ENGINEERING MATERIALS Properties and Applications of Metals and Alloys C.P. Sharma
ENGINEERING MATERIALS Properties and Applications of Metals and Alloys C.P. SHARMA Department of Metallurgical Engineering Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur (Rajasthan) Delhi-110092 2004
ENGINEERING MATERIALS Properties and Applications of Metals and Alloys C.P. Sharma 2004 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-2448-0 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Third Printing......... August, 2007 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited, New Delhi-110020.
Contents Preface List of Figures List of Tables vii ix xi Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1 13 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Elements 2 1.3 Engineering Materials 4 1.4 Classification of Engineering Materials 4 1.5 Properties of Materials 5 1.6 Materials Selection 8 Question Answer 8 Chapter 2 CARBON STEELS 14 38 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Plain Carbon Steels 17 2.3 Classification of Carbon Steels 17 2.4 Types of Steel 18 2.4.1 Killed, Semikilled and Rimmed Steels 18 2.4.2 Wrought and Cast Steels 20 2.5 Effect of Minor Elements on Steel Properties 20 2.6 Effect of Carbon on Properties of Steel 21 2.7 Specifications for Steels 22 2.7.1 AISI/SAE Specifications 23 2.7.2 British Specifications 23 2.7.3 Indian Specifications 24 Question Answer 27 Chapter 3 ALLOY STEELS 39 93 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Alloying Elements In Steels 39 3.3 Effect of Alloying Elements 47 3.4 Classification of Alloy Steels 50 iii
iv CONTENTS 3.5 Miscellaneous Alloy Steels 50 3.5.1 Chromium Steels 51 3.5.2 Manganese Steels 51 3.5.3 Molybdenum Steels 52 3.5.4 Nickel Steels 53 3.5.5 Silicon Steels 53 3.5.6 Nickel-Chromium Steels 54 3.5.7 Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Steels 54 3.5.8 Nickel-Chromium-Vanadium Steels 55 3.5.9 Chromium-Molybdenum Steels 55 3.5.10 Chromium-Vanadium Steels 56 3.5.11 Silicon-Manganese Steels 56 3.5.12 Structural Steels 56 3.5.13 Spring Steels 57 3.5.14 Ball Bearing Steels 57 3.5.15 Case Hardening Steels 58 3.5.16 High Strength Low Alloy Steels 59 3.5.17 Dual-phase Steels 59 3.5.18 Low Temperature Steels 60 3.5.19 Valve Steels 60 3.5.20 Hadfield Steel 60 3.5.21 Stainless Steels 61 3.5.22 Maraging Steels 61 3.5.23 Tool Steels 61 Question Answer 62 Chapter 4 CAST IRONS 94 130 4.1 Introduction 94 4.2 Gray Cast Iron 96 4.3 White Cast Iron 97 4.4 Nodular Cast Iron 99 4.5 Malleable Cast Iron 99 4.6 Meehanite 100 4.7 Compacted Graphite Cast Iron 101 4.8 Alloying Elements in Cast Irons 102 4.8.1 Carbon 102 4.8.2 Silicon 102 4.8.3 Manganese 103 4.8.4 Sulphur 103 4.8.5 Phosphorus 103 4.8.6 Chromium 103 4.8.7 Nickel 103 4.8.8 Molybdenum 104 4.8.9 Copper 104 4.8.10 Vanadium 104
CONTENTS v 4.9 Alloy Cast Irons 104 4.9.1 Silal 104 4.9.2 Nicrosilal 105 4.9.3 High Silicon Irons 105 4.9.4 Ni-resist Cast Irons 106 4.9.5 Ni-hard Irons 106 4.9.6 High Chromium Cast Irons 108 Question Answer 108 Chapter 5 LIGHT METALS AND ALLOYS 131 164 5.1 Introduction 131 5.2 Aluminium 131 5.2.1 Alloying Behaviour of Aluminium 133 5.2.2 Classificiation of Aluminium Alloys 134 5.2.3 Designation of Aluminium Alloys 135 5.2.4 Characteristics of Aluminium Alloys 136 5.3 Magnesium 139 5.3.1 Magnesium Alloys 140 5.4 Beryllium 141 5.4.1 Beryllium Alloys 141 5.5 Titanium 142 5.5.1 Alloying Elements in Titanium 142 5.5.2 Titanium Alloys 143 Question Answer 145 Chapter 6 COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS 165 182 6.1 Introduction 165 6.2 Commercial Grades of Copper 166 6.2.1 Blister Copper 166 6.2.2 Electrolytic Copper 166 6.2.3 Electrolytic Tough Pitch Copper 166 6.2.4 Oxygen-free High Conductivity Copper 166 6.3 Copper Alloys 166 6.4 Brasses 167 6.5 Bronzes 168 6.6 Copper-Nickel Alloys 170 Question Answer 171 Chapter 7 NICKEL, COBALT AND THEIR ALLOYS 183 200 7.1 Nickel 183 7.2 Nickel Base Alloys 185 7.2.1 Nickel-Copper Alloys 185 7.2.2 Nickel-Chromium Alloys 186 7.2.3 Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys 187 7.2.4 Nickel-Iron Alloys 188
vi CONTENTS 7.3 Cobalt 189 7.4 Cobalt Base Alloys 189 Question Answer 189 Chapter 8 WHITE METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS 201 210 8.1 Introduction 201 8.2 Zinc 202 8.3 Cadmium 202 8.4 Lead 203 8.5 Tin 204 Question Answer 204 Chapter 9 REFRACTORY METALS AND ALLOYS 211 217 Question Answer 212 Multiple Choice Questions 219 229 Appendices 231 253 Index 255 258
