Synergies in Child Nutrition: Interactions Among Health & Environment, Care Practices, and Food Emmanuel Skoufias The World Bank Group January 2016 Outline 1. Motivation 2. Contributions of study 3. The UNICEF Conceptual Framework 4. Operationalizing the UNICEF Framework Countries and data sources Ideal vs. available data 5. Prevalence of Adequate F, C, HE 6. Evolution of stunting rates and Prevalence of Adequacy in F, C and HE 7. Synergies 8. Take-Aways & Policy Considerations 2
Motivation Increases in real GDP and income are insufficient for reductions in child malnutrition. The determinants of malnutrition are multisectoral and the solution to malnutrition requires multi-sectoral approaches. Nutrition-sensitive interventions in different sectors e.g. agriculture, health, water & sanitation. 3 Contributions of the study Identifies data limitations and areas for improvement Among the first comprehensive investigations Informs broad policy design & choices Systematic Diagnostic of the main correlates and determinants of malnutrition Identifies potential binding constraints (e.g. inadequate H&E, or Care, or Food) in reducing malnutrition Evidence on synergies: more rigorous justification for multi-sectoral interventions 4
The UNICEF conceptual framework The UNICEF framework (UNICEF 1990) highlights the role of 3 main underlying causes a) food security, b) child care practices, and c) Environment & Health play in child nutrition. One of the fundamental ideas underpinning this conceptual framework is that there are substantial interactions and synergies among food security, health environment, and care. 5 Intergenerational consequences Short-term consequences: Mortality, morbidity, disability Long-term consequences: Adult height, cognitive ability, economic productivity, reproductive performance, overweight and obesity, metabolic and cardiovascular diseases MATERNAL AND CHILD UNDERNUTRITION IMMEDIATE causes Inadequate dietary intake Diseases UNDERLYING causes Household food security Inadequate care and feeding practices Unhealthy household environment and inadequate health services Household access to access to adequate quantity and quality of resources: Land, education, employment, income, technology BASIC causes Inadequate financial, human, physical and social capital Social cultural, economic and political context
Source: the Executive Summary of The Lancet Maternal and Child Nutrition Series 2013. Operationalizing the UNICEF framework Review: the ideal data/info needed (from nutrition discipline) contrasted against the data available from surveys Definition of "adequacy" in F, C and H&E: based on the underlying components using thresholds based on accepted international standards 8
Thresholds for Adequacies 1. USAID (2012) Maternal Dietary diversity and the implications for children s diets in the context of food security. USAID s Infant and Young Child Nutrition project www.iycn.org 2. WHO (2013) Table 2, Summary of WHO Position papersrecommended routine immunizations for children 3. WHO and UNICEF (2006) Core questions on drinkingwater and sanitation for household surveys 4. WHO (2008) Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices part I: definition 5. UNICEF (1990) UNICEF Strategy of improved nutrition of children and women in developing countries A UNICEF Policy Review, New York 9 Table 1: Countries and Data Sources Region Country - data source Bangladesh (Helen Keller 2010, 2011 and IFPRI 2011) SAR Nepal (DHS 2001 and 2011) Bolivia (DHS 2003 and 2008) LAC Peru (DHS 2005 and 2012) Cambodia (DHS 2005 and 2010) EAP SSA Indonesia (Riskesdas 2010) Ethiopia (DHS 2000 and 2011) Zimbabwe (DHS 2005 and 2010)
Context and Data Most samples are mainly rural, apart from Bolivia, Peru, Zimbabwe and Bangladesh (HK) for which urban make up one thirdto half of the sample. 11 Table 2: Components of Food Security Ideal Indicators Children's Dietary Diversity Score Mom s Dietary Diversity Score Minimum Acceptable Diet (for children 6-24 months) Food Insecurity Experience Scale Household Hunger Scale Coping Strategy Index Relative prices of different food groups AVAILABLE Yes (Not HK) No Yes No (Only HK) No No No PROXIES IF IDEAL INDICATORS ARE NOT AVAILABLE Household Dietary Diversity Score (for child/mom) Helen Keller Starchy Staple Ratio or the Fraction f household Calories Derived from Starchy Staples Notes: There are also population based measures such as the percent of households who cannot afford a balanced diet, and the percent of people lacking access to calories
