard. This is much higher than the proportion of cities with SO 2 and NO 2 Chapter 3 Status and trends of the environment 201

4 Figure 3.21 Average concentrations of pollutants concentrations exceeding the standard, so PM 10 concentrations appear Another pollutant of concern is SO 2. In 2006, 28.3% of 554 cities met the Class I standard for SO 2 concentration, 58.5% of cities met the Class II standard, 9.6% met the Class III standard, and 3.6% had SO 2 concentrations higher than the Class III standard (Figure 3.21). Because of rapid industrialization from 2000 to 2005, SO 2 emissions reached million tonnes in 2005 a major increase from million tonnes in In 2006, total emission of SO 2 reached million tonnes, an increase of 27.8% when compared with In 2007, as a result of the emission reduction efforts in place under the down 3.14% compared to the previous year. However, the emission intensity (the ratio of emissions to a measure of economic output) of SO 2 is decreasing the annual average decrease is 5.1% (Figure 3.22). 202 Environment and Development: China and India

5 2.3 Figure 3.22 Changed trend of SO 2 emission intensity in China However, at the beginning of the 1990s, China s SO 2 emission intensity was twelve times that of the USA, twenty-six times that of the UK, and seventy-eight times that of Japan. NO 2 is the third pollutant monitored in Chinese cities. The concentrations are generally low but are particularly high in some cities, and 87% cities reach the second-level standard. Rural air quality The monitoring and management of air quality in rural areas, especially indoor air pollution, is particularly weak in China, thereby pertinent rural air quality. The air monitoring in rural Jiangsu Province suggests that a primary pollutant affecting rural environmental air quality is inhalable particulate matter (PM 10 ), which measures an average concentration of mg/m 3 at all monitoring points. At the Tianmu Lake monitoring point in Liyang and the Jiangxiang monitoring point in Changshu, the average value of inhalable particulate matter (PM 10 ), exceeded the standard for two consecutive years, and the maximum times the concentration exceeded the standard was 0.72 times at Changshu in The annual average concentration of inhalable particulate matter (PM 10 ), at the Jiangxiang monitoring point in Changshu is higher than the corresponding urban concentrations. suburban to rural areas. Chapter 3 Status and trends of the environment 203

6 Indoor air quality China also faces challenges with its indoor air quality. According to research conducted by China Consumer s Association, formaldehyde concentration in indoor air samples exceeds standards by 73.3% in Beijing and 79.1% in Hangzhou. In addition, benzene concentration in indoor air samples is ten times greater than acceptable standards. Furthermore, 93.6% of new vehicles tested for air pollution have concentrations of pollutants exceeding air quality standards, and 90% of newly decorated homes have formaldehyde concentrations exceeding standards. Causal factors As a result of the urban population increase and industrialization in China, the demand for energy, transportation, and infrastructure air pollution by releasing large amounts of SO 2 into the atmosphere. Major anthropogenic sources responsible for air pollution in China and emissions from the industrial sector. The major causal factors are discussed below. Development of transport is often the basis and symbol of economic prosperity, though not always without any adverse impacts, particularly for the environment. From 1978 to 2007, possession of private vehicles in China increased to million an annual growth of 23.4% (Figure 3.23). During the same time period, highway mileage increased 30.3% and civil motor vehicles increased from 1.36 million in 1978 to millions in With this major growth become an important source of pollution, emitting large amounts of atmospheric concentrations of NO x 2005 itself, research placed China s NO x emission from motor vehicles at six million tonnes (one-third of the total NO x emissions), VOCs at 8.5 million tonnes, and PM 10 at 1.3 million tonnes (17% of the total PM 10 emissions). High air pollution from vehicular emissions is further aggravated by a lack of effective public transit facilities, low motor vehicle emission standards, and slow development of automobile energy, energy-saving, and clean technologies. Growing industrialization has also led to increased air pollution. The electric power industry, non-metallic mineral product industry, ferrous smelting industry, chemical manufacturing industry, and 204 Environment and Development: China and India

