MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION of WATER and WASTEWATER

Transcription

1 MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION of WATER and WASTEWATER Maria Csuros Csaba Csuros With Contributions By Klara Ver LEWIS PUBLISHERS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

2 Contents Chapter 1 Scope and History of Microbiology 1.1 Microbes and Microbiology General Concepts of Microbiology Size of Microorganisms Unicellular and Noncellular Organisms Basic Characteristics of Living Systems Investigation of Microorganisms Brief History of Microbiology The Microscope and Microbes Spontaneous Generation vs. Biogenesis Theory Aseptic Techniques The Golden Age of Microbiology Fermentation and Pasteurization The Germ Theory of Disease Vaccination Chemotherapy The First Synthetic Drugs Antibiotics Modern Developments in Microbiology Naming and Classifying of Microorganisms Naming of Microorganisms The Diversity of Microorganisms Bacteria Fungi Protozoa Algae Viruses Multicellular Parasites 12 Chapter 2 Procaryotic Cells Introduction of Procaryotic and Eucaryotic Cells The Procaryotic Cell Morphology of the Bacterial Cell Spiral Bacteria Bacilli Cocci Structures External to the Cell Walls Glycocalyx Flagella Pili The Cell Wall Gram Positive Bacteria Gram Negative Bacteria 20

3 2.4.3 Atypical Cell Wall Damage to the Cell Wall Structures Internal to the Cell Wall Plasma or Inner Membrane Movement of Material Across Membranes Diffusion Transport by Carriers Endocytosis and Exocytosis Cytoplasm Nuclear Area Ribosomes Inclusion Metachromatic Granules Polysaccharide Granules Lipid Inclusions Sulfur Granules Gas Vacuoles Endospores Sporulation Germination 26 Chapter 3 Microbial Metabolism Meaning of Metabolism The First and Second Law of Thermodynamics The First Law of Thermodynamics The Second Law of Thermodynamics Energy Transport through ADP and ATP Metabolic Pathways Enzymes Mechanism of Enzyme Action Naming the Enzymes Temperature and ph Effect on Enzymes Inhibition of Enzymes Competitive Inhibition of Enzymes Noncompetitive Inhibition of Enzymes Nutritional Classification of Organisms Energy Production Carbon and Energy Sources Nitrogen Sources Other Chemical Requirements Energy Production of Organisms Oxidation-Reduction Phosphorylation as ATP Formation in a Biological System Substrate Level Phosphorylation Oxidative Phosphorylation Photophosphorylation Formation of ATP during Respiration Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration Fermentation Formation of ATP during Fermentation 37

4 3.6 Carbohydrate Catabolism Glycolysis Alternative Pathway of Glycolysis by Bacteria Transition Reaction Krebs Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle Respiratory Chain or Electron Transport System or Cytochrome System Aerobic Respiration Fermentation 43 Chapter 4 Microbial Growth and Its Control Microbial Growth The Lag Phase The Log Phase The Stationary Phase The Death Phase Physical Requirements Temperature Cold Loving Microbes: Psychrophiles Moderate Temperature Loving Microbes: Mesophiles Heat Loving Microbes: Thermophiles ph and Buffers Osmotic Pressure Chemical Requirements Carbon Nitrogen, Sulfur, and Phosphorus Trace Elements Oxygen Organic Growth Factors Control of Microbial Growth Terms Related to Destruction of Organisms Sterilization Disinfection Pasteurization Germicide Antiseptics Asepsis Degerming Sanitization Physical Methods of Microbial Control High Heat Moist Heat Sterilization Dry Heat Sterilization Filtration Low Temperature Desiccation Radiation Ionizing Radiation Nonionizing Radiation Chemical Methods of Microbial Control Surfactants or Surface Acting Agents Soap 53