Components of adequate food Child s dietary diversity of 4 or more from 7 food types Household level food insecurity (Helen Keller) Minimum meal frequencies Minimum acceptable diet (6-24 months) 13 Table 3: Components of Care IDEAL AVAILABLE Workload and time availability of caregiver Social support for caregiver Psychosocial care Caring Behaviors: Breast-feeding Caring Behaviors: Health seeking Caring Behaviors: Complementary feeding Caring Behaviors: Hygiene Caring Behaviors: Child feeding index No No No Yes No Yes No No Notes: Another important indicator of care is maternal education through there is no consensus about the threshold (or level of education) for adequate
Components of adequate care (mostly behavioral) Exclusive breastfeeding under 6 months Initial breastfeeding within 1-3 hours of birth (Bolivia & Peru DHS >=3 hrs only) Intro of complementary feeding during 6-8 months (solid, semi-solid, or soft foods) Continued breastfeeding until 24 months 15 Table 4: Components of Environmental Health IDEAL Access to safe water Access to improved sanitation Community level sanitation Use of prenatal services Age appropriate immunization status AVAILABLE Yes Yes (except Bolivia) Yes (except Bolivia, Ethiopia, Indonesia, and HK) Yes (except Indonesia) Yes (except HK) Vitamin A supplementation status (typically for children 6 months and older) Yes (except Indonesia, Bolivia) ORS use for treatment of diarrhea No Notes: A population-based measure is the percent of the populations receiving antibiotic treatment for pneumonia
Components of adequate health & environment Adequate household sanitation (see appendix) Adequate village level sanitation (> 75%) Safe drinking water source (see appendix) Complete vaccinations Prenatal check-ups 4 or more Vitamin A supplement for child (tablet, drops) [Peru?] 17 Message 1: There are major gaps in data collected by DHS and other nutrition-related surveys Fewer data gaps for health & environment but more data gaps for food and care
Adequacies Bangladesh (HK) 100 90 80 Percentage % 70 60 50 40 30 29 50 2010 20 10 0 Adequate food Adequate care 13 Adequate environment 19 100 90 Adequacies Resource-rich vs. Resource-poor Bangladesh 2010 (HK) 80 Percentage % 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 38 13 50 52 17 5 Resource-rich Resource-poor 0 Adequate foodadequate care Adequate environment 20
Adequacy in food Quite low and Improvements in Cambodia, Peru, Zimbabwe; Large increase in Bolivia (?) Decline in Bangladesh 21 Components of Adequate Food Percentage of children who meet criteria 45 55 72 50 51 31 80 67 54 13 49 22 86 69 33 78 66 30 67 37 86 81 66 40 30 26 BGD (HK, '11) BOL ('08) IDN (RKD, '10) NPL ('11) ZWE ('10) BGD (IFPRI, '11) ETH ('11) KHM ('10) PER ('12) Dietary diversity > 5 months Meal frequency Exclusively breastfed < 6 months Food security Source: Author estimates. Note: (1) Dietary diversity: 4 out of 7 food groups. In Indonesia based on household (not child specific) dietary diversity; (2) Meal frequency depends on age
Figure 5b: The Evolution of Access to Adequate Food Security Prevalence of Adequacy in Food Percentage of children who meet criteria 57 51 34 29 14 BGD, HK BOL BGD, IFPRI 12 12 ETH 68 IDN 31 34 KHM 29 28 NPL 43 46 PER 15 22 ZWE Year 1 Year 2 Source: Author estimates. Data for Bangladesh from 2010 (HK) and 2011 (HK, IFPRI); Bolivia 2003, 2008; Cambodia 2005, 2010; Ethiopia 2000, 2011; Indonesia 2010; Nepal 2000, 2011; Peru 2005, 2012; Zimbabwe 2005, 2010. Note: (1) Bangladesh (HK) includes food security but no information on meal frequencies. (2) Bolivia (2003) does not include information on dietary diversity. (3) Indonesia (RKD) only has information on household level dietery diversity, and no information on meal frequencies. Figure 5c: Adequate Food Security by Household Wealth Prevalence of Adequacy of Food By wealth Percentage of children who meet criteria 13 38 34 34 47 53 12 13 67 68 32 37 25 29 46 47 BGD (HK, '10) BOL ('08) IDN ('10) NPL ('11) ZWE ('10) BGD (IFPRI, 11) ETH ('11) KHM ('10) PER ('12) 18 25 Resource Poor Resource Rich Source: Author estimates. Note: (1) Bangladesh (HK) include food security but not information on minimum acceptable diet. (2) Indonesia (RKD) only has information on household level diatery diversity, nothing else.