7 2.3 Figure 3.23 Possession of civil and private vehicles in China ( ) non-ferrous smelting industry are the industries that contribute most to sulphur dioxide emissions (Table 3.12). From 2000 to 2006, these industries contributed over 85% of the SO 2 emissions of the entire industrial sector. (Note: this contribution of SO 2 greater percentage than these industries economic contribution.) Of these industries, the electric power industry is the single largest contributor to sulphur dioxide emissions (Figure 3.24). In addition, over 70% of the SO 2 and smoke dust in China comes from the emission of industrial waste gases (Figure 3.25). The pollution from these industries is further exacerbated because the pollution abatement techniques, particularly those for small- and medium-sized industries, lag behind the industries rapid growth. Table 3.12 major industries Type Industries 1998 Sulphur dioxide Electric power industry Dust 78 (cement) Non-metallic mineral product industry Ferrous smelting industry Chemical manufacturing industry Nonferrous smelting industry Total 8 86 Contd... Chapter 3 Status and trends of the environment 205

8 Table 3.12 Contd... Type Industries 1999 Sulphur dioxide 2000 Sulphur dioxide 2001 Sulphur dioxide 2002 Sulphur dioxide 2003 Sulphur dioxide 2004 Sulphur dioxide 2005 Sulphur dioxide 2006 Sulphur dioxide Electric power industry Dust 78.6 (cement) Non-metallic mineral product industry Ferrous smelting industry Chemical manufacturing industry Nonferrous smelting industry Dust Dust Dust Dust Dust Dust Dust Total Other sources of air pollution in Chinese cities include urban road and construction dust and rural domestic emission of atmospheric pollutants. In addition, indoor air pollution occurs as a result of use of Some areas experience multiple types of pollution from different sources, forming compound pollution areas. In the coastal region in Delta, Zhujiang Delta, Beijing Tianjin Hebei, Huanghuai Plain, and Central and South Liaoning have formed. 206 Environment and Development: China and India

9 2.3 Figure 3.24 Proportion of SO 2 emission from electric power industry (%) Figure 3.25 Emission of major pollutants from waste gases during in China Source Protection Impact The impact of atmospheric pollution on human health is considerable. Because of the increase in concentration of airborne particulate matters and the increasing population in urban areas, air pollution is major cause of early deaths in China. According to the study conducted by the United Nations Environment Programme in 2006, in China, solid fuels cause approximately 300,000 early deaths per year. However, because of the efforts initiated in the country to contain the atmospheric pollution, the numbers of early deaths have been on a decline. During the period , a total of 48,000 early deaths were avoided, with Chapter 3 Status and trends of the environment 207

10 an annual reduction of 12,000 deaths. Nevertheless, because of rising urbanization rate, population affected by urban atmospheric pollution is on an increase, with early deaths due to air pollution still a large number. In addition, China also leads the world in highest chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung cancer deaths. Apart from the urban air quality, indoor air pollution is yet another factor severely affecting human health. Statistics shows that approximately half of the world s population is affected by indoor air pollution that has caused 35.7% of the respiratory diseases, 22% chronic pulmonary disease, and 15% tracheitis, bronchitis, and lung cancer (UNEP 2006). According to research conducted by the Environmental Monitoring Center of China National Interior Decoration Association, mortality caused by indoor air pollution affects 111,000 people per year in China, and emergency treatment was used on 4.3 million occasions. Related data of World Bank indicate the loss from indoor air pollution in 2001 in China was $10.6 billion. Data from the Beijing Chemical than 400 acute poisoning events due to toxic architectural decoration materials occur each year in Beijing, leading to poisoning of 100,000 people and 350 deaths. Sixty-eight per cent of fetal malformation is caused by contact with excessive formaldehyde in the home, and 90% of leukaemia child patients have reported having their homes decorated recently. The major pollutants in indoor environment in China are from buildings, decoration, and furniture. In addition, outdoor pollutants, combustion products from rural fuels, and human activities are the other sources. Overshooting of formaldehyde, benzene, ammonia gas, and radioactive material above the pollution limit is also affecting people s health. Thus, indoor air pollution, given its adverse impacts on human health, has become an issue of concern to be addressed in China, urgently. While China has been paying attention and dealing with the issue of urban air quality, assessment of toxicological effects of indoor air pollution and their abatement has also emerged as an important issue requiring considerable attention. Therefore, the related standards and control policies issued in the country are limited. In addition to impacts on human health, air pollution has negative consequences on the ecological environment. These impacts are manifested by decreases in visibility due to smog, drop in yields of crop, and damage to buildings and materials caused by acid rain. 208 Environment and Development: China and India

