Population. F.1. Atmosphere and climate change

Transcription

1 Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 F. Environment F.1. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are continuing to rise globally and in the region. GHGs come in a number of different forms and from multiple sources. Fossil fuel use is responsible for most global carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, and a large part of global anthropogenic GHG emissions overall. Other GHGs such as methane (CH 4 ) that also have significant potential to contribute to the overall challenges associated with climate change are mainly associated with agricultural activities and related land use changes. With average global CO 2 concentrations in the atmosphere nearing 400 parts per million (ppm) and increasing by 2 ppm per year, urgent action is required to reverse the dangerous trend of rising GHG emissions of all types and sources. Emissions of different types of GHGs can be combined into a single measure using measures of their global warming potential (GWP). GWP is calculated for the non-co 2 GHGs as the ratio of radiative forcing (or warming potential) relative to the same mass of CO 2. In line with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the combined GHG emission figures are estimated using the CO 2 equivalent GWP for a 100-year time period. 1 Compared with GHGs such as CH 4 and nitrous oxide (N 2 0), CO 2 has a relatively low radiative forcing potential. However, CO 2 remains a major concern in relation to climate change due to the rapid growth in CO 2 emissions during recent decades. It is generally estimated that, to avoid the most serious consequences of global warming, the global surface temperature cannot be allowed to increase more than 2 C over the pre-industrial average, and to have a 50 per cent chance of reaching this goal, the long-term concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere needs to be limited to 450 ppm of CO 2 equivalent. 2 In 2011, global average CO 2 concentrations amounted to 390 ppm, which is 110 ppm higher Figure F.1-1 Global greenhouse gas composition, 2010 Others: HFCs = 1.5%; PFCs = 0.2%; SF6 = 0.3% Source: International Energy Agency, CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/ International Energy Agency, Paris, 2012). than the pre-industrial average of 280 ppm. 3 During , individual measurements of 400 ppm were recorded at sites in the Arctic and in Hawaii, United States of America. 4 In , the Asian and Pacific region was responsible for more than half of total global GHG emissions. In 2010, China became the country with the largest share of global GHG emissions, accounting for about 23 per cent of the global total, which is approximately the same share as Latin America and the Caribbean and North America combined. For the highest shares of emissions in the region, China is followed by India with 5.5 per cent, the Russian Federation with 5.1 per cent, Indonesia with 4.0 per cent and Japan with 2.8 per cent of total global emissions. Emissions from Europe account for 12 per cent of the global total, which is slightly lower than those from North America, with 15.2 per cent. In 2010, GHG emissions in the Asian and Pacific region increased by 1.5 per cent from the previous year, which is similar to the global increase. The most dramatic year-to-year increases were in countries with very low absolute Environment 1 See 2 See 3 See 4 See 161