Adequacy in care: High overall and increased significantly over time e.g. Cambodia, Ethiopia, Nepal, Peru, Bangladesh 25 Percentage of children who meet criteria 55 68 69 91 51 100 96 67 80 80 78 BGD (HK, '11) BOL ('08) BGD (IFPRI, '11) Components of Adequate Care 49 51 50 83 69 48 100 78 69 59 82 67 45 44 IDN (RKD, '10) NPL ('11) ETH ('11) KHM ('10) 98 81 74 86 80 30 63 84 82 ZWE ('10) PER ('12) Exclusive breastfeeding Complementary feedings Early breastfeeding initiation Breast-fed up to 24 months Source: Author estimates. Note: (1) Exclusive breastfeeding for first 6 months; (2) Complementary feedings for 6- to 8-month olds; (3) Breastfeeding within 1 hour of birth (100 minutes for Bolivia and Peru); (4) Breast-fed for 24 months or currently breastfeeding if less than 24 months.
Figure 6b: The Evolution of Access to Adequate Care Prevalence of Adequacy in Care 84 59 59 55 50 BGD, HK BOL BGD, IFPRI 37 36 28 IDN ETH 28 52 KHM 24 38 NPL 55 61 PER 36 39 ZWE Year 1 Year 2 Source: Author estimates. Data for Bangladesh from 2010 (HK) and 2011 (HK, IFPRI); Bolivia 2003, 2008; Cambodia 2005, 2010; Ethiopia 2000, 2011; Indonesia 2010; Nepal 2000, 2011; Peru 2005, 2012; Zimbabwe 2005, 2010. Note: (1) In Peru and Bolivia early initiation of breastfeeding is within 100 minutes, not within 60 minutes as in others. (2) Bolivia 2003 does not include information on Vitamin A supplemenation. (3) Bangladesh (HK, 2011) does not include information on vaccinations. (4) Bangladesh (IFPRI) does not include information on early initiation of breastfeeding Figure 6c: Access to Adequate Care by Household Wealth Prevalence of Adequacy of Care By wealth Percentage of children who meet criteria 52 50 89 81 64 56 BGD, HK '10 BOL '08 BGD, IFPRI '11 39 37 ETH '11 40 34 IDN '10 54 51 KHM '10 36 39 NPL '11 72 52 PER '12 40 38 ZWE '10 Resource Poor Resource Rich Source: Author estimates. Note: (1) In Peru and Bolivia early initiation of breastfeeding is within 100 minutes, not within 60 minutes as in others. (2) Bangladesh (IFPRI) does not include information on early initiation of breastfeeding (3) Indonesia does not include information on complementary feeds for 6 to 8 month olds.
Components of Adequate Health Percentage of children who meet criteria 23 53 80 26 72 80 72 67 BGD (HK, '11) BOL ('08) BGD (IFPRI, '11) 15 28 47 17 80 64 58 IDN (RKD, '10) ETH ('11) KHM ('10) 72 55 30 NPL ('11) 95 76 10 PER ('12) 66 61 60 ZWE ('10) Adequate vaccinations Vitamin A supplementation 4+ prenatal visits Source: Author estimates. Note: For Bangladesh (HK) Vitamin A supplementation is only for children over 6 months. Figure 7c: The Evolution of Access to Adequate Environment Prevalence of Adequacy in Environment Percentage of children who meet criteria 81 71 45 17 14 BGD, HK BOL BGD, IFPRI 0 1 ETH 49 IDN 5 10 KHM 2 16 NPL 32 38 PER 36 31 ZWE Year 1 Year 2 Source: Author estimates. Data for Bangladesh from 2010 (HK) and 2011 (HK, IFPRI); Bolivia 2003, 2008; Cambodia 2005, 2010; Ethiopia 2000, 2011; Indonesia 2010; Nepal 2000, 2011; Peru 2005, 2012; Zimbabwe 2005, 2010. Note: (1) Bolivia (2003 and 2008) do not include improved sanitation. (2) Ethiopia, Nepal, Bolivia, and Indonesia do not include community sanitation.
