Discovering culinary competency: An innovative approach

Transcription

1 Vol. 9, No. 1. ISSN: PRACTICE PAPER Discovering culinary competency: An innovative approach Meng-Lei Hu Department of Food and Beverage Management, Jinwen University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan DOI: /johlste Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education Abstract The purpose of this project was to explore the content of innovative culinary development competency. In order to analyse the competencies through which chefs create an innovative work (a specific cuisine, meal service or dish experience), the researchers used a qualitative research method including deep interviews of 20 senior executive chefs, R&D managers of food factories, professors and research chefs. Results revealed 69 items in seven dimensions of the innovative culinary competency model culture, aesthetics, technology, product, service, management, and creativity. Keywords: competency; culinary innovation; qualitative analysis Introduction The hospitality industry is facing increasing competition. Restaurant managers and chefs working in the industry must be able to remain innovative and attract new customers by satisfying their increasingly sophisticated demands. More than ever before, restaurant consumers in particular are looking for new and unique experiences. To meet this challenge there has recently been more emphasis on innovation in the culinary service industry, even on the notion of culinary creativity (Horng & Hu, 2008), and on the importance of innovation competency (Fisscher, Visscher, Pearson, & Weisenfeld, 2001). Ulrich (1996) felt that understanding human resources (HR) competencies was at the core of the emerging HR profession. Other studies emphasised the importance of chefs occupational competences (Birdir & Pearson, 2000). Moreover, in order to provide new and more innovative products and services to customers, there is an emerging consensus that innovative competence is a key factor in any chef s or restaurant s success. Developing innovative competency statements in training programmes, and/or reward eligibility criteria in the culinary industry and education, is still challenging and needs improving. Chefs innovative competences are therefore at the core of emerging research on the culinary profession and successful restaurant businesses. Building on prior research, the purpose of this study is to explore competency issues related to innovative culinary practices. Meng-Lei (Monica) Hu is Associate Professor of Food and Beverage Management and Department Head at Jinwen University of Science and Technology. Her research interests include creativity and innovation. She has published in a variety of outlets, including Tourism Management, the Creativity Research Journal, and the International Journal of Hospitality Management.

2 Literature Review Culinary competency The competency study is a major step towards the professionalisation of the very important fields of training and development. There are many definitions of competence or competency. Competence can be seen as a molar concept similar to the concept of intelligence, with its major components being skills, judgment, attitudes and values, entry skills, knowledge, ability and capacity (Birdir & Pearson, 2000, p. 205). Some research has suggested that job competency is an underlying characteristic of a person which results in effective and/or superior performance in a job (e.g., Boyatzis, 1982). Others have stated that competence relates to work tasks, results and outputs, and includes knowledge, skills and attitudes. The American Compensation Association s (1996) survey of 217 companies revealed the following significant insights. Of those companies using competencies for staffing, 88% used competency-based interviews for hiring/selection decisions, and 62% developed or acquired competencies specifically for training or learning programmes. In relation to performance management, 90% used competency-based performance appraisal data for employee development. Regarding compensation, 64% reported that pay increase decisions were affected most by change or growth in competencies. According to McLagan (1996), competency models can be used as the criteria for the following: training curriculum design; recruitment, selection and assessment; coaching, counselling and mentoring; career development and success planning. McLagan (1997) argued that competency relates to work tasks, results and outputs, and the characteristics of people doing the work: knowledge, skills and attitudes. Successful restaurant businesses create repeat and loyal customers by providing unforgettable experiences. Based on competence definitions in earlier literature, the term competence used in this study is defined as skills, ability, knowledge and other attributes that make a successful chef. Innovative competency Schmitt (1999) argued that experiential marketing is one innovative approach that might provide a way to respond to society s and customers needs. To maintain a competitive advantage, creating special and innovative customer value is necessary. Owners and chefs have to maintain and develop new competencies to continue to be competitive. Sundbo (1997) defined innovation as the creation of something new that has value for the consumer. He divided innovation into two types, break and incremental innovation, and stressed the importance of striking a balance between the two. Chefs must have some innovative competencies to create new recipes, meals and service experience to surprise customers. They also need to integrate and discover new or innovative knowledge, skills and the ability to do the job. Birdir and Pearson (2000) classified research chefs as research-focussed and managementfocussed. These two types of research chefs share some common competencies but differ in their basic competency. The research-focussed research chef primarily develops new products, creates new recipes and carries out food testing. This chef has a substantial background in food ingredients, sauces and stocks, and various cuisines. A total of 12 basic competencies were identified for these chefs, including knowledge of recipe development and formula ratios and the ability to work with a product development team. Meanwhile, the management-focussed research chef is a person who represents their employer, does presentations and sells products. Eight basic competencies were identified for these chefs, including ability to work with customers and skilled at food presentation. A total of 19 basic competencies were identified and applied to both research- and management-focussed research chefs, such as knowledge of flavours, knowledge of food sanitation and ability to distinguish levels of quality in food products. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 9(1),