5 Acid-Anionic Surface Acting Sterilizers Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (Quats) Organic Acids Aldehydes Ethylene Oxide Oxidizing Agents Phenol (Carbolic Acid) Halogens Alcohols Heavy Metals 55 Chapter 5 Microorganisms in the Environment Biochemical Cycles The Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle The Carbon Cycle The Greenhouse Effect The Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Nitrifying Bacteria Denitrifying Bacteria The Sulfur Cycle Sulfate Reducing Bacteria Sulfur Reducing Bacteria Sulfur Oxidizing Bacteria The Phosphorus Cycle Microorganisms Found in Air Sources of Indoor Pollution Outdoor Environment ' Indoor Contamination Factors Affecting Indoor Microbial Levels Controlling Microorganisms in Air Chemical Agents Ultraviolet Radiation Air Filtration Microorganisms in Soil Components of Soil Inorganic Components Organic Matter Root Systems Living Organisms Microorganisms in Soil Bacteria Actinomycetes Fungi Cyanobacteria, Algae, Protista and Viruses Abiotic Factors Influence Microorganisms in the Soil Water and Oxygen Soil ph Temperature 69

6 5.3.4 Importance of Decomposers in the Soil Soil Pathogens Aquatic Microbiology Freshwater Environment Ground water Surface Water Factors Affecting Microorganisms in Aquatic Environments Temperature ph Nutrients Oxygen Depth Marine Environments Temperature ph Salinity Hydrostatic Pressure Sunlight and Oxygen Concentration Nutrient Concentrations Water Pollution Organic Wastes Industrial Wastes Synthetic Chemicals Radioactive Substances Agricultural, Mining, and Construction Activities Heat Pathogens in Water Water Purification Flocculation Filtration Chlorination Sewage Treatment Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment Trickling Filter Systems Activated Sludge Systems 76, Tertiary Treatment Septic Tanks 77 Chapter 6 Bioremediation of Organic Contaminants Bioremediation The Objective of Bioremediation Advantage of Bioremediation Disadvantage of Bioremediation Development of Bioremediation Biotransformation by Subsurface Microorganisms Application of Bioremediation Wood Preservative Industries Soil and Hazardous Waste Bioremediation 81

7 Bioreactors Solid Phase Bioremediation Soil Heaping Composting Degradation of Synthetic Chemicals in Soil Biological Control of Groundwater Pollution Modern Microbiological Concepts and Pollution Control 84 Chapter 7 Microbiological Quality of Environmental Samples Monitoring Microbiological Quality Waterborne Disease Outbreaks Swimming Associated Outbreaks Recovery of Pathogens from Environmental Samples Indicator Bacteria Coliform Group Fecal Coliform Bacteria Standards on Microbiological Quality Introduction to Microbiological Parameters to the Sanitary Quality of Environmental Samples Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) Coliform Bacteria Group Total Coliform Group Fecal Coliform, Escherichia coli (E. coli) Fecal streptococcus Klebsiella Pathogenic Microorganisms Pathogenic Bacteria Salmonella Salmonella typhi Shigella Vibrio cholera Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Yersinia Campylobacter Legionella pneumophila Clostridium Viruses Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) NorwalkAgent Pathogenic Protozoa Giardia lamblia Entamoeba histolytica Iron and Sulfur Bacteria Actinomycetes Fungi Aspergillus Candida albicans Regulations for Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Agencies World Health Organization (WHO) 97

8 European Economic Community (EEC) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Monitoring Requirements Minimum Coliform Monitoring Requirements Standards Disinfection Requirements for All Public Water Supplies Disinfection By-Product Regulations Groundwater Classification of Groudwater Groundwater Standards Surface Waters Surface Water Classification Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) Surface Water Quality Standards Wastewater Industrial Wastewater Permit for Industrial and Domestic Wastewater Effluents Minimum Treatment Standard of Domestic Wastewater Effluents Effluents for Direct Surface Water Disposal or Surface Water Disposal via Ocean Outfall Discharging to Open Ocean Water Effluent Disinfection Basic Disinfection High-Level Disinfection Intermediate Disinfection Low-Level Disinfection Soil and Sediment Air 106 Chapter 8 Safety in Environmental Microbiology Laboratory Laboratory Facilities Laboratory Safety Considerations General Laboratory Safety Rules Standard Safety Practices in a Microbiological Laboratory General Handling and Storage of Chemicals and Gases Ill Electrical Precautions Ill 8.3 Summarized Safety Check List for Environmental Microbiology Laboratories Ill Administrative Considerations Ill Personal Conduct Laboratory Equipment Disinfection/Sterilization Biohazard Control Handling and Storage of Chemicals and Gases Emergency Precautions 115 Chapter 9 Laboratory Quality Assurance and Quality Control Introduction : Quality Assurance (QA) Quality Control (QC) 117

