3. Fthiotis (Greece) 3.1 Introduction. Sophia Efstratoglou

Transcription

1 3. Fthiotis (Greece) Sophia Efstratoglou 3.1 Introduction Rural women constitute a vital part of human resources in Greek rural areas and they account for 35% of the female population in the country. However their participation in the labour market remains at low levels (female activity rate in rural areas 34% compared to 64% to the male one). The majority of these women are in agriculture (64%) followed by the service sector (27%) and only 9% are in industry (Labour Force Survey 1994). During the last decades, agricultural modernization resulted in heavy population exodus from farming, at much higher rates for women than for men, implying a strong masculinisation process in Greek agriculture. Specifically the ratio of men to women in agriculture from 1.7:1 in 1971 increased to 2.8:1 in 1991 (Efstratoglou and Mavridou 1996a). During the same period, the expansion of non-agricultural sectors and mainly of services in rural areas, created job opportunities and women s employment in the service sector increased significantly. The service sector functioned for women as a strong pull sector while agriculture as a push sector. Traditionally farm women s labour situation and prospects have been linked to agricultural change and development. However, the significant socioeconomic changes that have been occurring in Greek rural areas such as the declining role of agriculture, the tertiarisation of the rural economy, the pressures on agricultural markets and incomes, the tourism development, the diffusion of industrial activities in rural areas and mainly the changing values and attitudes on women s role (gender roles) have created opportunities and constraints for farm women. How are these changes in Greek rural areas affecting farm women, are farm women benefiting from new job opportunities created in rural areas, how do they perceive opportunities and respond to them and under what conditions are women exploiting job opportunities? These questions challenge our knowledge and we will try to enlighten them in this chapter. More specifically the objective of this chapter is: (a) to analyze the labour situation of farm women in Greek rural areas and the factors that influence it at both contextual and individual level and (b) to identify farm women s work preferences, needs to achieve them and labour strategies as they are adjusting to the changing rural economies. Based on these findings, issues for policy action and concern will be proposed to improve farm women s economic and social integration. The rural area selected in Greece to analyze the labour situation and strategies of farm women was Fthiotis, which is a NUTS III level area (among the 51 Greece is divided into), located km north of Athens (figure 3.1). The selected area, an EU-objective 1, has a rather average level of development among Greek rural areas and this is reflected in its composite development indicator that ranks the area 26th among the 51 NUTS III departments (Athanassiou et al. 1995). Moreover, the sectoral distribution of its labour force is representative of the average distribution of all departments (with the exception of Attica and Thessaloniki, where Athens and Thessaloniki are located). It has an area of 4,441 km 2 (covers 3.3% of the national area) and a population of 171,000 people (population density 39/ km 2 ). Its rural/urban organization is quite representative of Greek rural areas. Most of its population (75%) lives in rural communities of size <5,000 residents and the rest in the only medium size town of the area, Lamia with population of 44,000, mainly a service centre (administration, health services, higher education) for the area. Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe > 27

2 Figure 3.1 Location of Fthiotis in Greece 28 < Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe

3 The area is differentiated by altitude in plain land (20%), in hilly (42%) and in mountainous (38%). Most of the population (53%) lives in plain areas, 34% in hills and only 13% in the mountainous areas. Its plain areas have more diversified local economies than the mountainous and hilly ones, due to the presence in them of industrial activities (agricultural processing industries and other industries) and mainly of services. Mountainous areas are less diversified, with higher dependence on farming (lack of alternatives) and with severe depopulation problems. The area, with the exception of its mountainous communities, is effectively linked with a road network and is integrated into the national highway and railway networks. Fthiotis is a contiguous area, which territorially coincides with a functional labour market, with the meaning that within this territorially defined labour market, Fthiotis labour force seeks for job opportunities. The evolution of the area s development process has been characterized by a very slow transformation of its local economy, characteristic for most rural areas of the country, which remained agricultural till the beginning of the 70s (in 1971, 60% of its total labour force was in agriculture). Industrial activity during the same period concerned mainly the processing of agricultural products and the production of consumer goods for the local economy. The economic transformation of the area started in the 70s and was partly due to the spill over effect of over concentration in Athens and within a regional policy aiming at the diffusion of industrial activities in rural areas and a more balanced growth. Industrial expansion concerned the modernization of the agricultural processing units and the development of mine and metal industries because of its mineral resources (nickel, chromium, bauxite etc.). During the same period the service sector expansion was significant (jobs in services increased by 88% between ) and concerned increase in tourism developed across the coastal line, trade, banking and other private services, etc. In agriculture, rapid mechanization, irrigation and use of purchased inputs increased labour productivity and farm incomes in the area and excess labour supply was oriented towards off-farm jobs. This development process reversed out-migration movements in the area, which were very strong during the 50s and the 60s, population increased in the 70s and 80s, and there has also been an in-migration trend in the area. Despite of that, mountainous areas are still loosing population, due to the lack of job opportunities and difficult life conditions. Fthiotis remains an area in the process of transformation from its predominant agricultural base to a more diversified rural economy, where services are having the leading role. 3.2 Contextual factors influencing women s activity The transformation process described above affected the economic and social structures of the area and influenced the economic activities of women. In this project, it was assumed that farm women s labour situation and prospects depend on the socio-economic structures prevailing in rural areas. The more developed and diversified the local context, the more economically and socially integrated farm women are expected to be. The economic and social structures of the study area, relevant to farm women labour situation the prevailing values and attitudes with regard to their social role and policies implemented in the area are presented below Economic structure and labour demand The transformation process in the area was accelerated during the 80s because of Greece s entrance to the EU. Agricultural modernization was faster and agriculture lost more than one third (36%) of its labour force, while job opportunities in services increased significantly (45%). The opening of the industrial activity to competition, upon joining the EU had a negative impact on the sector, as also at national level, and employment in industry declined (by 16% ), contrary to its significant Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe > 29