3 Methodology Research context The researchers adopted a multidimensional, qualitative research method by using in-depth interviews with creative culinary artists and content analysis of innovative competence and information about culinary education. After repeated reading, conceptualising, coding and compressing information, a grounded theory was used to analyse the data and develop a descriptive model of innovative culinary competency. A grounded theory consists of a set of systematic procedures that seek to inductively derive a theory about a particular phenomenon (Strauss & Corbin, 1997). To guarantee the project s credibility, participants provided documents such as award certificates, news reports, photographs and written autobiographies, so that the researchers could conduct triangulation analysis. Finally, the project s validity was further reinforced by the researchers reflection notes on their research methodology and on the innovative culinary competencies uncovered through this research and its implications. Participants Since the aim of this project was to investigate the innovative culinary competencies of chefs, a purposeful sampling of the R&D managers of food factories, research chefs of franchise restaurants and executive chefs of international tourist hotels was more likely to appropriately reflect the key issues involved. In recent years, innovation has received more and more emphasis in the international food market and international culinary contests. Among the 20 participants of this project were 11 Western cuisine culinary artists, six Chinese cuisine artists and three pastry specialists: the R&D director, professors (mentors) and executive chefs from international tourist hotels. The participants were divided into two groups, W standing for Western cuisines and C for Chinese cuisine. The letter following W or C is the code assigned to each participant. Procedure Data were collected during a 3 month trip, September to December 2008, during which the researchers visited restaurants and schools. All interviews followed a prescribed interview schedule to ensure that all of the issues were discussed. Guaranteed confidentiality, research chefs or R&D managers were informed about the purpose of the project and the interviews were conducted using semi-structured, open-ended questions. Each interview, which lasted about 2 hours, included questions on subjects individual backgrounds, the competencies used to create an innovative culinary work, ways of obtaining ideas for innovative works and factors influencing the innovative competency. Results and discussions According to the analytic results of the interviews and after modification according to certain aspects of the other competency models (e.g., Jauhari & Misra, 2004), the researchers structured a multidimensional model of innovative culinary competency: culture, aesthetic, product, management, creative, service and technology (see Figure 1 and Table 1). Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 9(1),

4 Creativity Culture Management Aesthetics Innovative culinary development competency Service Technology Product Figure 1: The model of innovative culinary competency Dimension 1. Culture (9 items) 2. Aesthetic (9 items) 3. Technology (9 items) Items knowledge of ingredients characteristics knowledge of cooking culture knowledge of cultural history of the place of origin knowledge of dietary habits skilled at fusion cooking skilled at a variety of culinary techniques positive attitude towards understanding overseas diets positive attitude towards internationalisation positive attitude towards innovation diffusion knowledge of basic aesthetic concepts and literacy knowledge of current trends of food design ability to admire art and beauty ability to make a harmonious product skilled at the sensibility of fashion skilled at the sensibility of colour experience skilled at deploying size, amount and location of products positive attitude towards presenting beauty positive attitude towards presenting aesthetic value knowledge of principles of food science knowledge of cooking chemistry knowledge of molecular cuisine ability to use technology to keep food fresh ability to use technology to enhance cooking speed ability to use technology to enhance service speed ability to use technology to enhance food quality positive attitude towards using new cooking equipment positive attitude towards using new technology to communicate with customers Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 9(1),

5 4. Product (11 items) 5. Service (8 items) 6. Management (13 items) 7.Creativity (10 items) knowledge of presenting products with an original flavour knowledge of presenting healthy products knowledge of products with a harmonious flavour ability to create commercial products ability to make products with a wow feeling ability to make products with vitality ability to make products safe and hygienic positive attitude towards using new ingredients and recipes positive attitude towards new value of products positive attitude towards using unique ingredients positive attitude towards new product development knowledge of matching food and beverage knowledge of designing a unique dining experience ability to co-operate with servers ability to communicate with customers ability to develop a new culinary service skills at handling guest complaints and service recovery positive attitude towards control service positive attitude towards adding new value during service delivery knowledge of innovation process management knowledge of cost during innovation management knowledge of current and future food trends ability to present marketing skills during innovation management ability to collect and manage information ability to control culinary innovation process ability to open up a new market ability to handle team management ability to present leadership management ability to handle interpersonal management positive attitude towards change positive attitude towards crisis positive attitude towards self-learning knowledge of basic culinary science knowledge of making decisions ability to use divergent thinking ability to find creative idea skilled at basic culinary techniques skilled at problem solving positive attitude towards creating new ideas positive attitude towards accept others opinions positive attitude towards using new ways to resolve questions positive attitude towards being optimistic Table 1: Multidimensions of innovative culinary development competency Culture competency Cultural enrichment allows chefs to acquire the ability to create works of vitality. In innovating new products, chefs often attempt to incorporate domestic or foreign cultures into their work and seek to transmit cultural connotations through dishes. For example, in innovative concepts from Oriental chefs we can detect the influence of Confucianism and artistic culture on the chefs products, and see that the aesthetics of foreign history and social landscape can be integrated into a dish in order to engage in a dialogue with consumers. The culturerelated competencies are important for the spirit and vitality of the new culinary work, such as knowledge of cooking culture, skills in various culinary techniques and a positive attitude towards understanding overseas diets. One of these elements was evidenced by a comment Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 9(1),

