Non-Conventional Energy Resources. G.S. Sawhney

Non-Conventional Energy Resources G.S. Sawhney

Non-Conventional Energy Resources G.S. SAWHNEY Professor and Head Department of Mechanical Engineering Accurate Institute of Management and Technology Greater Noida Formerly Professor and Head Department of Mechanical Engineering GNIT, Greater Noida and LKIE, Ghaziabad New Delhi-110001 2012

NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES G.S. Sawhney 2012 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-4609-3 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Baba Barkha Nath Printers, Bahadurgarh, Haryana-124507.

CONTENTS Preface xi 1. ENERGY RESOURCES AND THEIR UTILISATION 1 26 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Energy Resources 1 1.2.1 Classification of Energy Resources 2 1.3 Types of Energy Resources 3 1.3.1 Thermal Energy 3 1.3.2 Hydel Energy 4 1.3.3 Nuclear Energy 5 1.3.4 Solar Energy 5 1.3.5 Wind Energy 6 1.3.6 Tidal Energy 8 1.3.7 Geothermal Energy 9 1.3.8 Ocean Energy 10 1.4 Energy Parameters 11 1.4.1 Energy Intensity 11 1.4.2 Energy Elasticity 12 1.5 Indian and Global Energy Resources 12 1.5.1 Significance of Non-Conventional Energy Resources 12 1.5.2 Energy Policy in India 13 1.5.3 World Energy Status 14 1.5.4 Indian Energy Scenario 15 1.6 Environment Aspects of Energy 25 1.6.1 Pollution 25 1.6.2 Greenhouse Effects 25 1.7 Energy Chain 26 2. SOLAR RADIATION 27 54 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 Radiation Spectrum from Sun and Earth 27 iii

iv CONTENTS 2.3 Extraterrestrial Radiation and Solar Constant 29 2.4 Latitude and Longitude 33 2.5 Basic Sun Earth Angles 34 2.6 Angle between Incident Beam and Normal to Inclined Surface (q) 37 2.7 Local Apparent Time 38 2.8 Sunrise, Sunset and Solar Day Length 39 2.9 Intensity of Terrestrial Radiation 42 2.10 Solar Radiation Data 43 2.10.1 Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation ( H g ) on Horizontal Surface 44 2.10.2 Monthly Average Daily Diffuse Radiation on Horizontal Surface 45 2.10.3 Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation on Tilted Surface ( H T) 45 2.11 Measurements of Solar Radiation Data 50 3. SOLAR ENERGY 55 86 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 Solar Collectors 55 3.2.1 Classification of Solar Collectors 56 3.2.2 Flat Plate Collector 59 3.2.3 Modified Flat Plate Collector 60 3.2.4 Compound Parabolic Concentrator 61 3.2.5 Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator 61 3.2.6 Linear Fresnel Lens Collector 62 3.2.7 Fixed Mirror Solar Concentrator 63 3.2.8 Paraboloidal Dish Collector 64 3.2.9 Hemispherical Bowl Mirror Concentrator 64 3.2.10 Circular Fresnel Lens Concentrator 65 3.2.11 Central Tower Receiver Collector 66 3.2.12 Comparison between Flat and Focussing Collectors 66 3.2.13 Orientation of Flat Plate Collector 67 3.2.14 Collector Performance Testing 67 3.3 Solar Energy Storage 69 3.3.1 Classification of Solar Energy Storage System 69 3.3.2 Sensible Heat Storage 70 3.3.3 Latent Heat Storage 72 3.4 Solar Pond 74 3.5 Solar Water Heater 75 3.6 Solar Thermal Pump 76 3.7 Solar Furnace 77 3.8 Solar Passive Heating 78 3.9 Solar Passive Space Cooling 79 3.10 Solar Refrigeration and Cooling System 80 3.11 Solar Vapour Compression Refrigeration and Cooling 82 3.12 Solar Cookers 83 3.13 Solar Distillation 84 3.14 Solar Thermal Power Plants 84 3.15 Solar Greenhouse 85

