Bt Cotton in Burkina Faso

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2 Bt Cotton in Burkina Faso When Theory Does Not Match Reality Juan López Villar TWN Third World Network i

3 Bt Cotton in Burkina Faso: When Theory Does Not Match Reality is published by Third World Network 131 Jalan Macalister Penang, Malaysia and African Centre for Biodiversity PO Box Melville 2109 Johannesburg, South Africa Juan López Villar 2017 Cover design: Lim Jee Yuan Cover photos: (Top) A focus group discussion with cotton farmers in Houndé, Burkina Faso, conducted by the author s research team. (Photo: Lucien Silga) (Bottom) A woman holding a basket of freshly harvested cotton in the village of Zorro, Burkina Faso. (Photo: Ollivier Girard for Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), via Flickr) Printed by Jutaprint 2 Solok Sungei Pinang 3, Sg. Pinang Penang, Malaysia ISBN: ii

4 CONTENTS Summary V 1. SETTING THE CONTEXT: BURKINA FASO AND COTTON 1 Introduction 1 About this paper: Interviews and focus groups around conventional and Bt Cotton 3 2. ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON SECTOR 5 SOFITEX and other cotton companies 5 Producers 7 Cotton research and development 8 Financing 9 3. THE BT COTTON RACE ENDS WITH A QUICK RETURN TO CONVENTIONAL COTTON IN 2016/17 11 Bt cotton: from experimentation to commercialization 11 Monsanto successfully penetrates the Burkina Faso cotton sector 12 Problems with Bt cotton in Burkina Faso 13 The end of transgenic cotton in Burkina Faso or a future return to Bt cotton? THE IMPORTANCE OF BREEDING IN CONSOLIDATING SOLID CROP TRAITS 19 Quality is key: when theory does not match reality INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES WITH BT COTTON AND SOCIOECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 23 India 23 South Africa CONCLUSIONS 30 Annex I: Explanatory Note on the Fact-Finding Mission in Houndé 33 Annex II: Questionnaire Model for the Focus Groups 36 Annex III: Format of Individual Survey 37 iii

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6 Summary Background COTTON, also called white gold by many, has been cultivated for generations in West Africa. Burkina Faso dominates cotton production in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cotton is the main cash crop in Burkina Faso, and is cultivated on 10-15% of the arable land in the country. Houndé is one of the largest areas of cotton production in the country. Conventional Burkinabé cotton has historically been of very high quality, due to a very successful breeding programme which commenced many decades ago. Burkinabé cotton has a comparative advantage in lint quality long fibres that can be spun into high-quality cotton and high fibre efficiency or ginning ratio, which is the amount of lint that can be extracted per unit of cotton weight. Between the 1970s and 2006/7, the average ginning ratio for Burkinabe cotton increased from 36 percent to 42 percent. The improved ginning ratios in the Francophone West African cotton sector in general, and the Burkinabe cotton sector in particular, were to a large extent the distinguishing feature that made them more competitive in the global market. 1 1 See Chapter Four. v

7 Bt cotton and resulting problems Genetically modified (GM) insect-resistant Bt cotton was introduced commercially in Burkina Faso in 2008 and planted on just over 100,000 ha. However, after the first few years of commercialization of Bt cotton, some undesirable characteristics of the fibre, particularly its length, were noted: the Bt cotton had produced shorter fibre lengths and lower cotton fibre efficiency than conventional cotton. As a result, cotton companies from Burkina Faso began to lose international markets because of the poorer lint quality. Yet it was only in 2015, some seven years after Bt cotton was first cultivated commercially in Burkina Faso, that a decision was made to return to conventional cotton and that no GM cotton would be grown in the 2016/17 growing season. However, the Inter-Professional Cotton Association of Burkina Faso (AICB), composed of cotton farmers and cotton companies, has not ruled out a return to Bt cotton in the future. In Burkina Faso today, some believe that Bt cotton will make a comeback, while others think it is the end of Bt cotton in the country. The contracts signed between the multinational biotechnology company Monsanto and various Burkinabé institutions are confidential and the public cannot have access to them. However, the collaboration between Monsanto and Burkina Faso has clearly resulted in a product with undesirable characteristics that have harmed the interests of the cotton sector in the country. A key challenge for conventional breeders and modern biotechnology breeders is ensuring that desired characteristics of the parents are passed on to the progeny. In theory, if you insert a Bt gene into the Burkinabé germplasm, the resultant progeny vi