9 9.1.3 Quality Assessment Requirements for Facilities and Personnel Ventilation Laboratory Bench Areas Walls and Floors Laboratory Cleanliness Air Monitoring RODAC Plates Air Density Plates Personnel Quality Control for Laboratory Equipment and Instrumentation Thermometers and Temperature-Recording Instruments Balances ph Meter Water Deionization Unit UV Sterilizer Membrane Filter Apparatus Centrifuge Hot-Air Oven Autoclave Refrigerators and Freezers Incubators Water Bath Safety Hood Microscope Spectrophotometer Quality Control of Laboratory Supplies Glassware Glass, Plastic, and Metal Utensils for Media Preparation Culture Dishes Sterility Check on Glassware Chemicals and Reagents Dyes and Stains Membrane Filters and Pads Culture Media Quality Control Criteria for Prepared Media Quality Control of Laboratory Pure Water Checks and Monitoring Criteria Test for Bacterial Quality Reagents Sample Preparation Preparation of Bacterial Suspension Test Calculation Interpretation of the Results Analytical Quality Control Procedures Quality Control in Routine Analysis Negative (Sterile) Control Positive Control Duplicate Analysis v Measurement of Method Precision 134

10 9.6.3 Reference Sample Performance Sample Membrane Filter Method (MF) Verification Total Coliform Fecal Coliforms Fecal Streptococci Records and Data Reporting Interlaboratory Quality Control 136 Chapter 10 Collecting and Handling Environmental Samples for Microbiological Examination Sampling Sampling Program Type of Samples Sample Containers Dechlorinating Agent Chelating Agents Sampling Procedures Sample Collection from Different Sources Collecting Potable Water Samples Sampling from Distribution System Sampling from Wells Collect Samples from River, Stream, Lake, Spring, or Shallow Well Sample Collection from Bathing Beaches Marine and Estuarine Sampling Sample Collection from Domestic and Industrial Discharges Collecting Samples from Sediments and Sludges Bottom Sediments Sludges Soil Sampling Sample Identification Sample Transportation, Preservation and Holding Time Sample Transportation and Preservation Laboratory Custody Procedure Holding Time Discard Samples 151 Chapter 11 Laboratory Equipment and Supplies in the Environmental Microbiology Laboratory Laboratory Equipment Incubators Hot-Air Sterilizing Oven Autoclaves ph Meter Balances Optical Counting Equipment Refrigerator Membrane Filtration Equipment Line Vacuum or Electric Vacuum Pump Inoculating Needles or Loops 157

11 Microscope Parts of the Microscope Light Microscope Focusing the Microscope Low Power (4X or 10X) Higher Power Rules for Using Microscopes Dark Field Microscopy Phase-Contrast Microscopy Fluorescent Microscopy Electron Microscopy Laboratory Glassware Petri Dishes Petri Dishes with Tight Fitting Lids Petri Dishes with Loose Fitting Lids Pipets Graduated Cylinders Vacuum Filter Flask Safety Trap Flask Dilution (Milk Dilution) Bottles Fermentation Tubes and Vials Thermometers Cleaning Laboratory Glassware Glassware Sterilization Chemicals and Reagents Chemicals and Reagents Laboratory Pure Water 169 Chapter 12 Culture Media Culture Media and Culture Chemically Defined Media Complex Media Selective and Differential Media Selective Media Differential Media Storage of Dehydrated Culture Media Preparation of Media Preparation and Sterilization of Media Sterilization of the Media ph Check of the Media Storage of Culture Media Sterile Media from Commercial Sources Bacterial Growth in Media Bacterial Growth in Liquid (Broth) Media Observing Growth Patterns on Broth Media Bacterial Growth in Agar Slant Cultures Preparation of Agar Slants Bacterial Selection by Sugar Fermentation Obtaining Pure Culture: Streak Plate Method How to Prepare Agar Plates 181