2 Environment F. Environment Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 levels of emissions, including Bhutan, Cambodia and the Lao People s Democratic Republic. At the same time, of the countries with larger emission levels, China, India, Japan and the Republic of Korea continued to increase emissions by between 4 per cent and 7 per cent, while those of the Russian Federation increased by a more moderate 1.2 per cent. The largest proportional reductions in year-to-year emission levels were recorded in Indonesia (26 per cent), the Cook Islands (20 per cent), Hong Kong, China (7.9 per cent), Malaysia (7.3 per cent) and Australia (5.8 per cent). Figure F.1-2 Greenhouse gas emissions, Asia and the Pacific and rest of the world, (global warming potential carbon dioxide equivalent) On a per capita basis, in 2010, the Asian and Pacific region s average of 6.1 tons of GHG (CO 2 equivalent) emissions remained slightly below the global average of 7.1. Developed countries in the region average 13.5 tons per capita, while developing countries in the region average 5.8 tons per capita (6.5 if China and India are excluded). The largest emitters in the region on a per capita basis are Brunei Darussalam at 50 tons, Australia and Mongolia at 28 and 26 tons, respectively, and Kazakhstan, the Lao People s Democratic Republic, New Zealand, the Russian Federation and Turkmenistan at between 16 and 20 tons. China emits 8.2 tons per capita, compared with 21.5 tons in North America and 9.9 tons in Europe. Figure F.1-3 Greenhouse gas emissions per capita (carbon dioxide equivalent), Although the region still records a higher level of GHG intensity (GHG emissions in tons of CO 2 equivalent per 1,000$ GDP) than the global average, the level has been falling continuously since 1990, which implies that each unit of value of economic production in the region s economies is being achieved in correlation with reduced amounts of GHG emissions. GHG intensity in the Asian and Pacific region in 2010 was 1.2 compared with the world average of 0.8 (expressed as GHG emissions in tons of CO 2 equivalent per 1,000$ GDP). The rate of reduction in GHG intensity since 1990 has been the same as the global average and also that of the United States of America, but slower than that of Europe. 162 CO 2 emissions from the Asian and Pacific region have been rising at a more rapid rate than overall GHG emissions from the region. Between 2005 and 2010, CO 2 emissions increased in the region by 26.2 per cent while GHG emissions increased by 14.7 per cent. In the same period, while increasing by only 2.7 per cent in the Pacific and 7.2 per cent in North and Central Asia, CO 2 emissions have increased much more significantly in South and South- West Asia (32 per cent), East and North-East Asia (31.5 per cent) and South-East Asia (22.8 per cent). The region now contributes more than half of all global CO 2 emissions, with China accounting for 24.8 per cent of global CO 2

3 Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 F. Environment emissions, or 47.5 per cent of those from the region. In its publication World Energy Outlook, the International Energy Agency (IEA) presents the 450 Scenario, which sets out an energy pathway consistent with the goal of limiting the global increase in temperature to 2 C by limiting the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere to around 450 ppm of CO 2. 5 Projections by IEA have indicated that, to reach the target of 450 ppm, emission levels would need to start declining by 2020 at the latest. 6 As CO 2 emissions form the majority of global GHG emissions, and fossil fuel combustion is the primary source of CO 2 emissions, contributing 65 per cent of all GHG emissions, 7 reducing the consumption of fossil fuels is critical. The generation of electricity and heat currently account for 41 per cent of CO 2 emissions, followed by transport at 22 per cent, industry at 20 per cent, and residential and others each at about 10 per cent. 8 Figure F.1-4 Carbon dioxide emissions, Asian and Pacific region and rest of the world, Since energy infrastructure has a long lifetime, investments made today will impact emission levels for decades to come. According to the World Energy Outlook 2012, unless global coordinated action to reduce CO 2 emissions from energy is taken urgently, reducing CO 2 emissions in line with the 450 Scenario will become more costly. 9 Environment Box F.1-1 Setting targets to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the region Several countries in the Asian and Pacific region, including Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Maldives, the Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Papua New Guinea, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Thailand and Tuvalu, have introduced voluntary targets to reduce CO 2 emissions in absolute amounts or to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels. China has set a goal to reduce by 2020 CO 2 emissions per unit of GDP by 40 per cent to 45 per cent below 2005 levels, as well as to increase forest cover by 40 million hectares. China has also recently instituted a natural resources tax, and is planning to put in place a domestic carbon trading system. As a first step, a pilot carbon trading scheme was launched in Shenzhen in June 2013, to be followed by carbon trading schemes in six other locations before a Growing wealth and consumption across the world has contributed to global CO 2 concentrations increasing by an average of 2 ppm during the past decade. b As concentrations depend on emissions accumulated over time, ambitious targets and urgent action are needed to reverse the rise of concentrations in the atmosphere. a See b See 5 See 6 International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2009 (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/International Energy Agency, Paris, 2009). Available from 7 International Energy Agency, CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion: Highlights (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/International Energy Agency, Paris, 2012). Available from 8 Ibid. 9 International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2012 (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development / International Energy Agency, Paris, 2012). Available from 163

