ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...ii LIST OF FIGURES...xii LIST OF TABLES...xv LIST OF SYMBOLS...xvi CHAPTER 1:ABOUT THIS STUDY... 1 1.1 THESIS STATEMENT... 1 1.2 INTRODUCTION... 1 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES... 3 1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY... 4 1.5 RESEARCH SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS... 5 1.6 THESIS ORGANIZATION... 6 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW... 7 2.1 HISTORY OF BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION... 7 2.1.1 Ancient Structures... 8 2.1.1.1 Ancient Structural Principles... 8 2.1.1.2 Trial and Error... 9 2.1.1.3 The Earliest Beginnings... 9 2.1.1.4 Timber Bridges... 11 2.1.1.5 Stone Bridges... 12 2.1.1.6 Aqueducts and Viaducts... 13 2.1.1.7 Religious Symbolism... 17 2.1.1.8 Vitruvius De Architectura... 17 2.1.1.9 Contributions of Ancient Bridge Building... 18 2.1.2 The Middle Ages... 18 2.1.2.1 Preservation of Roman Knowledge... 19 2.1.2.2 Bridges in the Middle East and Asia... 19 2.1.2.3 Revival of European Bridge Building... 19 2.1.2.4 Construction and History of Old London Bridge... 20 2.1.2.5 The Pont d Avignon... 22 2.1.2.6 Further Notable Medieval Bridges... 23 2.1.2.7 Purpose of Medieval Bridges... 27 2.1.2.8 Contributions of Medieval Bridge Building... 28 iv
2.1.3 The Renaissance... 29 2.1.3.1 Renaissance Trusses... 29 2.1.3.2 Palladio s I Quattro Libri dell'architettura... 30 2.1.3.3 Veranzio s Machinae Novae... 31 2.1.3.4 The Rialto Bridge... 31 2.1.3.5 French Renaissance Bridge Building... 33 2.1.3.6 English Renaissance Bridge Building... 36 2.1.3.7 Contributions of Renaissance Bridge Building... 37 2.1.4 The Industrial Revolution... 38 2.1.4.1 The Ironbridge... 38 2.1.4.2 Early Iron Structures... 40 2.1.4.3 Early Suspension Bridges... 42 2.1.4.4 The Menai Strait Bridge... 43 2.1.4.5 The Britannia Bridge... 44 2.1.4.6 Covered Bridges... 46 2.1.4.7 Railway Bridges... 47 2.1.4.8 Failure of the Tay Bridge... 49 2.1.4.9 Contributions of Bridge Building during the Industrial Revolution... 50 2.1.5 The Great Bridges... 52 2.1.5.1 The St. Louis Bridge... 52 2.1.5.2 The Brooklyn Bridge... 53 2.1.5.3 The Forth Rail Bridge... 54 2.1.5.4 The George Washington Bridge... 56 2.1.5.5 Failure of the Quebec Bridge... 56 2.1.5.6 Failure of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge... 58 2.1.5.7 The Severn Bridge... 59 2.1.5.8 Contributions of Bridge Building between Nineteenth and Twentieth Century... 61 2.1.6 The Era of Concrete Bridges and Beyond... 61 2.1.6.1 Concrete Characteristics... 62 2.1.6.2 Early Concrete Structures... 63 2.1.6.3 Concrete Arch Bridges... 63 2.1.6.4 Prestressed Concrete Bridges... 64 2.1.6.5 Concrete Bridges after the Second World War... 65 2.1.6.6 Cable-Stayed Bridges... 66 2.1.6.7 Recent Bridge Projects... 73 2.1.6.8 Contributions of Modern Concrete Bridge Construction... 74 2.2 FUTURE CHALLENGES IN BRIDGE ENGINEERING... 75 2.2.1 Improvements in Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Rehabilitation... 76 2.2.1.1 Improvements in Design... 76 2.2.1.2 Improvements in Construction... 77 v