CONTENTS v 4. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM 87 105 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 Solar Cell Fundamentals 87 4.2.1 Semiconductors 88 4.2.2 Photovoltaic Effect 90 4.3 Solar Cell, Module, Panel and Array 91 4.3.1 Solar Cell 91 4.3.2 Solar PV Module 92 4.3.3 Solar PV Panel 93 4.3.4 Solar PV Array 93 4.4 Solar Cell Characteristics 94 4.4.1 Voltage Current Characteristic of p-n Junction (Solar Cell) 95 4.4.2 Energy Losses of Solar Cell 97 4.4.3 Maximising the Performance 99 4.5 Materials for Solar Cells 100 4.6 Solar PV Systems 102 4.6.1 Central Power Station System 102 4.6.2 Stand-Alone System 102 4.6.3 Grid Interactive Solar PV System 103 4.6.4 Small Consumer Systems 103 4.6.5 Hybrid Solar PV System 104 4.6.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of PV System 104 4.6.7 Solar PV System and Cost 104 4.6.8 Solar PV Programme in India 105 4.6.9 Energy Payback Period of a Solar Cell 105 5. BIOGAS 106 127 5.1 Introduction 106 5.2 Photosynthesis 106 5.3 Biomass 107 5.3.1 Biofuels 107 5.3.2 Biomass Resources 109 5.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Biomass Energy 109 5.4 Biogas 110 5.4.1 Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes 110 5.4.2 Anaerobic Digestion 110 5.4.3 Classification of Biogas Plants 114 5.4.4 Application of Biogas in IC Engine 118 5.4.5 Models of Biogas Plants 118 5.4.6 Biogas Plant in Hilly Area 118 5.4.7 By-Product of Digestion 119 5.4.8 Location of Biogas Plant 120 5.4.9 Size of Biogass Plant 120 5.4.10 Problems and Constraints in the Use of Biogas 121 5.4.11 Community Biogas Plants 122 5.5 Biomass Conversion Technologies 122 5.5.1 Biomass Gasification 124 5.5.2 Energy Recovery from Urban Waste by Landfill Reactors 124 5.5.3 Power Generation from Liquid Waste 125 5.5.4 Biomass Resource Development and Energy Plantation 126 5.5.5 Biomass Energy Programme in India 127

vi CONTENTS 6. WIND ENERGY 128 160 6.1 Introduction 128 6.2 Origin of Winds 128 6.2.1 Global Winds 129 6.2.2 Local Winds 129 6.2.3 Distribution of Wind Energy 129 6.2.4 Nature of Wind 130 6.2.5 Meterological Data about Wind Speed 130 6.2.6 Wind Speed Variations with Height 132 6.3 Wind Turbine Siting 134 6.4 Wind Turbine Aerodynamics 134 6.4.1 Energy Available in Wind 134 6.4.2 Terms and Definitions of Fluid Mechanics 135 6.4.3 Principle of Power Generation 139 6.4.4 Axial Thrust on Turbine 143 6.4.5 Torque Generated by Wind Turbine 145 6.4.6 Tip Speed Ratio for Maximum Output 146 6.4.7 Aerodynamic Considerations 147 6.5 Types of Windmills 150 6.5.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine 150 6.5.2 Rotors of HAWT 152 6.5.3 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine 153 6.5.4 Rotor of VAWT 154 6.5.5 Comparison of HAWT and VAWT 155 6.5.6 Savonius Rotor 156 6.5.7 Darrieus Rotor 156 6.6 Wind Energy Storage 157 6.7 Environmental Impacts of Wind Turbines 157 6.8 Recent Development 158 6.9 Wind Energy Programme in India 159 7. ELECTROCHEMICAL EFFECTS AND FUEL CELLS 161 178 7.1 Introduction 161 7.2 Fuel and Oxidant 161 7.2.1 Primary and Secondary Fuel Cells 164 7.3 Fuel Cell 164 7.3.1 Principle of Fuel Cell 164 7.3.2 Efficiency of Fuel Cell 166 7.3.3 Types of Fuel Cells 169 7.3.4 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell 172 7.3.5 Alkaline Fuel Cell 173 7.3.6 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell 174 7.3.7 Solid Oxide or Ceramics Fuel Cell 175 7.3.8 Regenerative Fuel Cell 176 7.3.9 Performance Limiting Factors of Fuel Cell 177 7.3.10 Losses of a Fuel Cell 177 7.3.11 Advantages and Limitations of a Fuel Cell 178 7.3.12 Application of a Fuel Cell 178