4 Environment F. Environment Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 Both CH 4 and N 2 O emissions have continued to rise in the Asian and Pacific region, particularly in East and North-East Asia. In the 1990s, the region contributed less than half of all global sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ). Since then, emissions from the rest of the world have been reducing, while, since 2000, those from the Asian and Pacific region have been increasing. CH 4 and N 2 O emissions are important in particular because they are potent GHGs. SO 2 emissions can lead to acid rain and harm human health. China contributed about 40 per cent of N 2 O emissions and 36 per cent of CH 4 emissions from the region in While CO 2 emissions are primarily related to energy, the main source of CH 4 and N 2 O is agriculture (see key message on emissions from agriculture). Figure F.1-5 Methane emissions, Asian and Pacific subregions, SO 2 emissions, like CO 2 emissions, come mainly from the combustion of coal and petroleum. As a result of a continuous increase in the rate, SO 2 emissions from the Asian and Pacific region contributed nearly two thirds (63.5 per cent) of global SO 2 emissions in 2008, with the majority originating from a handful of countries, in particular China (34.1 per cent of global SO 2 emissions, or 54 per cent of those from the region), followed by India (7.3 per cent of global, 11.6 per cent of regional SO 2 emissions) and the Russian Federation (5 per cent of global, 7.8 per cent of regional SO 2 emissions). Figure F.1-7 Sulphur dioxide emissions, Asia and the Pacific and rest of the world, Figure F.1-6 Nitrous oxide emissions, Asian and Pacific subregions, The region accounts for about half of global emissions from agriculture. Agriculture accounted for about 10 per cent to 12 per cent of total global anthropogenic GHG emissions in The main sources of emissions are crop and livestock production and management, and forestry and associated land use changes. Globally, as well as in the Asian and Pacific region, GHG emissions from agriculture are dominated by non-co 2 gases such as CH 4 and N 2 O, arising from crop and livestock production and management. China and India have the highest emissions from agriculture in the region. Together they account for 54 per cent of the emissions in the region, or 27 per cent of total global emissions from agriculture. 10 See 164

5 Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 F. Environment Figure F.1-8 Emissions from agriculture, Asia and the Pacific and rest of the world, Figure F.1-9 Concentration of particulate matter in urban areas, Asia and the Pacific, 1990 and 2009 Concentrations of particulate matter in the local atmospheres above cities in Asia and the Pacific exceed the maximum safety standard set by the World Health Organization Environment One of the most problematic issues regarding local air pollution is the concentration of particulate matter (PM), as it tends to affect more people than other pollutants such as SO 2. The particles are identified according to their aerodynamic diameter, as either PM10 (particles with a diameter smaller than 10 microns) or PM2.5 (particles with a diameter smaller than 2.5 microns). Although average concentrations of PM10 declined by 45 per cent between 1990 and 2009, concentrations are generally still much higher than the recommended World Health Organization standard (20 microns per m 3, annual mean). 11 The effects of particulate matter on health occur at levels of exposure currently being experienced by most urban and rural populations in both developed and developing countries in the region. Chronic exposure to particles contributes to the risk of developing cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, as well as lung cancer. 12 Urban air pollution generated by vehicles, industries and energy production causes an estimated 800,000 premature deaths every year World Health Organization, Air Quality Guidelines: Global Update 2005 Particulate Matter, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulphur Dioxide (2006). Available from 12 World Health Organization, Air quality and health, Fact Sheet No. 313 (September 2011). Available from fs313/en/. 13 Jeff Kenworthy and Felix Laube, Urban transport patterns in a global sample of cities and their linkages to transport infrastructure, land use, economics and environment, World Transport Policy and Practice, vol. 8, No. 3 (2002), pp