4 Table 3.1 Sectoral employment distribution and changes in Fthiotis (in %) Changes Changes Agriculture Industry Services Total (N x 1,000) (58.2) (60.3) (57.0) Source: Population Census 1971, 1981, Table 3.2 Sectoral employment distribution by gender in Fthiotis (in %) Changes women men women men women men Agriculture Industry Services Unclassified Total (N x 1,000) Source: Population Census 1981, expansion (40%) during the 70s (table 3.1). Despite this restructuring, the productive system of the area still maintains a high dependence on agriculture (34% of employment in agriculture), as most Greek rural areas, while services have taken up the leading role in the area. Generally through, the area is considered as a less diversified one compared to the other study areas of the project (table 3.1). Women in Fthiotis constitute 27% of the total labour force. Their activity rate remains at low levels (30%), much lower compared to men s (76%). The above described development process influenced work opportunities for women in the area and changed their employment pattern. Moreover, these changes were faster and more important for women than for men (table 3.2). During the 80s, almost half of the female labour force in agriculture left farming, implying almost a flight from agriculture similar to what has been observed in southern rural areas (Fonte et al. 1994, Stratigaki 1988). This exodus, at much higher levels for women (46%) compared to men (31%), intensified further the masculinisation of agriculture in the area. Industrial decline in the area, due to increased competition, decreased women s employment in the sector by one third. However, women benefited more from the tertiarisation process of the area s economy and improved their share in the service sector from 27% in 1981 to 52% in 1991 (76% increase in their employment in services). Overall, women s exodus from agriculture and their employment decline in industries, was not fully absorbed by job creation in services. This resulted in a decrease in women s total employment in the area (9%) and in a significant increase in their unemployment rate (from 4% in 1981 to 14% in 1991). Men s unemployment in the area was affected less (from 3% to 6% respectively) (table 3.2). Farm structures Farming in Fthiotis is of small scale (average farm size of 5 ha) and representative of Greek farm structures. In 1991, Agricultural Census recorded 25,839 farms in the area, of dualistic structures (21% of farms were less than 1 ha and 14% over 10 ha). 30 < Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe

5 About half of the farms (40%) are in level areas, mostly with irrigated land, that allows intensive farming of tobacco, cotton, vegetables and fruits, while the rest are in hilly and mountainous areas with less favoured structures, with more extensive farming of olive trees, cereals and sheep farming. Dairy is very limited in the area. Farms in the area provide different work opportunities for women related to farm size, crop patterns and intensity of labour needs. More work opportunities for women are provided on farms with labour intensive crops, with seasonal peaks of non-mechanized work, like tobacco, vegetables, olive trees, fruits and cotton. Less work opportunities for women exist on larger farms, fully mechanized and on small farms with low labour needs. Due to the small scale farming in the area and the prevailing cropping (with seasonal labour needs compared to livestock with more permanent and regular labour needs) most farm women work on a part-time or seasonal base in farming (disguised unemployment). Only 10% of farm women have a full-time job in farming. Most farms are operated by male farmers (81%), and those operated by women concern mainly single/widowed women. The labour status on the farm of most farm women is that of the non-paid assisting family member, implying a low professional and social status. Although 40% of the total labour needs (labour input) of agriculture in the area are provided by women (1991 Agricultural Census), this work is a non-paid one, invisibly most of the times and not explicitly recognized for farm women (even for tax purposes). Non-agricultural enterprises The non-agricultural context of the area has provided opportunities for women but not enough as to increase their total employment. Most of these job opportunities for women were created in hotels, catering, trade (retail-wholesale), banking-insurance and other mainly private services and in small enterprises of family type. The vast majority of enterprises in the area (95%) are small enterprises employing less than 5 persons. Net job creation or destruction by main economic branches and gender are presented in table 3.3 on the following page. The seasonal employment of many women in agriculture, provides a flexible arrangement for combining work on the farm and seasonal employment in tourism or in agricultural processing industries. Tourism activities are concentrated along Fthiotis coastal line, organized in small and medium size accommodation (hotels, camping, rooms etc.). They provide seasonal employment to rural population including women, that reside mainly in nearby communities. Moreover, the area has important potential in alternative forms of tourism (winter, mountainous, thermal springs-spa, agrotourism) which could create job opportunities for rural women. However, rural women should be informed of these job opportunities. Although work opportunities in the industry are limited for women and women lost jobs from the area s industrial decline, agricultural processing industries (food industries) tend to be an exception to that. Most of these industries are diffused in rural areas and provided employment opportunities for women on a seasonal base. This tends to supplement farm work and incomes. Agricultural processing units that women are involved in the area are fruit and vegetable packaging and processing, olives processing, cotton processing and other food industries (Efstratoglou 1997) (table 3.3). Employment opportunities are also spatially differentiated in the area. Work opportunities in mountainous areas are poor, mainly related to farming and basic local services. In these areas farm women are constrained by lack of job opportunities and infrastructure adequacies and tend to be socially excluded. Women in level areas have more work opportunities because of the better accessibility of their areas, Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe > 31

6 Table 3.3 Changes in non-farm employment by main branches of activity Change in the num- % change ber of employed total men women Agriculture -9, Mining Manufacturing -1, Energy Construction Trade, Hotels, Catering 2, Transport, Communication Banking, Insurance 1, All other services 3, Unclassified 1, Total -3, Source: Population Census 1981, Table 3.4 Distribution of sectoral employment by urban/rural communities (in %) 1971 (total = urban + rural = 100) 1991 (total = urban + rural = 100) urban (Lamia) rural *) urban (Lamia) rural Agriculture Industry Services Total *) Rural communities: communities with < 10,000 residents. Source: Population Census 1971, diffused industries and location of services in small towns. With regard to the urban/rural employment differentiation for women in the area, the urban centre of the area (medium size town of Lamia) presents similar female employment rate to those in rural areas. Moreover, rural areas seem to have created more jobs opportunities during compared to the area s urban centre (table 3.4) Social structure and labour supply The transformation process of the area s economy influenced its demographic evolution and its labour supply, including that of women. The area s strong out-migration movements during the 60s, characteristic for rural areas of Greece (due to low standards of living and lack of job alternatives) were slowly reversed, and the area succeeded in increasing its population. Net migration in the area (table 3.5) concerns mainly return of retired people (which migrated during the 50s and the 60s) to their villages, but also in-movement of younger urban population pushed by the unemployment and the overconcentration problems of Athens (interviews with key officials). A trend also for second residence in its coastal area during the 70s and the 80s and in its mountainous areas more recently has a positive influence on the area s economy and social fabric (table 3.5). The area s social restructuring is also reflected in the demographic dynamic of small towns and villages of 2,000-10,000 residents (rural areas according to the project s definition), which gained more population (and hence more jobs, see table 3.4) compared to the urban centre of Lamia. These small towns and villages form networks with smaller villages (less 32 < Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe

7 Table 3.5 Population, changes and female population in Fthiotis Population 154, , ,273 Population change (absolute -5,493 7,453 9,279 natural balance (births-deaths) (previous decade) 12,967 6,000 7 migration balance (in out) (previous decade) -18,468 1,453 9,272 % population change (%) (previous decade) % (in-out) migration of the population % women of the population Source: Population Census Table 3.6 Population and population changes by type of rurality *) % Population Changes % Population Rural Semi-urban Urban Total *) Definition of rurality according to the National Statistical Service of Greece. Rural: <2,000 residents, semi-urban: 2,000 10,000 residents, urban: > 10,000 residents (only Lamia). Source: Population Census than 2,000 residents) for providing services to them (flows of goods and services) and rural women have benefited significantly from these job opportunities (table 3.6). The female labour supply in the area Despite of this social and spatial restructuring, economically active women account for less than one third of the total labour force (27%) and their activity rate is as low as 30% (76% for men). When activity rates are analyzed by age and gender (table 3.7), it appears that considerable female human resources remain economically inactive, particularly in productive age groups. It is considered however useful to note that rural women s contribution to the area s economy is underestimated and very often invisible. A significant number of rural women are involved in farming seasonally, working less than 75 days a year on the family farms (1991 Agricultural Census), and because of the extended nature of this work to household work, they do not consider themselves as economically active and tend to register in the housewives group (non-economically active). Moreover, older women (over 65 years old), although not included in the economically active, are also Table 3.7 Fthiotis - Labour force activity rates by gender and age groups in 1991 (in %) Fthiotis Men Women Total Total Greece Men Women Total Total Source: Population Census Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe > 33