11 Acid rain A consequence of China s high growth trends in the recent past has seen large increases in energy consumption, especially of coal. This has in turn led to a huge increase in emissions of various gases into the atmosphere. As a result, there have been instances of heavy acid particulates transformed from SO 2 and nitric oxides has aggravated, with many cities and regions in the country facing an austere situation of composite atmospheric pollution. Acid rain is posing an additional serious threat to China s environment. Acid rain, which is caused in part by increases of sulphate and nitrate radical in precipitation, is extremely damaging to lakes, streams, forests, and their corresponding ecosystems. Monitoring of acid rain in China demonstrates an increase in precipitation acidity after In 2005, the average concentration of sulphate radical and nitrate radical in precipitation had increased 12% and 40%, respectively. Heavy acid rain areas increased from 4.9% of the national land area in 2002 to 6.1% in However, in the last 2 years (2006/07), precipitation acidity has slightly decreased and the percentage of cities incurring heavy acid rain (characterized by a ph of less than 4.5) has decreased by 1.3% (Figure 3.27). 2.3 Figure 3.26 precipitation phs Those regions most impacted by acid rain are primarily south Guizhou, and Chongqing as well as part of provinces and cities such as Guangdong, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hubei, Anhui, Jiangsu, and Shanghai. Chapter 3 Status and trends of the environment 209

12 Figure 3.27 Acid rain distribution change trend in China in recent years 210 Environment and Development: China and India

13 In addition, some acid precipitation originates in north China. A large proportion of China is regularly impacted by acid rain: in 32.6% of the national land area, over 25% of the precipitation was acid rain in In 2007, acid rain occurred in 56.2% of monitored cities, and in 34.2% of national land area, over 25% of precipitation was acid rain. Although acid rain area remained basically steady from 2006 to 2007, precipitation acidity increased (Figures 3.26 and 3.27). National measures China s Environmental Protection Authority is responsible for prevention and control of air pollution. The Law of the People s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution, issued on 5 September 1987 and revised and re-issued on measures and contains regulations on an acid rain and sulphur dioxide control area. These control areas were approved and delineated in 1988 and involve 175 cities in twenty-seven provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the central government with a total area of 109 million km 2. In these control areas, China carries out energy structure adjustment by popularizing clean fuels and low sulphur coals and prohibiting domestic cooking ranges from burning bulk coal. Atmospheric pollution prevention and control measures in China evolved through four stages of development. In 1973, the atmospheric pollution prevention and control work based on industrial point- conference on environmental protection held by the State Council. In the 1980s, China changed the emphasis from a point-source treatment stage to an integrated control stage. In the 1990s, the emphasis shifted again from concentration control to total quantity control and from integrated urban environmental control to regional pollution control. prevention entered the sulphur dioxide single-index key research and development stage. During this stage, China issued the Eleventh and Sulfur Dioxide and set the goal of reducing total emission of SO 2 by 10% compared with the levels in The above national level measures clearly indicate the resolution of the Chinese government to establish a prevention and control strategy for containing atmospheric pollution in the country. 2.3 Chapter 3 Status and trends of the environment 211

14 Prevention and control measures In accordance with the national strategy to abate atmospheric pollution, since 2000 China has issued a series of policies, standards, P Policy on technologies for prevention and control of SO 2 emissions from coal burning P acid rain and sulphur dioxide in the two control areas P Emission standard of air pollutants for coal-burning, oil-burning P Emission standard of air pollutants for thermal power plants P Limits and measurement methods for emissions of pollutants from motor vehicles Industries As industries are one of the prime sources of air pollution, China has been making efforts to strengthen the industrial atmospheric pollution prevention and control by combining industrial re-structuring and reducing industrial structure pollution. These measures focus on pollution treatment within a prescribed time limit and implement it for those enterprises that cannot easily reach the established standard or those in which emissions exceed the total allowable amount. During the treatment period, such enterprises shall restrict production and emission and shall not construct projects that will increase the total emission quantity. Those that have not achieved the treatment task shall be ordered to stop production and undergo reforms. Transport establishing and improving motor vehicle prevention and control laws, enhancing new vehicle emission standards, eliminating old vehicles, and making efforts to stop the year-after-year growth trend of total motor vehicle pollutant emissions. In accordance with the Law of the People s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution, environmental protection departments at all levels are comprehensively pushing forward the periodic environmental protection test work for motor vehicles, strengthening the supervision and management of in-use vehicles test organizations, and ensuring that all test organizations carry out the are strengthening environmental monitoring and management for 212 Environment and Development: China and India