6 Environment F. Environment Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 Some 1.7 billion people in the Asian and Pacific region rely on dung, wood, crop waste or coal to meet their most basic energy needs. 14 Cooking and heating with such solid fuels on open fires or stoves without chimneys leads to indoor air pollution. Globally, indoor air pollution is estimated to cause 36 per cent of all lower respiratory infections and 22 per cent of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Exposure is particularly high among women and children, who spend the most time near the domestic hearth. 15 Further reading Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Available from ar4_syr.pdf. International Energy Agency. CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion. Various years. International Energy Agency. World Energy Outlook. Various years. United Nations Environment Programme. Bridging the Emissions Gap: A UNEP Synthesis Report Available from Technical notes GHG emissions: total (million tons of CO 2 equivalent, percentage change per annum, tons of CO 2 equivalent per capita) Total GHG emissions, expressed in million tons of CO 2 equivalent, is calculated using the GWP100 established by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change under the Tier 1 Sectoral Approach of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. GHG emissions are composed of CO 2 totals excluding short-cycle biomass burning (such as agricultural waste burning and Savannah burning but including other biomass burning such as forest fires, post-burn decay, peat fires and decay of drained peatlands), all anthropogenic CH 4 sources, N 2 O sources and F-gases (HFCs, PFCs and SF6). CO 2 equivalent is a measure used to compare different GHGs based on their contribution to radiative forcing. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change currently (2005) uses GWPs as factors to calculate CO 2 equivalent. Indicator calculations: Percentage change in GHG emissions per annum and in a 10-year period. Per capita figures are based on population figures (WPP2012). Aggregate calculations: Sum of individual country values (million tons of CO 2 equivalent); average annual growth of all country level values of total GHG emissions in million tons of CO 2 equivalent of individual countries (percentage change per annum); weighted averages using total population (WPP2012) as weight (tons of CO 2 equivalent per capita). Missing data are not imputed. GHG intensity (GHG emissions in tons of CO 2 equivalent per 1,000$ GDP) GHG intensity of economy (or GHG per GDP) is a measure of GHG emissions per unit of economic output. The economic output is expressed as GDP in current United States dollars. Aggregate calculations: Weighted averages using current GDP in United States dollars. Missing data are not imputed. 14 World Health Organization, Air Pollution, proportion of population using solid fuels, Millennium Indicators Database. Available from mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/seriesdetail.aspx?srid= World Health Organization, World Health Report 2002: Reducing Risks, Promoting Healthy Life (Geneva, 2002). Available from int/whr/2002/en/. 166

7 Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 F. Environment CO 2 emissions from fuel combustion (million tons of CO 2, percentage change per annum, tons of CO 2 equivalent per capita, grams per 1 dollar GDP in 2005 PPP) Refers to emissions of CO 2 from burning oil, coal and natural gas for energy use. Total CO 2 emissions from fuel combustion as calculated using the Tier 1 Sectoral Approach of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Indicator calculations: Per capita figures are based on population figures (WPP2012). Per GDP figures are based on GDP in 2005 PPP (WDI). Aggregate calculations: Sum of individual country values (million tons of CO 2 ); average annual growth of aggregate million ton values (percentage change per annum); weighted averages using total population or GDP in 2005 PPP as weight (tons of CO 2 equivalent per capita, grams per 1 dollar GDP in 2005 PPP). Missing data are not imputed. and period of time. Aggregate calculations: Sum of individual country values. Missing data are not imputed. Consumption of ozone-depleting substances (grams per capita, grams per 1,000 GDP in 2005 PPP) Annual consumption in weighted tons of the individual substances in the group of ozonedepleting substances multiplied by their ozonedepleting potential. Ozone-depleting substances are those containing chlorine or bromine that destroy the stratospheric ozone layer. Indicator calculations: Per capita figures are based on population figures (WPP2012). Per 1,000 GDP in 2005 PPP are based on WDI figures. Aggregate calculations: Weighted averages using total population (grams per capita) and GDP in 2005 PPP (grams per 1,000 GDP in 2005 PPP) as weights. Missing data are not imputed. Environment Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture (thousand tons of CO 2 equivalent) Total greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture contain all the emissions produced in the different agricultural emissions sub-domains, providing a picture of the contribution to the total amount of GHG emissions from agriculture. GHG emissions from agriculture consist of non-co 2 gases, namely methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O), produced by crop and livestock production and management activities. Aggregate calculations: Sum of individual country values. Missing data are not imputed. Methane (CH 4 ) emissions from agriculture (Thousand tons of CO 2 equivalent) The release of methane (CH 4 ) produced by crop and livestock production and management activities to the atmosphere over a specified area and period of time. Aggregate calculations: Sum of individual country values. Missing data are not imputed. Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions from agriculture (Thousand tons of CO 2 equivalent) The release of nitrous oxide (N 2 O) produced by crop and livestock production and management activities to the atmosphere over a specified area CH 4 emissions (thousand tons) CH 4 emissions are estimated using a model from the Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and the Environment by the following Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR) divisions: energy, agriculture, waste and others. Others includes industrial process emissions, N 2 O usage, and tropical and temperate forest fires. Aggregate calculations: Sum of individual country values. Missing data are not imputed. SO 2 emissions (thousand tons) SO 2 emissions are estimated using a model from the Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and the Environment by the following EDGAR subdivisions: fuel combustion, biofuel combustion, fugitive, industry, solvent use, agriculture, waste and others. Others comprises tropical and temperate forest fires. Aggregate calculations: Sum of individual country values. Missing data are not imputed. N 2 O emissions (thousand tons) N 2 O emissions are estimated using a model from the Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and the Environment by the following EDGAR divisions: energy, agriculture, waste and others. Others includes industrial process 167