12 How to Inoculate Agar Plates How to Incubate Agar Plates 182 Chapter 13 Direct Measurement of Bacterial Growth Dilutions Single Dilution Serial Dilution Prompt Use of Dilutions Dilution Water Phosphate Buffered Dilution Water Stock Phosphate Buffer Solution Working Phosphate Buffer Solution Plate Counts Pour Plate Method Spread Plate Method Streak Plate Method Membrane Filter (MF) Technique Advantage of the Membrane Filter Technique Limitations of the Membrane Filter Technique Outline of the Membrane Filter Technique Most Probable Number (MPN) Method Presumptive Test Confirmed Test Completed Test Calculation and Reporting of MPN Values Staining Procedures Preparation of Bacterial Smears Gram Stain Direct Microscopic Counts 191 Chapter 14 Estimation of Bacterial Numbers by Indirect Methods Turbidity Biochemical Reactions and Enzymatic Tests Catalase Test Clumping Factor Test (Slide Coagulase Test) Nitrate Reduction Test Oxidase Test (Kovacs Method) Indole Test The Rapid Indole Test Regular Indole Test Rapid Urease Test IMViC Tests Methyl Red and Voges-Proskauer Test Methyl Red (MR) Test Voges-Proskauer (V-P) Reaction Citrate Utilization Test Decarboxylase Test _. 200

13 Motility Test Rapid Identification Systems (Multitest Systems) 200 Chapter 15 Methods for Analyzing Microbiological Quality of the Environment Methods and Techniques Methods for the Total Coliform Group Methods for Fecal Coliforms Heterotrophic Plate Count Method for Fecal Streptococcus Detection of Stressed Organisms Ambient Temperature Effect Chlorinated Effluents and Toxic Wastes Rapid Detection Methods Hour Fecal Coliform Test Methods for Microbiological Examination of Recreational Waters Swimming Pools Disinfected Indoor Pools Disinfected Outdoor Pools Untreated Pools Whirlpools Natural Bathing Beaches Detection of Pathogenic Bacteria Detection of Soil Microorganisms Sample Collection Sample Handling and Storage Moisture Determination Plate Count Most Probable Number (MPN) Method 207 Chapter 16 Heterotrophic Plate Count Introduction Pour Plate Method Equipment and Material Media Preparation Preparation of Agar Dilution Preparation Plate Preparation Counting Select Plates Having 30 to 300 Colonies Plates Having More Than 300 Colonies Plates Have No Colonies Number of Colonies per Plate Greatly Exceeding Spreading Colonies Are on the Plate(s) Plates Are Uncountable Examples for Counting and Reporting Spread Plate Method Equipment and Material Media and Agar Preparation, Sample Dilution Preparation of Agar Plates 215

14 Procedure Counting and Reporting Plate Count from Soils and Sediments Moisture Determination Preparation of Dilutions Calculation and Reporting Pour Plates Spread Count 217 Chapter 17 Determination of Total Coliform Membrane Filter Technique Introduction Application Equipment and Glassware Culture Media Preparation of the M-Endo Broth Media Preparation of the M-Endo Agar Medium Preparation of Lauryl Tryptose Broth Preparation of Brilliant Green Bile Broth Preparation of Dilution Water Preparation of Magnesium Chloride Solution Set Up Filtration Apparatus Suggested Sample Volumes for Membrane Filter Total Coliform Membrane Filtration (MF) Procedure Procedure Using Broth Media Procedure Using Agar Media Counting and Recording Colonies General Rules for Counting and Reporting Special Rules in Counting and Reporting for Potable Waters Verification Verification Procedures Delayed Incubation by the MF Method Application Equipment and Glassware Culture Media Preparation of M-Endo Preservative Medium Procedure, Counting, and Recording Most Probable Number (MPN) Method Introduction Application., Equipment and Glassware Culture Media Lauryl Tryptose Broth Brilliant Green Lactose Bile Broth (BGLB) Eosine Methylene Blue Agar (EMB Agar) Dilution Water Procedure Presumptive Test Confirmed Test Completion Test Calculation 231