Figure 7e: Access to Adequate Environment by Household Wealth Prevalence of Adequacy of Environment By wealth Percentage of children who meet criteria 8 22 38 50 63 94 0 1 BGD, HK '10 BGD, IFPRI '11 BOL '08 ETH '11 Resource Poor 57 54 50 41 20 17 11 7 4 0 IDN '10 NPL '11 ZWE '10 KHM '10 PER '12 Resource Rich Source: Author estimates. Note: (1) Bolivia does not include improved sanitation. (2) Ethiopia, Nepal, Bolivia, and Indonesia do not include community sanitation. Figure 7d: The Evolution of Access to Adequate Health Services Prevalence of Adequacy in Health Percentage of children who meet criteria 78 42 21 18 16 BGD, HK BOL BGD, IFPRI 4 5 ETH 18 IDN 4 35 KHM 13 13 8 0 NPL PER 22 27 ZWE Year 1 Year 2 Source: Author estimates. Data for Bangladesh from 2010 (HK) and 2011 (HK, IFPRI); Bolivia 2003, 2008; Cambodia 2005, 2010; Ethiopia 2000, 2011; Indonesia 2010; Nepal 2000, 2011; Peru 2005, 2012; Zimbabwe 2005, 2010. Note: (1) Bangladesh (IFPRI) has Vitamin A supplementation for 6 to 24 month olds only. (2) Indonesia does not have information on prenatal checkups or Vitamin A supplementation.
Figure 7f: Access to Adequate Health Services by Household Wealth Prevalence of Adequacy of Health By wealth Percentage of children who meet criteria 13 25 11 22 BGD, HK '10 BGD, IFPRI '11 BOL '08 ETH '11 38 47 2 6 Resource Poor 38 31 30 22 17 19 14 14 9 4 IDN '10 NPL '11 ZWE '10 KHM '10 PER '12 Resource Rich Source: Author estimates. Note: (1) Bangladesh (IFPRI) has Vitamin A supplementation for 6 to 24 month olds only. (2) Indonesia does not have information on prenatal checkups or Vitamin A supplementation. Message 2 Ranking (in most countries) of % of pop w/ adequate: 1. Care 2. Food Security 3. Health & Environment The low ranking of Health & Environment is not due to poor data or bad measurements Community level of sanitation is the most lagging component of adequate Health and Environment in ALL countries 34
Evolution of Chronic Malnutrition & Adequacies in F, C, & EH Stunting High but has decreased significantly over time for both 0-5 yr old children and 0-2 yr olds 35 Stunting in children 0 to 23 months Based on official DHS estimates when available 44 42 Percentage of children with HAZ < -2 SD 0 10 20 30 40 32 30 37 25 20 29 27 31 30 26 22 17 30 26 Bangladesh (HK) Bolivia Bangladesh (IFPRI) Cambodia Ethiopia Nepal Indonesia (RKD) Peru Zimbabwe Stunting year 1 Stunting year 2 Source: Author estimates. Data for Bangladesh from 2010 (HK) and 2011 (HK, IFPRI); Bolivia 2003, 2008; Cambodia 2005, 2010; Ethiopia 2000, 2011; Indonesia 2010 (RKD); Nepal 2000, 2011; Peru 2005, 2012; Zimbabwe 2005, 2010
Stunting in children 0 to 59 months Based on official DHS estimates when available Percentage of children with HAZ < -2 SD 0 20 40 60 36 33 43 32 27 43 40 58 44 34 57 41 29 18 35 32 Bangladesh (HK) Bolivia Bangladesh (IFPRI) Cambodia Ethiopia Nepal Indonesia (RKD) Peru Zimbabwe Stunting year 1 Stunting year 2 Source: Author estimates. Data for Bangladesh from 2010 (HK) and 2011 (HK, IFPRI); Bolivia 2003, 2008; Cambodia 2005, 2010; Ethiopia 2000, 2011; Indonesia 2010 (RKD); Nepal 2000, 2011; Peru 2005, 2012; Zimbabwe 2005, 2010 Stunting in children 0 to 23 or 35 months Percentage of children with HAZ < -2 SD 0 10 20 30 40 50 42 26 44 32 35 16 37 35 32 28 28 25 47 30 20 6 25 22 BGD, HK BGD, IFPRI BOL* ETH* IDN KHM NPL* PER* ZWE Resource poor Resource rich Source: Author estimates. Data for Bangladesh from 2010 (HK) and 2011 (IFPRI); Bolivia 2008; Cambodia 2010; Ethiopia 2011; Indonesia 2010 (RKD); Nepal 2011; Peru 2012; Zimbabwe 2010. *Stunting for under 36 month olds. The rest under 24 month olds.