2.2.1.3 Improvements in Maintenance and Rehabilitation... 78 2.2.1.4 Smart Bridges... 79 2.2.2 High-Performance Materials... 80 2.2.2.1 Strength and Other Mechanical Properties... 81 2.2.2.2 Workability... 81 2.2.2.3 Durability... 82 2.2.2.4 Composites... 82 2.2.3 Innovative Structural Concepts... 83 2.2.3.1 Enhancing Existing Structural Concepts... 84 2.2.3.2 Combination of Existing Structural Concepts... 86 2.2.3.3 Development of New Structural Concepts... 88 2.2.3.3.1 Kinetic Structures... 88 2.2.3.3.2 Underwater Bridges... 89 2.2.3.3.3 Stress Ribbon Bridges... 89 2.2.3.3.4 Multiuse Bridges... 90 2.2.3.3.5 High-Art Bridges... 90 2.2.3.3.6 Spatial Structures... 91 2.2.3.3.7 Concrete Trusswork... 92 2.2.3.3.8 Bioengineering... 93 2.2.4 Conclusion... 94 CHAPTER 3: THE DESIGN PROCESS OF SEGMENTAL BRIDGES... 95 3.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY... 95 3.1.1 The Nature of Engineering... 96 3.1.2 Current Issues in Engineering Education... 97 3.1.3 Functional Requirements for Structures and Interdependencies... 98 3.1.4 Design against Failure... 101 3.1.5 The Design Process... 102 3.1.5.1 Creativity at Work... 102 3.1.5.2 Conceptual Design... 103 3.1.5.3 Analysis and Dimensioning... 104 3.1.5.4 Design Process According to Leonhardt... 104 3.2 CONSTRUCTION PROJECT CHARACTERISTICS... 106 3.2.1 Project Life-Cycle... 107 3.2.2 Resource Utilization... 108 3.2.2.1 Economy... 109 3.2.2.2 Ecology... 110 vi
3.2.2.3 The Linn Cove Viaduct... 110 3.3 AESTHETICS AND ENGINEERING... 111 3.3.1 Aesthetic Values... 111 3.3.2 Character and Function... 112 3.3.3 Proportions and Harmony... 113 3.3.4 Complexity and Order... 115 3.3.5 Color and Texture... 116 3.3.6 Environmental Scale... 119 3.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION... 119 3.4.1 Environmental Factors... 120 3.4.1.1 Soil Conditions... 121 3.4.1.2 Topography... 121 3.4.1.3 River Crossing... 121 3.4.1.4 Protection of the Environment... 122 3.4.1.5 Climate... 122 3.4.2 Technical Factors... 123 3.4.2.1 Structural Type and Erection Method... 123 3.4.2.2 Construction Details... 124 3.4.3 Labor Factors... 124 3.4.4 Owner Needs... 125 3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING... 125 3.5.1 Modeling Reality... 126 3.5.2 Factor of Safety... 128 3.5.3 Structural Analysis... 131 3.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF CAST-IN-PLACE SEGMENTAL CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION... 133 3.6.1 Segmental Construction... 133 3.6.2 Cantilevering Method... 134 3.6.2.1 Cantilevering Defined... 138 3.6.2.2 Low Strength of Young Concrete... 139 3.6.2.3 Prestress Losses Through Elastic Shortening... 141 3.6.2.4 Prestress Losses Through Time-Dependent Effects... 142 3.6.2.5 Redistribution of Internal Forces... 143 3.6.2.6 Further Considerations... 144 3.6.2.7 Importance of Accounting for Prestress Losses and Conclusion... 145 3.6.3 Cast-In-Place Construction... 147 3.6.3.1 Cast-In-Place Construction Applied to Cantilevering... 148 3.6.3.2 Quality Control... 150 3.6.3.3 Durability... 150 vii
3.6.3.4 Camber... 150 3.7 CONSTRUCTABILITY OF BOX GIRDERS... 151 3.7.1 Characteristics of Box Girders... 151 3.7.1.1 Webs... 152 3.7.1.2 Diaphragms... 153 3.7.1.3 Structural Behavior... 153 3.7.2 Implementation of Box Girders... 154 3.7.2.1 Width... 154 3.7.2.2 Depth... 155 3.7.2.3 Span Length... 155 3.7.2.4 Durability... 155 3.7.2.5 Appearance... 156 CHAPTER 4: THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF SEGMENTAL BRIDGES... 157 4.1 DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSED SEGMENTAL BRIDGES... 157 4.1.1 Degree of Prestressing... 158 4.1.2 Pre-Tensioning... 159 4.1.3 Post-Tensioning... 159 4.2 CONCRETE BRIDGE ERECTION TECHNIQUES... 160 4.2.1 Cantilevering Method... 161 4.2.1.1 Precast Construction... 162 4.2.1.2 Cast-In-Place Construction... 165 4.2.1.3 Balanced Cantilever Construction... 167 4.2.1.4 Progressive Placement Method... 169 4.2.1.5 The Linn Cove Viaduct... 170 4.2.1.6 Concluding the Cantilevering Process... 171 4.2.2 Cantilever Erection Equipment... 173 4.2.2.1 Form Travelers... 173 4.2.2.2 Launching Girders... 175 4.2.2.2.1 Launching Girder Slightly Longer Than One Span... 176 4.2.2.2.2 Launching Girder Slightly Longer Than Two Spans... 178 4.2.3 Incremental Launching... 179 4.2.4 Falsework... 183 4.2.4.1 Stationary Falsework... 184 4.2.4.2 Traveling Falsework... 185 4.2.4.3 Temporary Towers... 185 4.2.5 Span-By-Span Erection... 186 viii