Preface Materials have always been the necessity of man. In fact, civilization of mankind is the story of development of materials, which is why materials are considered to be the building blocks for all technological advances. During the last century, tremendous developments have taken place in understanding and analyzing the structure-property correlation for almost all types of materials from metals, wood, ceramics, to semiconductors, polymers and composites. These developments have eased the task of materials designers and engineers who need to choose the right material for an engineering application, after analyzing the properties as well as behaviour and performance of the material during manufacturing processes. Hence, unlike in the past, it has become essential for all engineering graduates to undergo a basic course in materials in order to understand their nature, properties and applications which are influenced to a great deal by the structure of materials. Organized into nine chapters, the book deals with the fundamentals of metallic materials and presents the metallurgy of a large number of metals and alloys used in engineering design in a simple and logical manner. It exposes the reader to the inherent characteristic properties of metals and then goes into the details of the applications and manufacture. The distinctive feature of the book is that it discusses relationships between the physical metallurgy of metals and their engineering applications, through a large number of questions and answers given at the end of the related chapters. These questions are framed on the same pattern of the university examinations, and thus cater to the needs of students who generally find it difficult to format compact and to-the-point answers. The multiple-choice questions further aid the students to prepare for competitive examinations. To make the book useful and interesting, the text is supplemented with eight appendices that include conversion of units and various AISI/SAE steel compositions. Though the book is primarily intended for students of metallurgical engineering, it will be of great help to students pursuing various engineering as well as polytechnic courses and to the practising engineers dealing with materials. I am greatly indebted to my teacher Prof. T.V. Rajan, Emeritus Fellow for his constructive suggestions, and my friend, Dr. A.K. Bhargava for his support and encouragement. I wish to thank Mr. Ashish Dutt Sharma, Mrs. Sunita Sharma and their enthusiastic team for their help in giving the manuscript its final shape. I express my sincere gratitude to my wife Usha, and my children, vii
viii PREFACE Avantika, Anu Ayam, son-in-law, Anand and granddaughter, Avni Sharma who had shown great patience while I worked on the book. Finally, I appreciate the dedicated efforts of the members of Prentice-Hall of India, for their help in steering the publication process in a timely manner. C.P. SHARMA
List of Tables Table 1.1 Some Important Properties of Materials 5 Table 1.2 Structure-sensitive and Structure-insensitive Properties 6 Table 1.3 Definition of Some Mechanical Properties 6 Table 1.4 Description of Some Physical Properties 7 Table 2.1 Microconstituents in Iron-Cementite Binary System 15 Table 2.2 Important Temperatures and Compositions in Iron-Cementite Binary System 15 Table 2.3 AISI/SAE Designation for Steels 24 Table 2.4 Symbols Exhibiting Specific Characteristics 25 Table 2.5 Multiplying Factors for Indian Designation of Alloy Steels 26 Table 2.6 Indian Designation for Some Steels 27 Table 3.1 Solid Solubility of Some Elements in Alpha- and Gamma-iron 44 Table 3.2 Effects of Alloying Elements in Steels 44 Table 3.3 Amounts of Some Elements for Stabilization of Ferrite 46 Table 3.4 Amounts of Elements for Elimination of Austenitic Region 46 Table 3.5 Compositions of Some Chromium Steels 51 Table 3.6 Compositions of Some Manganese Steels 52 Table 3.7 Compositions of Some Molybdenum Steels 52 Table 3.8 Compositions of Some Nickel Steels 53 Table 3.9 Compositions of Some Silicon Steels 53 Table 3.10 Compositions of Some Nickel-Chromium Steels 54 Table 3.11 Compositions of Some Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Steels 55 Table 3.12 Compositions of Some Chromium-Molybdenum Steels 55 Table 3.13 Compositions of Some of Chromium-Vanadium Steels 56 Table 3.14 Compositions of Some Silicon-Manganese Spring Steels 56 Table 3.15 Compositions of Some Low Alloy Spring Steels 57 Table 3.16 Compositions of Ball Bearing Steels 58 Table 3.17 Compositions of Some Flame and Induction Hardening Steels 59 Table 3.18 Compositions of Some Valve Steels 60 Table 3.19 Compositions of Some Stainless Steels 61 Table 3.20 AISI Classification of Tool Steels 62 Table 3.21 Composition of a Weathering Steel 68 Table 3.22 Composition of Pearlitic Heat Resisting Steels 75 Table 3.23 Compositions of Martensitic Heat Resisting Low Alloy Steels 75 xi
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