Message 3: Correlation (and likely causation) between decline in stunting and increases in prevalence of adequacies in F, C, and H&E In the past few years efforts on reducing malnutrition have concentrated on care (C) Hardly any progress towards improving health & environment (H&E) Mixed/spotty record on improving food adequacy 39 Synergies Some background 40
14% 2% 34% Percentage of children who meet criteria Adequacy status in Zimbabwe (2010) 47 23 15 8 6 2 None Care only Two of three adequacies Food only Environmental health only All three adequacies Source: Author estimates. Figure 9: Adequacy status Recent year Bangladesh (HK, 2010) Bangladesh (IFPRI, 2011) Bolivia (2008) Cambodia (2010) 3% 20% 3% 13% 24% 0% 36% 39% Ethiopia (2011) Indonesia (RKD, 2010) Nepal (2011) Peru (2012) 6% 0% 3% 1% 33% Zimbabwe (2010) 15% 2% None Food Care Env & Health Two of three All three Source: Author estimates.
Figure 10a: Adequacy status - Resource-poor Recent year Bangladesh (HK, 2010) Bangladesh (IFPRI, 2011) Bolivia (2008) Cambodia (2010) 11% 3% 11% 3% 42% 34% 41% 52% 3% 38% 9% 19% 9% 20% 5% 22% 32% 10% 36% Ethiopia (2011) Indonesia (RKD, 2010) Nepal (2011) Peru (2012) 33% 6% 55% 33% 3% 25% 1% 12%1% 21% 40% 24% 49% 7% 6% 1% 6% 31% 14% 32% Zimbabwe (2010) 11% None Food 29% 53% Care Env & Health 7% Two of three All three Source: Author estimates. Figure 10b: Adequacy status - Resource-rich Recent year Bangladesh (HK, 2010) Bangladesh (IFPRI, 2011) Bolivia (2008) Cambodia (2010) 5% 3% 16% 28% 24% 37% 6% 12% 41% 25% 2% 39% 15% 15% 9% 10% 11% 26% 4% 25% 32% 12% Ethiopia (2011) Indonesia (RKD, 2010) Nepal (2011) Peru (2012) 30% 1% 7% 4% 28% 6% 56% 33% 3% 1% 32% 15% 3% 1% 30% 30% 3% 42% 23% 1% 17% 14% 22% Zimbabwe (2010) 9% 4% 17% 18% 8% 44% None Food Care Env & Health Two of three All three Source: Author estimates.