4.3 CONSIDERATION OF CONSTRUCTION LOADS AND STRESSES... 187 4.3.1 Types of Construction Loads and Influences... 189 4.3.1.1 The Zilwaukee Bridge... 191 4.3.1.2 The West Gate Bridge... 193 4.3.2 Influence of Erection Method and Construction Sequence... 194 4.3.3 Existing Codes and Regulations... 196 4.3.3.1 American Concrete Institute... 197 4.3.3.2 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials... 197 4.3.3.3 American Society for Testing and Materials... 201 4.3.3.4 American Welding Society... 201 4.3.3.5 Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute... 201 4.3.3.6 Other Institutions... 202 4.3.3.7 Federal Highway Administration... 202 4.3.3.8 Owner Specifications... 203 CHAPTER 5: CASE STUDY THE WILSON CREEK BRIDGE... 204 5.1 PROJECT CONCEPTUALIZATION... 204 5.1.1 General Project Overview... 204 5.1.2 Smart Road Project... 205 5.1.3 Objective of Smart Road and Overview... 206 5.1.4 Regional Traffic Infrastructure... 207 5.1.5 Bridge Overview... 208 5.1.6 Parties Involved... 209 5.1.7 Contractual Provisions... 210 5.1.8 Financial Provisions... 212 5.2 PROJECT DESIGN... 214 5.2.1 Member Designation... 214 5.2.2 Member Geometry... 215 5.2.2.1 Foundations... 215 5.2.2.2 Abutments... 216 5.2.2.3 Pier Shafts... 216 5.2.2.4 Pier Tables... 219 5.2.2.5 Superstructure... 219 5.2.2.6 Surrounding and Incidental Works... 222 5.2.3 Change in Design... 222 5.2.4 Quantities of Construction Materials... 224 5.2.5 Reinforcement and Related Details... 226 ix
5.2.5.1 Concrete Cover... 226 5.2.5.2 Prestressing Tendons, Tendon Ducts, and Anchorages... 226 5.2.5.3 Segment Reinforcing Schedule... 230 5.2.6 Further Construction Details... 230 5.2.6.1 Bearings... 231 5.2.6.2 Expansion Joints... 231 5.2.6.3 Accessory Details and Finishing... 231 5.2.7 Plan Documents, Structural Calculations, and Construction Manuals... 233 5.2.7.1 Plans... 233 5.2.7.2 Structural Calculations... 234 5.2.7.3 Geometry Control Manual... 234 5.2.8 Architectural Considerations... 235 5.3 PROJECT CONSTRUCTION... 236 5.3.1 Site Layout and Subsurface Conditions... 237 5.3.2 Site Preparation... 238 5.3.3 Foundation Construction, Drainage System, and Earthwork... 239 5.3.4 Substructure Construction... 240 5.3.4.1 Abutments... 240 5.3.4.2 Pier Shafts... 240 5.3.5 Change in Construction... 242 5.3.6 Superstructure Construction... 245 5.3.6.1 Pier Tables... 245 5.3.6.2 Form Travelers... 246 5.3.6.3 Other Construction Equipment... 250 5.3.7 Segment Casting Cycle... 251 5.3.8 Cantilevering Sequence... 255 5.3.9 Surveying and Construction Tolerances... 256 5.4 DISCUSSION OF CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES... 258 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION... 260 6.1 SUMMARY... 260 6.2 CONTRIBUTIONS... 268 6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS... 269 x
REFERENCES...270 BIBLIOGRAPHY...280 APPENDIX A: LIST OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS...284 APPENDIX B: CASTING CYCLE FOR WILSON CREEK BRIDGE...288 VITA...292 xi