15 Calculation of Reported Value When 10, 1.0, and 0.1 ml Portions Are Used Calculation of Reported Values When the Series of Decimal Dilutions Is Other Than 10, 1.0, and 0.1 ml More Than Three Sample Volumes Are Inoculated Determination of Klebsiella Introduction Membrane Filter Procedure Apparatus Culture Medium Modified M-FC Agar (M-FCIC) Agar M-KlebAgar Procedure Counting Colonies Verification Application for Soil, Sediment, and Sludge Samples Analytical Quality Control 236 Chapter 18 Determination of Fecal Coliform Definition of the Fecal Coliform Group Membrane Filter Method Application Equipment and Glassware Culture Media Preparation of M-FC Broth Rosolic Acid Solution JVNaOH Preparation of M-FC Agar Preparation of Lauryl Tryptose Broth Preparation of EC Medium Preparation of Sterile Dilution Water Procedure Set Up Filtration Apparatus Suggested Sample Volumes for the Membrane Filter Fecal Coliform Test Procedure Using Broth Media Procedure Using Agar Media Counting and Recording Colonies Countable Membranes with 20 to 60 Colonies Countable Membrane Filters with Less Than 20 Blue Colonies Membranes with No Colonies Countable Membranes with More Than 60 Colonies Uncountable Membranes with More Than 60 Colonies Verification Procedure Delayed Incubation MF Method Application Equipment and Glassware Culture Media Preparation of the M-VFC Medium Counting and Recording Colonies The Most Probable Number (MPN) Method 242

16 Application Equipment and Glassware Media Lauryl Tryptose Broth EC Medium Dilution Water Procedure Calculation and Reporting The MUG Test Application for Soil, Sediment, and Sludge Samples Analytical Quality Control (QC) Procedure 244 Chapter 19 Determination of Fecal Streptococcus Introduction The Fecal Coliform and Fecal Streptococci, FC/FS Ratio Enterococci Portion of the Fecal Streptococcus Group Membrane Filter (MF) Technique Application Equipment and Glassware Culture Media Preparation of KF Streptococcus Agar Percent Solution of 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium-chloride (TTC) Percent Sodium Carbonate, Na^Og Preparation of Brain Heart Infusion Broth (BHI) Brain Heart Infusion Agar (BHI Agar) Brain Heart Infusion Broth with 40 Percent Bile Preparation of 10 percent Oxgall Solution Dilution Water Procedures Sample Volume Counting and Recording Colonies Verification Delayed MF Procedure Most Probable Number (MPN) Method Culture Media Azide Dextrose Broth Pfizer Selective Enterococcus, (PSE) Agar Procedure Presumptive Test Confirmed Test Calculation Pour Plate Method Media Procedure Counting and Reporting Plates with 30 to 300 Colonies All Plates Greater than 300 Colonies All Plates with Fewer than 30 Colonies Plate with No Colonies 253

17 All Plates Are Crowded Procedures for Soils, Sediments, and Sludges Analytical Quality Control (QC) Procedures 254 Chapter 20 Enterobacteriaceae Introduction Coliform Organisms Differentiation of Enterobacteriaceae ENTEROTUBEII Operation of ENTEROTUBE II To Read ENTEROTUBE II To Indicate Positive Reactions Ordering Information BBL OXI/FERM Tube II API 20E System Operation of API 20E 263 Chapter 21 Iron and Sulfur Bacteria Introduction to Iron and Sulfur Bacteria Iron Bacteria Identification of Iron Bacteria Sulfur Bacteria Common Forms of Sulfur Bacteria Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria Photosynthetic Green and Purple Sulfur Bacteria Colorless Filamentous Sulfur Bacteria Aerobic Sulfur Oxidizers Identification of Sulfur Bacteria Green and Purple Sulfur Bacteria Colorless Filamentous Sulfur Bacteria Colorless Nonfilamentous Sulfur Bacteria Colorless Small Sulfur Bacteria and Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria Enumeration, Enrichment, and Isolation of Iron and Sulfur Bacteria 270 Chapter 22 Detection of Actinomycetes General Introduction Actinomycetes Streptomyces Determination of Actinomycetes Density Plating Method Preparation and Dilution of Samples Preparation of Soil Samples Medium Procedure Counting Calculation and Reporting Alternative Calculations 275