. C, F, HE, Synergies, and HAZ Regression Model Estimated:. Interpretation of coefficients: conditional mean of HAZ given adequate access to 45. Synergies. The coefficient yields information on whether there are additional (extra) gains (or losses) in HAZ scores derived from access to adequate care only or access to adequate food only. A significant and positive value of the coefficient implies synergies from the simultaneous access to adequate care and adequate food security in the production of child nutrition. 46
Figure 11: Synergies among adequacies Coefficient estimate from Model B -.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 BGD, HK BGD, IFPRI BOL ETH IDN KHM NPL PER ZWE Environment & Food Food & Care Environment & Care Source: Author estimates. Data for Bangladesh (HK) 2010; Bangladesh (IPRI) 2011; Bolivia 2008; Cambodia 2010; Ethiopia 2011; Nepal 2011; Peru 2012; Zimbabwe 2010 Figure 12: Total effects among adequacies Coefficient estimate from Model B -.5 0.5 1 1.5 BGD, HK BGD, IFPRI BOL ETH IDN KHM NPL PER ZWE Environment & Food Food & Care Environment & Care Source: Author estimates. Data for Bangladesh (HK) 2010; Bangladesh (IPRI) 2011; Bolivia 2008; Cambodia 2010; Ethiopia 2011; Nepal 2011; Peru 2012; Zimbabwe 2010
Message 4: Synergies among C, F, and HE, are strong. 18 out of 25 coefficients on synergy are positive 10 out of 18 positive coefficients are statistically significant Countries with malnutrition problems have a great potential in exploiting such synergies A renewed and perhaps more determined effort is needed in exploiting such synergies 49 Take-aways In most countries % of pop w/ adequate Care is the highest and H&E the lowest: 1. Care 2. Food Security 3. Health & Environment Correlation (and likely causation) between decline in stunting and increases in prevalence of adequacies in F, C, and HE In the past few years efforts on reducing malnutrition have concentrated on care Hardly any progress towards improving health & environment(e&h) Mixed/spotty record on improving food adequacy 50
Policy considerations Synergies among C, F, and HE, are strong. Countries with serious chronic malnutrition problems have a great potential in exploiting such synergies Need for more systematic data collection (closing the gaps in data collected by DHS and other nutrition-related surveys) Renewed effort is needed in exploiting such synergies on the policy arena Sector-specific nutrition-sensitive interventions are one way to take advantage of synergies present within specific sectors. BUT one must also ensure that the stronger synergies (highlighted in this study) derived from interactions across sectors are realized, (e.g. increases in the level of adequate Food or H&E). WHO within the World Bank or within countries? And HOW? Challenges posed for prioritization among broad sectoral policies Perhaps it is best to raise adequacy in C, F, and H&E, to some minimum level before prioritization among interventions against malnutrition becomes a meaningful concern 51 Thank you 52
Appendix Thresholds for water and sanitation 53 Improved Sources of drinking water Improved sources water Unimproved sources water Piped water into dwelling Piped water to yard/plot Public tap or standpipe Tubewell or borehole Protected dug well Protected spring Rainwater collection Source: WHO and UNICEF (2006) Core questions on drinking-water and sanitation for household surveys Unprotected spring Unprotected dug well Cart with small tank/drum Tanker-truck Surface water (river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal, irrigation channels) Bottled water; bottled water is improved only if a secondary source of improved water for other uses (personal hygiene and cooking)-- DHS does not distinguish so put it in unimproved 54