8 Table 3.8 Occupational status of employed in Fthiotis by gender in 1991 (in %) Fthiotis Greece women men women men Professionals and Technical Personnel Administrators, Executive and management Clerical workers Tradesmen and Salesmen Service workers Farmers Craftsmen, Labourers and Operators of transport means Non classified Total (N x 1,000) , ,484.7 Source: Population Census involved in farming and their contribution to the household economy (childcare and domestic work) is quite significant. Activity rates differ among younger and older women and this reflects changing attitudes towards women s work in younger generations, but also younger women s improvement of education and qualifications. The educational level of the female labour force in the area has been improving and it is at much higher levels for younger women. But it still remains low considering that 68% of the female population has only primary education. With regard to the occupational status of women (table 3.8), it appears that most women employed in the area, participate in the secondary sector of the labour market (clerical, sales, lower parts of services) and have jobs of lower skills and qualifications, with instability of employment and lower pay. Only 20% of women seem to participate in the primary sector of the labour market (professionals, administrators, etc.). Women s participation in these occupational groups appear higher compared to that of men in the area and highly consistent with the national percentage. It should be noted though that the absolute number of these women is much lower, due to their lower activity rate. These women are younger, which is also an indicator that younger women are more educated and more qualified than the older women in the area Social infrastructure Social infrastructure relevant for farm women was considered to be childcare facilities and frequent transport. Childcare facilities are state supported and are not sufficiently provided to farm women in rural areas (there are only 18 of them in Fthiotis, an area with approximately 180,000 population, located in some villages and small towns). However, farm family networks (extended families and family solidarity) and mainly older family members substitute for insufficient childcare facilities. But whenever such other family members are not available, lack of childcare facilities constrain farm women s participation in the labour market. Fthiotis has an adequate road network considering Greek standards, and transport services are sufficiently supplied in plain areas. Mountainous areas and hilly ones however, are not adequately serviced by frequent transport. Considering also that farm women do not have driving ability or car availability, their labour mobility is significantly constrained by lack of frequent transport and their job opportunities are confined in their rural community. 34 < Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe

9 3.2.4 Values and attitudes Values and attitudes towards farm women s participation in the labour market and off-farm employment are changing fast in Greek rural areas and this is mainly due to the changing social context (roles of women) as well as to increasing family needs (children s education, better standards of living aims etc.), that induce farm women and rural women to seek supplementary or permanent off-farm employment. According to the general opinion, it is not values or lack of childcare facilities but mostly lack of jobs (labour demand suitable for female work) that constrain farm women from having an off-farm work. As a general trend, women seem to have a strong preference for off-farm work, particularly younger women who are tending to avoid engagement in farming. This attitude is due to the low professional status of farm work, lack of satisfactory level of social security, unfavourable work conditions and less opportunities compared to urban life, whereas younger women seek social recognition through employment in sectors which bear higher social status. A non-farm job is considered among young farm women as a passport to urban life-style. Whenever family incomes are at satisfactory level, (better social status) farm women are not involved in farming or in off-farm work, unless their education and skills create career prospects in non-farm work. Women in rural areas have very little participation in decision making centres due to traditional roles still prevailing particularly among older generations, women s low educational level which does not allow them to perceive potential benefits in co-operatives, professional unions etc. and mainly to lack of local leaders and trained people to diffuse knowledge and information on potential benefits. Moreover networks and farm women s association are not in existence to inform and guide farm women Policies Within the regional policy pursued for a more balanced growth in Greece, Fthiotis has been traditionally faced as an area of medium level of development and structures (within Greek standards) compared to other more remote rural areas with lessfavoured structures. Because of that the area has been characterized as Zone C area with higher investment incentives compared to Zones A and B, but lower to Zones D (remote, lagging behind areas). Upon joining the EU and with the Reform of Structural Funds (1988), regional policy for the area (Objective 1) has been formulated and delivered within the Regional Operational Programme (ROP) of Sterea Ellada, in which Fthiotis belongs and also within the Sectoral Operational Programmes (SOPs) of the Community Support Framework (1st CSF and 2nd ). Besides the above framework, CAP has been one of the most important policies implemented in the area, due to its significant dependence on agriculture. Programmes and specific projects to be implemented within the ROP and the SOP depend on the ability of the area s administration to negotiate the budget for the area, to deliver policies and to mobilize local actors to respond to them. Within this framework, policies that will be reviewed are those considered more relevant for the labour situation of farm women. 1. Regional Policy Policy objectives for the development of the area as stated in the ROP (Department of Planning, Region of Sterea Ellada 1994) of the 2nd CSF ( ) are aiming at: the development and the diversification of the productive system of the area, improving agricultural structures and adjust supply to new demand needs, maintaining population in rural areas to avoid depopulation and improving infrastructure. Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe > 35