8 Environment F. Environment Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 emissions, N 2 O usage, and tropical and temperate forest fires. Aggregate calculations: Sum of individual country values. Missing data are not imputed. Concentration of PM10 in urban areas (micrograms per m 3 ) Particulate matter concentrations refer to fine suspended particles with a diameter smaller than 10 microns (PM10) that can penetrate deeply into the respiratory tract and cause significant health damage. The estimates represent the average annual exposure level of the average urban resident to outdoor particulate matter. A country s state of technology and pollution control is an important determinant of particulate matter concentrations. Aggregate calculations: Weighted averages using urban population (WPP2012) as weight. Missing data are not imputed. Biochemical oxygen demand (tons per day) Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria in breaking down waste. Biochemical oxygen demand is a proxy measure for all types of industrial organic water pollutants. Sources Source of CO 2 from fuel data: IEA, CO 2 emissions by product and flow, IEA CO 2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion Statistics database. Countries report to IEA through the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member site and non- OECD government site. The IEA secretariat does not adjust the data. Data obtained: 7 June Source of total GHGs emissions, SO 2, N 2 O data: Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR), a joint project of European Commission Joint Research Centre and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. Emissions data are compiled and published in EDGAR version 4.2 and are calculated by individual countries using country-specific information. Data obtained: 25 March 2013, except SO 2 emissions: 30 August Source of emissions from agriculture: FAOSTAT Emissions Agriculture database, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The FAOSTAT emissions data are estimates by FAO. Member countries report their emissions and are computed at Tier 1 following IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Data obtained: 26 March Source of ozone data: Millennium Indicators Database. Countries that are party to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer report data annually to the secretariat using data reporting formats agreed by the parties. Data are usually reported by the ministry of environment or by designated authorities such as an environmental protection agency, an environmental management authority or a national ozone unit. Country data are not adjusted. WDI is the source for GDP in 2005 PPP. National accounts data are compiled by the World Bank using OECD national accounts. The World Bank makes some adjustments to the data. Data obtained: 12 March Source of PM10 and biochemical oxygen demand data: World Bank, WDI. Estimates from Kiran Dev Pandey and others, Ambient particulate matter concentrations in residential and pollution hotspot areas of world cities: new estimates based on the Global Model of Ambient Particulates (GMAPS), World Bank Development Economics Research Group and Environment Department Working Paper (Washington, DC, World Bank, 2006). Data are provided by countries. Data obtained: 13 March