18 Appendix A Exponential Notation 277 A.I General Discussion 277 A. 1.1 Numbers Greater Than 10 in Exponential Notation 277 A.1.2 Numbers Less Than 1 in Exponential Notation 278 A. 1.3 Adding and Subtracting Numbers in Exponential Notation 278 A. 1.4 Multiplying and Dividing Numbers in Exponential Notation 278 Appendix B International System of Units (Metric System) 279 B.I Derived SI Units 279 B.2 Derived SI Units with Special Names 279 B.3 Prefixes 280 B.4 Useful Conversion Factors 280 Appendix C Units and Conversion Factors 281 C.I Conversion to Metric Measures 281 C.2 Conversion from Metric Measures 281 Appendix D Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 283 D.I Scope and Application 283 D.I.I Carbonaceous vs. Nitrogenous BOD 283 D.I.2 Dilution Requirements 283 D.1.3 Summary of the Method 284 D.1.4 Sampling and Storage 284 D.1.5 Sample Collection for the Winkler Method 284 D. 1.6 Interferences 285 D.2 Apparatus and Material 285 D.3 Reagents 285 D.4 Procedure 286 D.4.1 DO Meter Calibration 286 D.4.2 Preanalysis Checking 287 D.4.3 Analysis 287 D.5 Calculation 288 D.5.1 BOD Concentration 288 D.5.2 Correction Factor for Seed Control 288 D.5.3 Dilution Factor 289 D.5.4 Alternative Calculation 289 D.6 Quality Control 289 D.6.1 Method Blank 289 D.6.2 Seed Control 289 D.6.3 Reference Standard (Glucose-Glutamic Acid Standard) 289 D.6.4 DO Meter Performance Check 290 D.6.5 Accuracy 290 D.6.6 Precision 290 D.7 Safety 290

19 Appendix E Determination of Solids 291 E.I General Discussion 291 E.1.1 Sample Collection and Handling 291 E.1.2 Sample Pretreatment 291 E.2 Determination of Total Solids (TS) Dried at 103 to 105 C 291 E.2.1 Principle of the Method 291 E.2.2 Interferences 291 E.2.3 Apparatus and Material 292 E.2.4 Procedure 292 E.2.5 Calculation 292 E.2.6 Quality Control 292 E Method Blank 292 E.3 Determination of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Dried at 180 C 292 E.3.1 Principle of the Method 292 E.3.2 Interferences 293 E.3.3 Apparatus and Material 293 E.3.4 Reagents 293 E Reference Standards, 500 mg per E.3.5 Procedure 293 E Preparation of Evaporation Dishes 293 E Sample Analysis 294 E.3.6 Calculation 294 E.3.7 Quality Control 295 E Method Blank 295 E Reference Standard 295 E Duplicates 295 E.4 Determination of the Total Suspended Solids (TSS) Dried at 103 to 105 C 295 E.4.1 Principle of the Method 295 E.4.2 Interferences 295 E.4.3 Apparatus and Material 295 E.4.4 Procedure 295 E Filter Preparation 295 E Sample Analysis 296 E.4.5 Calculation 296 E.5 Fixed and Volatile Solids Ignited at 500 C 296 E.5.1 Principle of the Method 296 E.5.2 Interferences 297 E.5.3 Apparatus and Material 297 E.5.4 Procedures 297 E.5.5 Calculation 297 E.6 Total, Fixed, and Volatile Solids in Solid and Semisolid Samples 297 E.6.1 Principle of the Method 297 E.6.2 Interferences 297 E.6.3 Apparatus and Material 298 E.6.4 Procedure 298 E Preparation of Evaporation Dishes 298 E Sample Analysis 298 E.6.5 Calculation 298 E.6.6 Quality Control 298

20 E.7 Settleable Solids 298 E.7.1 Principle of the Method 298 E.7.2 Apparatus 298 E.7.3 Procedure 299 Appendix F Determination of ph 301 F.I General Discussion 301 F.2 Sample Collection and Holding Time 301 F.3 Potentiometric Determination of ph 301 F.3.1 Principle of the Method 301 F.3.2 Interferences 302 F.3.3 Apparatus and Materials 302 F.3.4 Reagents 302 F.3.5 Meter Calibration 303 F.3.6 Measurement of Aqueous Samples and Wastes Containing Greater Than 20 Percent Water 303 F.3.7 Measurement of Solid Samples 303 F.3.8 General Rules 304 F.4 Quality Control (QC) 304 F.4.1 Duplicate Analysis 304 F.4.2 Initial Calibration Verification (ICV) 304 F.4.3 Continuing Calibration Verification (CCV) 305 F.4.4 Calculate Accuracy 305 Appendix G Bacteriophages 307 G.I Coliform Counts 307 G.I.I Total Coliforms 307 G.1.2 Fecal Coliforms 307 Bibliography 309 Index 311