10 Within the ROPs, significant infrastructure has been constructed for improving rural areas accessibility and competitiveness. Infrastructure construction as such does not provide job opportunities to rural women, indirectly though through infrastructures productive effects (investment, job creations), women are tending to benefit. Also, through the investment incentives law (1892/90), a significant number of industries have been supported (food industries, other industries and tourism enterprises), which created about 2,200 new jobs in the area (no statistics are available if these are on male or female jobs). Recently, in an attempt to reverse industrial decline in the area and face unemployment problems, particularly among young people and women, parts of the area are in a process of being characterized as declining areas entitled to stronger incentives for industrial and tourism investment. Moreover, a development programme for promoting spa tourism and winter tourism (ski resort) in the area has been formulated. These recent developments are expected to induce labour demand (new job opportunities) and to have positive implications for rural women. 2. Agricultural Policy Agricultural policy implemented in the area is CAP, including Objective 5a measures for improving agricultural structures. CAP implementation in the area during the 80s affected positively the farming sector. Farmers enjoyed higher prices and support and this resulted in increases in agricultural production and farm incomes. Agricultural products, expanded during the 80s, turned into surplus products in the 90s and CAP reforms have been having significant impact on the area s farming. Main crops such as tobacco, cotton and cereals have been affected by supply restrictive measures (quotas, lower prices, etc.). Farm women in the area are fully aware of the negative prospects of farming. There is a slow adjusting process towards farm products with better demand prospects and quality (horticulture, fruits, organic farming, traditional local products). Most modernization farm plans approved in the area concern green houses, flowers, kiwi and organic farming. Restructuring towards more intensive crops has positive implications for farm women labour but it should be stressed that it requires new technical farm skills for quality production that women should acquire. Lower farm incomes will draw marginal farms out of farming and it should be stressed that this trend will have a stronger negative impact in mountainous areas unless alternative sources of income are developed in these areas. 3. Rural Development Policy Rural development policy had not been conceptualized as multi-sectoral, territorial policy and indicative to this is that there has not been any LEADER I initiative in the area. However, there has been an effort recently to develop a LEADER II programme for the Southwest part of Fthiotis (mountainous area) around winter tourism, agriculture and small enterprises which indicates an improvement of knowledge on rural policy. Policies such as agrotourism, new on-farm diversifying activities, are delivered by the Ministry of Agriculture and are tending to have a sectoral approach. 4. Employment Policy The main characteristics of the employment policies implemented in the area is the emphasis that has been given to active rather than passive policies. The increasing unemployment in the country has created pressures for active labour market policies and for more flexible and less regulatory labour markets. In Fthiotis, 3 main schemes are used to promote employment: (a) subsidiarisation of new job positions at the enterprise level, (b) vocational training programmes and (c) Territorial Employment Agreement Pack which is under formulation among social partners in the area. With regard to the subsidiarisation of new jobs in the area at the enterprise level, half of the new jobs created (about one thousand new jobs between ) 36 < Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe

11 concerned women (Efstratoglou, A. 1997). Women were a targeted group and were more favoured from this scheme, considering that they constitute less than one third of the total labour force in the area. The effectiveness of vocational training on rural women seems rather low and its reorganization is necessary towards more marketable skills for women. Vocational training offered by OAED (the Public Employment Service) involves training through short courses (9 month-courses) and apprenticeship (3-year courses). Both types concern mostly technical skills (car engineering, electrician etc.) and women s interest for apprenticeship focuses exclusively on traditional female occupations (hairdressing), while technical aspects do not encourage women s participation. What seems to be of quite important for the increase of labour demand for women in the area are the Territorial Employment Packs (6) that local authorities are trying to formulate and implement in the area. This is an agreement among social partners (Van Depoele 1997) to implement an employment programme that creates new flexible jobs to cover local needs. Since most of these flexible jobs will be in services their implications for rural women are expected to be positive (Chambers of Regional Industrialists Lamia 1997). Regarding agricultural training for farm women it is provided by the Agricultural Educational Centres (Ministry of Agriculture), it concerns mainly courses and is structured around two axes, farming practices and home economics, while farm administrative/ management courses are not offered. However it seems that women respond more to training in more traditional issues such as sewing, tailoring, machine embroidery etc. whereas few women have expressed an interest towards farming courses. 5. Social Policy Social security policies for women in farming provide less coverage compared to employment in nonfarm occupations. Moreover, farming s seasonal nature is an obstacle to farm women for permanent jobs with satisfactory social security coverage. Unemployment benefits for farming population and hence for women are not in existence, due to the self-employment status and seasonal nature of farming in which most women are involved. Replacement services are not in existence. Lower level of social security coverage and benefits for farm women constitute negative aspects of farm work. Also the non paid nature of farm work contributes further to its low professional status. 6. Gender Policy With regard to the gender policies it should be noted that they have not explicitly been undertaken. Moreover no particular programmes on rural women as NOW have been implemented in the area. The low level of qualifications of farm women, their low labour mobility, the lack of networks, associations, guidance centres, to inform farm women on opportunities, put women on an unequal basis and they can not effectively participate in programmes (rural development, training, employment etc.) for improving their labour situation. So, it seems that policies targeted at rural women (gender policies) should be promoted for improving women s situation. This will be achieved, if mechanisms and channels are established for farm women to express their needs and remove them from their social exclusion and moreover, if women s presence in decision making levels with regard to the improvement of their situation is institutionalized. (6) Territorial Employment Packs have started being in effect in 7 Greek areas where industrial decline has been acute. Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe > 37