9 Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 F. Environment F.1.1 Greenhouse gas emissions Million tons of CO 2 equivalent Total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions % change per annum Tons of CO 2 equivalent per capita GHG intensity GHG emissions in tons of CO 2 equivalent per 1,000$ GDP East and North-East Asia China DPR Korea Hong Kong, China Japan Macao, China Mongolia Republic of Korea South-East Asia Brunei Darussalam Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Timor-Leste Viet Nam South and South-West Asia Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan India Iran (Islamic Rep. of) Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka Turkey North and Central Asia Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Russian Federation Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Pacific American Samoa Australia Cook Islands Fiji French Polynesia Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia (F.S.) Nauru New Caledonia New Zealand Niue Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Asia and the Pacific Developed countries Developing countries LLDC LDC ASEAN ECO SAARC Central Asia Pacific island dev. econ Low income econ Lower middle income econ Upper middle income econ High income econ Africa Europe Latin America and Carib North America World

10 F. Environment Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 F.1.2 Carbon dioxide intensities 170 Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions from fuel combustion Million tons of CO 2 % change per Tons of CO 2 equivalent Grams per 1 dollar GDP in annum per capita 2005 PPP East and North-East Asia China DPR Korea Hong Kong, China Japan Macao, China Mongolia Republic of Korea South-East Asia Brunei Darussalam Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Timor-Leste Viet Nam South and South-West Asia Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan India Iran (Islamic Rep. of) Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka Turkey North and Central Asia Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Russian Federation Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Pacific American Samoa Australia Cook Islands Fiji French Polynesia Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia (F.S.) Nauru New Caledonia New Zealand Niue Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Asia and the Pacific Developed countries Developing countries LLDC LDC ASEAN ECO SAARC Central Asia Pacific island dev. econ. Low income econ Lower middle income econ Upper middle income econ High income econ Africa Europe Latin America and Carib North America World

11 F.1.3 Greenhouse gases emissions from agriculture Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 F. Environment Total greenhouse gas (GHG) Methane (CH 4 ) Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) Thousand tons of CO 2 equivalent East and North-East Asia China DPR Korea Hong Kong, China Japan Macao, China Mongolia Republic of Korea South-East Asia Brunei Darussalam Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Timor-Leste Viet Nam South and South-West Asia Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan India Iran (Islamic Rep. of) Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka Turkey North and Central Asia Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Russian Federation Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Pacific American Samoa Australia Cook Islands Fiji French Polynesia Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia (F.S.) Nauru New Caledonia New Zealand Niue Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Asia and the Pacific Developed countries Developing countries LLDC LDC ASEAN ECO SAARC Central Asia Pacific island dev. econ Low income econ Lower middle income econ Upper middle income econ High income econ Africa Europe Latin America and Carib North America World

12 F. Environment Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 F.1.4 Other pollutants 172 Consumption of ozonedepleting substances Grams Grams per 1,000 dollars per capita GDP in 2005 PPP Methane (CH 4 ) Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) Thousand tons Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) Concentration of PM10 in urban area Micrograms per m 3 Biochemical oxygen demand Tons per day Earliest Latest East and North-East Asia China (07) DPR Korea Hong Kong, China Japan (94) (05) Macao, China Mongolia (07) Republic of Korea (90) 320 (06) South-East Asia Brunei Darussalam Cambodia (93) Indonesia (98) 883 (06) Lao PDR (99) Malaysia (00) 208 (06) Myanmar Philippines (96) 145 (05) Singapore (91) 38 (07) Thailand (96) 581 (06) Timor-Leste Viet Nam (98) 545 (07) South and South-West Asia Afghanistan (02) Bangladesh (95) Bhutan India Iran (Islamic Rep. of) (94) 161 (05) Maldives Nepal (96) 27 (02) Pakistan (06) Sri Lanka (06) Turkey (92) 346 (06) North and Central Asia Armenia Azerbaijan (95) 20 (07) Georgia Kazakhstan (98) 97 (07) Kyrgyzstan (92) 12 (07) Russian Federation (99) (07) Tajikistan (90) 13 (07) Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Pacific American Samoa Australia Cook Islands Fiji (04) French Polynesia Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia (F.S.) Nauru New Caledonia New Zealand (90) 62 (07) Niue Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga (91) 0.37 (04) Tuvalu Vanuatu Asia and the Pacific Developed countries Developing countries LLDC LDC ASEAN ECO SAARC Central Asia Pacific island dev. econ Low income econ Lower middle income econ Upper middle income econ High income econ Africa Europe Latin America and Carib North America World