6 from one interview: Yeah, I mean food represents a region s characteristics. For example, Burgundy snail or the blowfish of Japanese cuisine represent the reaction of a local culture. The reason why we eat these things is because they are local agricultural products and thus have their seasonality and ethnical characteristics In making a traditional dish, the chef must possess the ability to understand the cultural story behind the dish. (W10-048) Today s culinary educators emphasise a broad knowledge of foodservice industry history with an appreciation of current trends (e.g., fusion cuisine) in culinary education. These results are congruent with other studies of the cultural context of the culinary environment (Hegarty & O Mahony, 2001). Aesthetic competency The aesthetic element of cuisine nourishes people s senses and thinking. It not only helps to soothe the pressures of everyday life, but also prevents people from overeating. Confucius noted: He did not eat what was discoloured. Colour plays a spiritual and communication role in cuisine. It inspires the appetite and, through visual elements, initiates a competition of the soul, mouth and gastronomy. The visual aesthetics constructed by chromatics impact on people s appetite for creative foods and add value to dishes. Chefs should therefore understand the trend of aesthetic experience and economic activity driven by innovative culinary work. Culinary innovative competencies include knowledge of basic aesthetic concept and literacy, the ability to admire art and beauty, skills in the sensibility of fashion and a positive attitude towards presenting beautiful food. These results are congruent with the current gastronomy trend (Hegarty & O Mahony, 2001). In fact, aesthetic is the foremost condition to contact and attract others. Chefs should understand the popular aesthetic concepts of fashion and apply them in dishes. (W2-011) Technological competency The emphasis purely on classical techniques taught by chef instructors is not as prevalent as it once was. Students are not shown how to use new convenience and innovative products in an effective and consistent manner. Technological competencies include knowledge of the principles of food science, cooking chemistry, ability to use technology to keep food fresh, and a positive attitude towards using new cooking equipment. Foodservice technologies are already grounded in the principles of chemistry, biology, microbiology, engineering and mathematics, disciplines with well-established theory and a high degree of academic vigour (Jones, 2004). These results are consistent with those of the studies of Brown (2005) and Rodgers (2009) on the technological trend of culinary education. The molecular kitchen uses entirely technological means and has already developed the aspects of atomic structure and PH analysis like chocolate. Then, there are changes to fat under certain humidity, the type of integration that can change its structure, and different ways to present cuisines. These abilities can be used in innovative products. (C3-051) Product competency The creation of innovative products requires the promise that they will be for sale commercially. The risk therefore is relatively high: the greater the innovative risk, the greater the required promise. Why would an innovative chef make such commitment? The firmest commitment comes from a chef s emotional recognition of innovative thinking and market perspectives. Chefs must personally feel that a certain product is needed and also feel excited when the requirement is satisfied. Chefs should therefore have the competencies to create innovative products, such as knowledge of how to present a product with original flavour, knowledge of products with harmonious flavours, the ability to create commercial products, and a positive attitude towards using new ingredients and recipes. These results Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 9(1),