12 3.3 Individual factors which influence the labour situation of farm women In the research design of this project, factors assumed to influence the labour situation of farm women at individual level were: (a) individual characteristics of farm women (age, education, training, driving ability) (b) farm household structures (c) farm structures (d) perception of the labour market opportunities in rural context and (e) labour orientation, motivation and attitudes towards farm and offfarm work. Data and information on the labour situation of farm women and on relevant factors were obtained by a field survey conducted in the study area on a sample of 155 farm women (7), where a questionnaire (common for all study areas) was completed in oral interviews with farm women. Women included in the sample were either heads of farms or farmer s spouses and of age In this section, the main findings of this survey will be presented Labour situation of farm women As the survey indicated, almost all farm women (94%) were involved in farm work, regardless its intensity. For analytical purposes though, the labour situation of farm women was classified in four groups according to their type of work and intensity (criteria for classification are presented in chapter 1 of this report). Based on this classification, 63% of farm women were found to be involved mainly in on-farm work, 14% mainly in off-farm work, 11% were pluriactive (combination of on-farm and offfarm work activities) and 12% were mainly housewife, practically not involved in any productive work (table 3.9). With regard to the intensity of work in farming, most farm women work part-time or seasonally and only one out of five has a full-time job in agriculture. The higher incidence of part-time and seasonal farm work is attributed to the prevailing small farm sizes. However, women working mainly on farm are tending to work more regularly, while those with offfarm work or pluriactive are tending to be involved in farming more seasonally or occasionally (table 3.9). Considering the high presence of women on farm and that only few of them work full-time, this implies a female disguised unemployment, already identified in the context analysis, which remains in farming mostly out of necessity due to the low degree of diversification of the rural context. As far as their position on the farm, based on the survey data, the majority of farm women consider themselves as co-heads and most of them are found among women working mainly on farm. Their position on farm, as perceived by farm women, does not imply any legal status for them, with the exception of those registered as heads of farms. It is interesting to note that a significant percentage of pluriactive farm women are registered as heads. A possible interpretation is that in pluriactive farms, when husbands have a main off-farm job, women are registered as heads for the farm to be entitled to subsidies, loans etc. since farmers in Greece with a main off-farm job are not entitled to agricultural investment incentives, subsidies, etc. (Damianos et al. 1993, Braithwaite 1993). Regarding farm tasks, women are involved mainly in field work (harvesting and other field work and in milking or breeding of animals, when such activities are present on the farm), while their involvement in farm administrative/ management tasks is extremely low. Nevertheless all are involved in manual work and very few in mechanical which is usually performed exclusively by men. Only 3% of farm (7) Sampling procedure applied was a two level stratification by type of communities (plain, hilly, mountainous), to allow for spatial differentiation and by farm sizes while the sampling base was the 1991 Agricultural Census. Statistical analysis of the influence of the factors on women s labour situation was carried out (chi-square and logistic regression analysis) and results are presented in Phase 2a National Report for Greece (Efstratoglou and Mavridou 1996b). 38 < Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe

13 Table 3.9 Labour situation of farm women (in %) Mainly Mainly Pluriactive Mainly Total on farm off-farm housewife Labour situation Farm labour intensity Full-time Part-time Seasonally Occasionally No work Total (N) 100 (98) 100 (21) 100 (17) 100 (19) 100 (155) Position on the farm *) Head Co-head Assistant Not involved Total (N) 100 (98) 100 (21) 100 (17) 100 (19) 100 (155) *) As perceived by farm women. Source: DEMETRA farm women s survey women reported that they are involved in mechanical work on a regular base. Women seem to have a rather satisfactory participation in decision making about farm investment (e.g. land purchase), whereas due to the part-time/ seasonal work that prevails for most of them, day-to-day farm decisions are more or less left to the usually male head of the farm. However, there are farm-related household tasks related to domestic work, such as caring for hired labour, visits on the farm etc. that are exclusively done by women. Other farm-based activities in the area were recorded in 25% of the farm households and concern mainly retail sale (21%), processing of farm products (8%), contractual work with machinery (9%), handicrafts (4%), agrotourism or recreational activities on farm (2%). Farm women are involved in these type of activities (with the exception of contractual work with machines) whenever in existence on farm. However, these are not initiated by women, but they are farm family decisions for on-farm diversification. Farm women s labour participation in the off-farm labour market was found at low levels (14% offfarm and 11% pluriactive) due to the low degree of diversification in the rural labour market and lack of off-farm job opportunities in rural areas. Small-size family business seem to provide job opportunities to most farm women involved in off-farm work. More women were self-employed (47%), 32% had a dependent off-farm job and 21% were unpaid assisting family members. The majority of those with a dependent work have a formal contract and are mainly employed full-time (68%) or part-time. Almost all of women (90%) involved in off-farm work and pluriactive ones work in less than 1 km distance from their place of residence. Only a low percentage of farm women (15%) with an off-farm job use a car and their journey to work is 1-5 km, while 5% of women reported to use public transport to their work. These are indications of the territorial boundaries of farm women s labour market and it seems that for the majority of them it is confined within their local community. With regard to the type of occupation women possess in their off-farm work, it is observed that most of them are in services and specifically in catering (23%), in shops (20%), in food retail stores (10%), in dressmakers (13%) and in secretaries-clerks (15%). Occupations with higher qualifications such as teachers, nurses etc. have a very low presence among farm women Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe > 39

14 despite the fact that women professionals were found to account for 20% of the female labour force in the area. And this is an indication of the rather low educational level of farm women. Farm women are usually over burdened with domestic work, which includes care of children and parents, household tasks, care of the home garden. In our sample on the aggregate level more than half of the women are involved in household work more than 40 hours a week, while less than 1/4 of the women stated that they contribute less than 4 hours a day. Most women (63%) have no help for household tasks, while 20% are assisted from other family members (extended families). Older children seem to offer assistance in 14% of the cases, while husbands contribute to household work only in 3% of the cases. Traditional attitudes towards household work prevail in most rural areas and consider household work women s responsibility. In trying to establish a relationship between farm women s labour situation and household assistance, it seems that farm women working mainly off-farm and the pluriactive ones get more assistance in domestic tasks compared to those working mainly on farm and the housewives. With regard to voluntary work, social structures in rural communities are characterized by strong ties among people residing in the same community (nucleated villages). Such structures imply women s involvement in many types of voluntary work, which is not explicitly considered as work by women (not institutionalized). Only 21% of farm women reported that they offer voluntary work, in parent s association, charity, church, cultural associations and rural affairs. Farm women s income and social security Farming remains the main source of income for the majority of farm households in the area (for 63% of the farm households surveyed) although off-farm income sources are present in an increasing number of farm households which are pluriactive (8). From table 3.10, it is observed that 34% of farm households surveyed have income from off-farm work as the main source of income, and only 3% of farm households were found to depend on social benefits (pensions). Main sources of income are consistent with the labour situation of farm women, implying a strong interdependence among male farmers occupation and farm women s labour position; for most women working on farm (77%), family income depends on farming, which implies that the husband s main occupation is also farming. The same is observed for women mainly off-farm and pluriactive. According to women s perception most of them (45%) contribute by 25-50% to the family income while one out of five women consider their contribution over 50% and those are women that work full-time in farming. With respect to women s offfarm income, almost all women with an off-farm job consider it as an important contribution to the family income. Table 3.10 Main sources of income for the farm household by women s labour situation (in %) Mainly Mainly Pluriactive Mainly Total on farm off-farm housewife Agriculture Activities off-farm Social security Total (N) 100 (98) 100 (21) 100 (17) 100 (19) 100 (155) Source: DEMETRA farm women s survey (8) In the EU research project on Farm household adjustments in Western Europe, 48-50% of farm households in Fthiotis were found pluriactive and that 30% of the total family income derives from off-farm activities (Efstratoglou 1992). 40 < Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe

15 The majority of farm women interviewed are not satisfied with the prevailing social security system. Working on farm seems unlikely to fulfil their social security needs and most of them pursue their husband s social security fund if he has an off-farm job. Social security is the second important feature next to income considered by farm women Labour supply factors Age distinguishes between the older generation which grew up in a rural context with less opportunities and prevailing traditional values and the younger generation which grew up in a more developed context where the transformation of its social and economic characteristics was taking place rapidly. Consequently different patterns of behaviour are expected among farm women of different age. Regarding the impact of age on farm women s labour situation, this affects mostly their choices/preferences and as the survey showed the mainly on-farm situation concerns mostly farm women in the older age bracket whereas for younger women with more qualifications, engagement in farming is loosing its relevance. Education was found to be the most important individual characteristic that affects farm women s participation in the labour market. As table 3.11 shows, farm women with off-farm jobs are better educated compared to women mainly working on farm. Also younger farm women have a higher education compared to older ones. About 75% of the younger women have secondary education while 80% of the older ones have only primary school education. However the overall level of education, as the survey indicated, was not particularly high and this is consistent (9) with Population Census data where 68% of women in Fthiotis had only primary education. Vocational training was reported at low levels among farm women in the study areas and it did not seem to influence the labour situation of farm women (table 3.11). Very few women (6%) had training in agriculture (including technical courses attended) and this is an indication that farm work for women has not a professional character. With regard to vocational training in other occupations and their lack of influence on women s labour situation, an explanation to it is that this training is usually in traditional female occupations (sewing, embroidery etc.) and does not provide marketable skills to women. Moreover, the low level of vocational training women possess can be attributed to the inadequacies of the training system which focuses mainly in technical occupations not attracting women s participation and offered in the main urban centre, not easily accessible for farm women in hilly or mountainous areas. Therefore there is need for significant changes in the training system to provide women with marketable skills, and make it also more accessible to farm women. The overall low level of education of farm women combined with the fact that farm women also lack vocational training, suggests that their rather low qualifications would, in most cases lead them towards the secondary sector of the labour market. Regarding driving ability, few farm women were found to have it (32%) and those who did, were younger women with a higher level of education. This factor had a direct effect on their labour mobility. More women with a driving ability were found among those working mainly off-farm (38%) than among women working mainly on farm (16%). In general though the lack of driving ability combined with the low level of public transport confines territorially farm women s labour market within their local community. (9) The different rate of women with primary education (53% survey data to 68%, Census data) are due to the fact that only women up to 55 years old were included in the sample and older women have a lower level of education. Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe > 41

16 Table 3.11 Farm women s educational level and vocational training by labour status (in %) Total Younger Older>40 Higher than primary Vocational training Agricultural training (N) (98) (21) (17) (19) (155) Source: DEMETRA farm women s survey = Mainly on farm 2= Mainly off-farm 3= Pluriactive 4= Mainly housewife. As far as the type of family is concerned, most of the farm families of the sample (63%) were nuclear while the presence of extended ones was also considerable. The extended families have a dual effect on the labour situation of farm women, their presence is considered to be both an opportunity as well as a constraint for them. The co-habitation with other family members, usually of the previous generation, could provide a substantial amount of help in the house and assistance in childcare from the mother or mother-in-law. On the other hand, their presence could imply increased domestic work and responsibilities on behalf of the farm woman especially when they reach an age where they need care (elderly care). In Greece extended families, especially in rural areas, were considered to be the traditional family structure yet they appear at a diminishing rate among younger couples. Nevertheless even in nuclear families it is common for younger and older generations to live within small distances and that allows them to maintain close ties and function as extended families. In general, the type of family did not seem to influence the labour situation of farm women. Pre-school children was a factor relevant only to 20% of the farm women interviewed where another 20% had children between 6-12 years old. According to the survey results, the presence of pre-school children was a factor influencing the participation of farm women as such in the labour market. However once they overcome the constraint of childcare, the presence of children becomes a factor non-relevant to their labour situation on or off-farm. Strong family ties (family solidarity) and the presence of extended families tend to overcome very often the lack of social infrastructure in childcare facilities (75% of farm women with children (12 years old reported that they rely on other family members for childcare) but the problem remains when no other family members exist in the family Labour demand factors According to the survey results, farm size influences strongly farm women s labour situation and there are significant differences observed in the labour situation of farm women (table 3.12) when this is related to farm sizes in ESU (10). Participation of farm women in the off-farm labour market seems to be negatively related to farm sizes, while participation on farm (women mainly on farm and pluriactive) increases with farm size, reaching its maximum in medium size farms. Small farm size is a constraint for work on farm and a strong push factor for women s participation in off-farm work. As farm size increases, more opportunities are created for farm women s involvement on farm, being (10) ESU is a European Standard Unit based on the balance of yields - costs/animal or ha crop. 1 milk cow = 4 sheep = 20 pigs (20-50 kg) = 2 ha oats = 0.7 ha permanent grassland = 0.07 ha strawberries. 42 < Labour situation and strategies of farm women in diversified rural areas of Europe