15 gas stations and gradually requiring construction of oil gas recovery devices, strengthening the monitoring of air quality on roads in urban of motor vehicle pollution. All cities in China have strengthened the development of public transit as well as developed urban rail transit and clean energy vehicles. In order to ease urban road pressure brought about by rapid urbanization and economic development and to improve air quality, the Chinese government has decided to improve public transport system by building up more subway and rail transits. Thermal power industry To control pollution in the thermal power industry, the Chinese cities under separate state planning be encouraged to administrate the atmospheric pollution control in the electric power industry. This control includes actively pushing forward the electric power structure readjustment and making efforts to increase the proportion of renewable energy resources, clean energies, and new energy resources in the whole electric installed capacity. In addition, cities are expected to strictly execute the national industrial policies and continue to shut down and suspend work for small thermal power units, eliminate heavy polluting small thermal power units, and make closing down small thermal power units the precondition for installing large thermal power units. In addition, administering cities are expected to place emphasis on reduction of sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide emission, strengthen desulphurization industry management, and ensure the construction quality and operation effect of desulphurization facilities. Furthermore, the industry must improve its energy-saving and emission reduction mechanisms, use market economic instruments to promote the electric power industry, and continue to implement the existing price policies conducive to sulphur removal and emission reduction. The Chinese government expects the industry to explore and continuously improve the power generation energy-saving and dispatching electricity price compensation mechanism, continue to improve the desulphurization electricity price compensation mechanism, and accelerate the implementation of sulphur dioxide emission trade policy for the electric power enterprises. 2.3 Case study: Olympic Games Since the formal submission of application for organizing the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, the city has attached immense importance Chapter 3 Status and trends of the environment 213

16 to environmental protection and pollution abatement while preparing the city for the games. Beijing had invested a total of 120 billion that involved fourteen stages and over 200 treatment measures, emphasizing prevention and control of pollution from coal burning, vehicular and industrial pollution, dust, and construction. As a result, there has been an observed improvement in air quality for successive 9 years, the blue sky days increased from 100 days in 1998 to 246 days in 2007, and the forest greening rate in the city exceeded 51.6%. The Environmental Review Report for Beijing Olympic Games issued by UNEP recognized Beijing s efforts in environmental protection. In atmospheric pollution control and abatement, Beijing took in Table Table 3.13 Techniques used to improve air quality in Beijing before the 2008 Olympics Games 1. Accelerate the elimination of yellow sticker vehicles (those vehicles not passing emissions standards) 2. Carry out site dust pollution prevention and control mainly for green construction standard for motor vehicles give priority to low or zero pollution emission vehicles such as electric motor vehicle, hybrid vehicle, natural gas vehicle, and trolley bus goods transport conforming to green environmental protection standards and meeting the transportation needs of urban production and cities shall run in accordance with Beijing s management regulations for green sticker and yellow sticker vehicles transport vehicles sweeping and cleaning, strictly execute sweeping and cleaning quality standard, and continue to enhance road cleanliness Contd Environment and Development: China and India