7 support the results of Horng and Lin (2009). Whether a product tastes good is not as important as the degree that it s accepted by the market and then by customers. People nowadays emphasise on health and environmental protection. When a chef is creating a new product, he or she has to understand these future fashionable trends. (B2-026) Service competency In the modern era, chefs not only have to possess proficient skills in the preparation of food, but also understand consumers psychology and preference. Chefs should understand the importance of service delivery and atmosphere when using innovative ways to serve meals, such as adding a flambé effect in desserts. The social and interpersonal skills now required in hospitality customer service are considerably greater than those needed in the past. Chefs should therefore have the competence to deal with complaints and service recovery, knowledge of matching food and beverage, ability to communicate with customers, and have a positive attitude towards control service. These results support related studies on new concepts of the meal experience (Gustafsson, Öström, Johansson, & Mossberg, 2006). During the service delivery process, chefs must know how to mix with wine to produce a special meal experience, and therefore the flambé effect is sometimes incorporated in dishes. Chefs have to understand and add new services. (W1-107) Management competency Chefs should also possess management competencies in developing innovative works, such as knowledge of innovation process management, knowledge of current and future food trends, the ability to collect and manage information, a positive attitude towards change and crisis and, in particular, innovative management competencies during the development of innovative culinary works. Experience in service marketing is critical for the hospitality and tourism industry because intangible experience is at the core of products and services offered by business (Schmitt, 1999) The researcher has to first understand what customers want and what the cost is. Only be following this direction can we develop products that are compatible with customer needs. (B1-069) Creative competency The creativity of the individual chef is a key component during the innovative process. Chefs should have the competency to express creativity, including knowledge of basic culinary science, the ability to use divergent thinking, a positive attitude to developing new ideas and optimism. These results are compatible with those of Horng and Hu (2008), and Horng and Lee s (2009) studies on culinary creativity. I believe that creativity during the development process is very important. Our inspirations are derived from our surroundings. Chefs should possess the competence of finding and solving problems. (W9-095) Conclusions Modern culinary education aspires to produce culinary artists with the talents of performers, who are able to use their imagination, intuition, intellect, emotions, and physical sensory technical skills to transform raw food into a pleasing creation. Lifelong learners are constantly aware of new ideas, which may benefit their personal and professional lives. The results of this study found that innovative culinary competencies included 69 items in seven categories: culture, aesthetics, technology, product, service, management, and creativity. These results are congruent with other related studies (Brown, 2005). Innovation and technology in hospitality can improve operations, increase revenue, minimise Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 9(1),

8 costs and enhance competitive advantage (Wang & Qualls, 2007). McCann (2002) noted that cultural output is the world s most important development strategy. The growth of cultural consumption power (including art, gastronomy, fashion and tourism) in business has gradually embraced the symbolic economy of cities. In the minds of many hospitality academics, elements of natural science are associated with principles of food safety/sanitation, and the role of culture, aesthetic, service or equipment-based technologies as an innovative tool is often overlooked. Developing innovative competency statements into training programmes and/or reward eligibility criteria of the culinary industry and education can improve the culinary experience of customers and enhance the foodservice industry s quality. References American Compensation Association (1996). Competencies emerge in hiring, training and pay. Personnel Journal, 75(9), Birdir, K., & Pearson, T. E. (2000). Research chefs' competencies: A Delphi approach. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 12, doi: / Boyatzis, R. E. (1982). The competent manager: A model for effective performance. New York: Wiley. Brown, J. N. (2005). A brief history of culinary arts education in America. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 17(4), Fisscher, O. A. M., Visscher, K., Pearson, A., & Weisenfeld, U. (2001). Research and development as a competence creating business in a business. Creativity and Innovation Management, 10, doi: / Gustafsson, I.-B., Öström, Johansson, J., & Mossberg, L. (2006). The five aspects meal model: A tool for developing meal services in restaurants. Journal of Foodservice, 17, doi: /j x Hegarty, J. A., & O Mahony, G. B. (2001). Gastronomy: A phenomenon of cultural expressionism and an aesthetic for living. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 20, doi: /s (00) Horng, J.-S., & Hu, M.-L. (2008). The mystery in the kitchen: Culinary creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 20, doi: / Horng, J.-S., & Lee, Y.-C. (2009). What environmental factors influence creative culinary artists? International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 21, doi: / Horng, J.-S., & Lin, L. (2009). The development of a scale for creative culinary products. Creativity Research Journal, 21, doi: / Jones, P. (2004). Finding the hospitality industry? Or finding hospitality schools of thought? Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education, 3(1), doi: /johlste Jauhari, V., & Misra, K. (2004). Services management: An insight into Indian hospitality industry. Gurgaon, India: Institute for International Management & Technology. McCann, E. J. (2002). The cultural politics of local economic development: Meaning-making, placemaking, and the urban policy process. Geoforum, 33, doi: /s (02) McLagan, P. (1996). Great ideas revisited. Training & Development, 50(1), McLagan, P. (1997). Competencies: The next generation. Training & Development, 51(5), Rodgers, S. (2009). The state of technological sophistication and the need for new specialised tertiary degrees in food services. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28, doi: /j.ijhm Schmitt, B. H. (1999). Experiential marketing: How to get customers to sense, feel, think, act, and relate to your company and brands. New York: Free Press. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1997). Grounded theory in practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Sundbo, J. (1997). Management of innovation in services. The Service Industry Journal, 17, doi: / Ulrich, D. (1996). Editor's note. Human Resource Management, 35, 1. Wang, Y., & Qualls, W. (2007). Towards a theoretical model of technology adaptation in hospitality organizations. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 26, doi: /j.ijhm Submitted January Final Version March Accepted May Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 9(1),