CONTENTS vii 8. HYDROGEN ENERGY 179 186 8.1 Introduction 179 8.2 Hydrogen as a Source of Renewable Energy 179 8.3 Production of Hydrogen 180 8.4 Storage of Hydrogen 182 8.4.1 Advances in Storage of Hydrogen 183 8.4.2 Hydrogen Powered Vehicles and Storage 184 8.4.3 Cost of Hydrogen Storage 184 8.4.4 Transportation or Delivery of Hydrogen 185 8.4.5 Hydrogen as Fuel and Safety Issues 185 8.4.6 Conversion of Hydrogen 186 8.4.7 Applications of Hydrogen 186 9. THERMOELECTRIC SYSTEMS FOR DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION 187 202 9.1 Introduction 187 9.2 Important Physical Effects 187 9.3 Thermoelectric Generator 190 9.3.1 Materials for a Thermoelectric Generator 192 9.3.2 Characteristics of a Thermoelectric Generator 192 9.3.3 Applications of a Thermoelectric Generator 192 9.4 Magnetohydrodynamic Power Conversion 193 9.4.1 Principle of Operation of an MHD Generator 193 9.4.2 MHD Generator 195 9.4.3 Seeding of Carrier Gas in MHD Generator 196 9.4.4 Overall Power Cycle with MHD Converter 196 9.4.5 MHD Systems 197 9.4.6 Open Cycle Systems 197 9.4.7 Closed Cycle System 198 9.4.8 Materials for MHD Generators 200 9.5 Thermionic Power Conversion 200 9.5.1 Merits of Thermionic Converter 201 9.5.2 Applications of the Thermionic Converter 201 10. TIDAL POWER 203 211 10.1 Introduction 203 10.2 Origin of Tides 203 10.3 Tidal Energy 205 10.3.1 Modes of Operation of Tidal Power Plant 207 10.3.2 Components of the Tidal Power Plant 207 10.3.3 Feasibility of the Tidal Power Plant 208 10.3.4 Merits of Tidal Energy 208 10.3.5 Limitations of Tidal Energy 208 10.4 Classification of Tidal Plant 209 10.4.1 Single Basin System 209 10.4.2 Double Basin System 210 10.5 Site Requirements 211 10.6 Tidal Power Development in India 211

viii CONTENTS 11. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 212 222 11.1 Introduction 212 11.2 Resources of Geothermal Energy 212 11.3 Geothermal Power Plants 214 11.3.1 Hydrothermal Resources 214 11.3.2 Hot Dry Rock Resource 217 11.3.3 Comparison of Geothermal Power Plant with Convention Thermal Power Plant 218 11.3.4 Non-Electrical Applications of Geothermal Energy 218 11.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy 219 11.3.6 Materials for Geothermal Plant Equipment 219 11.3.7 Environmental Problems from Geothermal Energy 220 11.3.8 Criteria for Selection of Geothermal Site 220 11.3.9 Potential of Geothermal Energy in India 221 11.3.10 Exploration and Development of Geothermal Resources 221 12. WAVE ENERGY 223 230 12.1 Introduction 223 12.2 Wave Energy and Power 223 12.3 Wave Energy Devices 228 12.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wave Energy 230 13. OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY 231 235 13.1 Introduction 231 13.2 Working Principle of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 231 13.3 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems 233 13.4 Status of OTEC Plants 234 13.5 Merits and Demerits of OTEC Plant 234 14. ENVIRONMENT AND KYOTO PROTOCOL 236 238 14.1 Introduction 236 14.2 Environmental Aspects 236 14.2.1 Greenhouse Effect 236 14.2.2 Global Warming 237 14.3 Kyoto Protocol 237 15. SMALL HYDRO RESOURCE 239 248 15.1 Introduction 239 15.2 Conversion of Hydropower 240 15.2.1 Turbines 241 15.2.2 Speed Control of Turbines 241 15.2.3 Suitability of Turbines 242 15.3 Small Hydropower Plants 242 15.3.1 Demerits of Small Hydropower Sources 243 15.3.2 Merits of Small Hydropower Resources 243 15.3.3 Bulb Turbine 244 15.3.4 Components of a Small Hydropower Plant 244 15.3.5 Designing of a Micro Hydel Scheme 245

CONTENTS ix 15.4 Concept and Potential of Micro Hydel in India 246 15.5 Research and Development in India 246 15.6 Micro Hydropower for Socio-Economic Development 247 16. ENERGY MANAGEMENT 249 265 16.1 Introduction 249 16.2 Energy Economics 250 16.2.1 Definitions 250 16.2.2 Energy Commodities and Energy Resources 250 16.2.3 Energy Conversion Processes 251 16.2.4 Demand for Energy 251 16.2.5 Energy Demand Substitution 252 16.2.6 Energy Efficiency Standards to Optimise Consumer Choices 252 16.3 Energy Conservation 253 16.3.1 Aspects of Energy Conservation 253 16.3.2 Principles of Energy Conservation 254 16.3.3 Energy Conservation Act 256 16.3.4 Cogeneration 257 16.3.5 Combined or Binary Cycle Plants 258 16.4 Energy Management and Audit 260 16.4.1 Definition and Objectives of Energy Management 260 16.4.2 Energy Audit and Need 261 16.4.3 Types of Energy Audit 262 16.4.4 Preliminary Audit 262 16.4.5 Detailed Energy Audit 262 16.4.6 Methodology for Detailed Audit 263 16.4.7 Energy Efficiency in Indian Industry 264 16.4.8 Status of Energy-Efficient Technologies in India 264 BIBLIOGRAPHY 267 INDEX 269 272

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