17 Table 3.13 Contd Push for industrial pollution abatement 4. Reduce coal pollution mainly by optimizing energy structure 5. Strictly control pollution emission from 6. Take emergency measures for air pollution control in extremely adverse meteorological conditions pollution abatement and realize comprehensive and stable up-to-standard discharge and eliminate the <200,000 tonnes/year cement manufacturers conforming to Beijing Overall Planning for Mineral Resources 3 production lines, carry out waste gas treatment for >2,000,000 m 3 /year production lines, and achieve emissions that are up-to-standard The enterprises and organizations using open dry cleaners must use totally enclosed dry cleaners or carry out innovation to achieve emissions that are up-to-standard heating coal stoves into clean energy stoves in the cultural relic protection areas in urban core zones and push the energy stoves will complete central heating reconstruction in urban rural fringe areas solar energy and biomass energy before use in accordance with the newly issued Emission Standard of Air Pollutants for Coal-Burning Oil-Burning Gas- Fired Boiler (DB11/ ) reduce emission of odorous gases meteorological conditions, take emergency measures for pollution control 2.3 Chapter 3 Status and trends of the environment 215

18 Way forward China s air pollution poses a threat to both human health and the environment. Currently, only 2.4% of monitored Chinese cities meet the national Grade I standard for air quality. China s poor air quality is resulting in many negative human health and ecological consequences. The Chinese government has taken initiative to improve air quality through a variety of policies and plans; however, much remains to be done to reduce air pollution and its impacts. The following strategies are recommended. P Improve the laws, regulations, policies, and standards concerning atmospheric pollution prevention and control. P Accelerate the formulation of related unavailable laws and atmospheric environmental laws and regulations system. P Further improve and implement the economic policy systems such as atmospheric pollutant emission trade and emission charge systems. P Accelerate the construction of a rational air quality standard system, improve the backward situation of environmental quality standards, and further complete the atmospheric pollutant emission standard system. P Adjust energy structure and increase the proportion of new energies and renewable energy resources. P Implement mandatory market policies and economic incentive policies to promote the development of renewable energy resources. P Promulgate the detailed rules for implementation of the Renewable Energy Law as soon as possible. P Strengthen the science and technology research and development of renewable energy resources and develop the renewable energy resource technologies with independent intellectual property rights. P Increase input in renewable energy resources. P Establish the industrial foundation of scale development for renewable energy resources. P Form a complete industrial system for renewable energy resources. P Increase the proportion of clean energies such as electric power and natural gas. P Develop a large-scale centralized heating supply and cogeneration system to replace coal in the urban centres and urban fringes. P 216 Environment and Development: China and India

19 P Further strengthen atmospheric pollution control in the thermal power industry. P Strictly control emission of sulphur dioxide from the newly built power plants. P Actively push forward desulphurization in the thermal power polluting old units. P Revise the Emission Standard of Air Pollutants for Thermal Power Plants as soon as possible. P Establish stricter NOx emission standards for thermal power plants. P currently in service. P Strengthen the NOx emission charging policies for thermal power plants. P Strengthen atmospheric pollution control for other industries and implement cleaner production and whole process control. P Increase atmospheric pollution treatment in the cement industry and relocate or close down those enterprises with small production scales, poor production conditions, background production de-dusting measures. P Eliminate high energy-consuming and heavily polluting old production technologies and disseminate new technologies such as water pre-adding nodulizing and closed door kilning. P Deepen the atmospheric pollution treatment in the iron and steel industry. P Strictly supervise and manage environmental conditions in construction sites. P Emphasize the importance of managing secondary fugitive dust from construction, relocation, and public works projects and control of road dust pollution. P Strengthen the control of atmospheric pollution from motor vehicles. P development of public transit. P Enhance vehicle emission control levels and make the vehicle emission standard limit stricter. P In 2010, implement Euro IV emission norms and consider introducing Euro IV emission norms 1 2 years earlier in developed cities such as Beijing, Guangzhou, and Shanghai. 2.3 Chapter 3 Status and trends of the environment 217

20 P Reduce sulphur content of fuels, improve the quality of the oils used for vehicles, and gradually introduce low-carbon clean fuels such as bio-diesel oil. P Improve in-use vehicle management system and strengthen the inuse vehicle pollution control and emission test work. P Develop clean energy vehicles and increase the proportion of clean energies. P Before 2010, disseminate clean alternative fuel vehicles such as CNG vehicles and LNG vehicles in the urban public transportation system. P Strengthen off-road engine management. P Implement EU off-road engine (DG) pollutant emission standards in stages. 218 Environment and Development: China and India