Improved Sanitation * Improved sanitation facilities Flush toilet Piped sewer system Septic tank Pit latrine Special case flush/pour flush to unknown place/not sure/dk where as respondents might not know if their toilet is connected to a sewer or septic tank Ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP) Pit latrine with slab Composting toilet Unimproved sanitation facilities Flush/pour flush to elsewhere Pit latrine without slab Bucket Hanging toilet or hanging latrine No facilities or bush or field * Lack of data on shared facilities status Source: WHO and UNICEF (2006) Core questions on drinking-water and sanitation for household surveys 55 Table 5: Comparability of indicators across years and countries pl Food Environmental health Care Country and data year Maximum age (months) Cambodia (2005) 24 Cambodia (2010) 24 Ethiopia (2000) 36 Ethiopia (2011) 36 Nepal (2000) 36 Nepal (2012) 36 Bolivia (2003) 36 Bolivia (2008) 36 Peru (2005) 36 Peru (2012) 36 Zimbabwe (2005) 24 Zimbabwe (2010) 24 Bangladesh (HK, 2010) 24 Bangladesh (HK, 2011) 24 Bangladesh (IFPRI, 2011) 24 Dietary diversity Food security Meal frequency Acceptable diet Second round comparable to first round Comparable across countries Improved sanitation Community sanitation Access to safe water Vaccinations Y N Y Y A Y Y Y Y Y Y A Y Y Y Y A Y N Y Y Y A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y A Y Y Y Y Y A Y N Y Y B Y Y 2 Y Y Y Y C Y Y Y Y B Y N Y Y Y B Y Y 2 Y Y Y Y Y C Y Y Y Y Y B Y N Y Y B Y Y 2 Y Y Y Y C Y Y Y Y B Y N Y Y Y B Y Y 2 Y Y Y Y Y C Y Y Y Y Y B Y N N N N N Y Y Y N Y Y 4 Y Y C Y N Y Y N B N N Y Y Y Y N Y Y 4 Y Y Y C Y N Y Y B Y Y Y Y Y Y B Y Y 4 Y Y C Y N Y Y Y B Y Y Y Y Y Y Y B Y Y 4 Y Y Y C Y N Y Y A Y Y Y Y Y Y A Y Y Y Y A Y N Y Y Y A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y A Y Y Y Y Y A Y Y N N Y Y 2 Y Y Y Y 3 Y Y Y Y A Y Y N N Y Y Y 2 Y N Y Y 3 N Y Y Y Y Y A Y N Y Y n/a A Y Y Y Y Y Y n/a A Y N Y Y n/a Indonesia (RKD, 2010) 24 Y 1 N N N n/a Y N Y Y N N n/a Y Y Y Y n/a A NOTES: Y = yes, N = no; 1 At the household level instead of child-specific; 2 Community sanitation not included in the environment adequacy measure used in the regressions (only in summary statistics). 3 Vitamin A supplementation information asked for only 6 to 24 month olds. 4 Within first 100 minutes (not 60 minutes) as is used in the other countries. Prenatal checkups Vitamin A supplementation Second round comparable to first round Comparable across countries Exclusive breastfeeding Immediate skin-to-skin contact Complementary feeding (6-8 months) Breastfeeding for 24 months Second round comparable to first round Comparable across countries
Adequacies by wealth group Adequate food is slightly higher among resource-rich children, with larger differences in Bangladesh HK and Zimbabwe. In most countries the prevalence of adequate care is higher among resource-poor children Resource rich mothers working compromises care breastfeeding and care is easier to intervene than other sectors such as water and sanitation. Most countries have very low prevalence of adequate environmental health 57 Prevalence of Adequacy of Food By wealth Percentage of children who meet criteria 13 38 34 34 47 53 12 13 67 68 32 37 25 29 46 47 BGD (HK, '10) BOL ('08) IDN ('10) NPL ('11) ZWE ('10) BGD (IFPRI, 11) ETH ('11) KHM ('10) PER ('12) 18 25 Resource Poor Resource Rich Source: Author estimates. Note: (1) Bangladesh (HK) include food security but not information on minimum acceptable diet. (2) Indonesia (RKD) only has information on household level diatery diversity, nothing else.
Prevalence of Adequcy of Care By wealth Percentage of children who meet criteria 52 50 89 81 64 56 39 37 40 BGD (HK, '10) BOL ('08) IDN ('10) NPL ('11) ZWE ('10) BGD (IFPRI, 11) ETH ('11) KHM ('10) PER ('12) 34 54 51 36 39 72 52 40 38 Resource Poor Resource Rich Source: Author estimates. Note: (1) In Peru and Bolivia early initiation of breastfeeding is within 100 minutes, not within 60 minutes as in others. (2) Bangladesh (IFPRI) does not include information on early initiation of breastfeeding (3) Indonesia does not include information on complementary feeds for 6 to 8 month olds. Prevalence of Adequcy of Environmental Health By wealth Percentage of children who meet criteria 5 17 7 12 25 46 0 2 7 10 0 7 2 10 2 2 1 BGD (HK, '10) BOL ('08) IDN ('10) NPL ('11) ZWE ('10) BGD (IFPRI, 11) ETH ('11) KHM ('10) PER ('12) 17 Resource Poor Resource Rich Source: Author estimates. Note: (1) Bolivia does not include improved sanitation. (2) Ethiopia, Nepal, Bolivia, and Indonesia do not include community sanitation. (3) Bangladesh (IFPRI) has Vitamin A supplementation for 6 to 24 month olds only. (4) Indonesia does not have information on prenatal checkups or Vitamin A supplementation.
Percentage of children who meet criteria 53 Adequacy status in Zimbabwe (2010) By wealth 7 29 0 Resource-poor 11 0 44 8 18 9 Resource-rich 17 4 None Care only Two of three adequacies Food only Environmental health only All three adequacies Source: Author estimates.