8 should be identical to its parent in every way except for the inserted trait conferring insect resistance. However, in reality, the Bt cotton varieties that were bred in Burkina Faso did not retain the lint quality characteristics of their Burkinabé parents, which affected in particular the fibre length of the cotton, leading to a downgrade of the famed quality of the country s cotton. 2 Even Monsanto s scientists do not know how to explain precisely the mechanisms at the source of the problem. 3 As a result, Burkinabé cotton companies are seeking to claim $84 million in compensation from Monsanto, due to the losses linked to the decline in quality after About this paper A research team supported by the Third World Network and the African Centre for Biodiversity, led by Dr. Juan López Villar and the Burkina Faso chapter of the Food First Information and Action Network (FIAN), and supported by two field workers, visited Houndé in September The research team aimed to gather more information from cotton growers directly, in the areas where Bt cotton had been cultivated, in order to obtain greater clarity about the current situation and future of Bt cotton cultivation following the severe losses suffered by cotton companies. 2 Dowd-Uribe B and Schnurr M Briefing: Burkina Faso s reversal on genetically modified cotton and the implications for Africa. African Affairs, 115 (458): Lefaso.net Le Burkina Faso abandonne le coton Bt transgénique. spip.php?article Reuters Burkina Faso seeks $84 million from Monsanto over GM cotton strain. vii

9 Individual interviews (39 persons) and focus group discussions (58 persons) were conducted. 5 Despite the limited sample size, both the interviews and discussions have contributed to the understanding of the situation in Burkina Faso with regard to Bt cotton cultivation. 6 It has emerged that farmers had very little choice or influence both in the decision to cultivate Bt cotton in Burkina Faso, and in the decision to phase it out. Farmers also felt that they were not provided with full information on Bt cotton. Most of the cotton producers surveyed were of the opinion that conventional cotton, while requiring more labour, is more profitable than Bt cotton, and said that they would prefer to cultivate conventional cotton. Lessons to be learnt Similar experiences to the one in Burkina Faso, where failures in the performance of Bt cotton have been identified, have also occurred in other countries. However, this is the first time that a complete phaseout of a significant crop of Bt cotton has taken place at country level after clear failures manifested. After the phaseout, approximately 300,000 farmers returned to cultivating conventional cotton. Other African countries should learn the lessons from what happened in Burkina Faso. The introduction of GM crops in developing countries is often heralded as a solution to the agricultural challenges and poverty that many small farmers face. Yet, closer examination of the evidence has shown that the performance and impacts of GM crops have in reality been extremely inconsistent, with dif- 5 FIAN Burkina Faso Rapport de la mission de récolte de données à Houndé. 6 See Annexes I, II and III. viii

10 ferentiated effects and dependent on a range of factors such as agronomic, socioeconomic and institutional aspects. 7 In the case of Burkina Faso, the initial introduction of Bt cotton was well facilitated by the particular circumstances there. However, the loss of quality characteristics with Bt cotton has had serious market impacts on the country s main export crop, affecting mainly the cotton companies. While yields were reportedly high, the experience there also demonstrates that yield alone is not the defining factor of a crop s success. Instead of promoting the use of transgenic varieties, which often fall short of their promise in the short or long term, 8 indigenous varieties should be protected and promoted. Ample evidence exists showing that supporting and empowering African family farmers in cultivating with agroecological practices can effect the real revolution needed to bring about a system of agriculture that is sustainable, is resilient, enhances livelihoods, provides adequate nutrition and is more equitable. 9 7 Glover D Is Bt Cotton a Pro-Poor Technology? A Review and Critique of the Empirical Record. Journal of Agrarian Change, 10 (4): See African Centre for Biodiversity and Friends of the Earth Africa Who will feed Africans?. 9 IPES-Food From uniformity to diversity: A paradigm shift from industrial agriculture to diversified agroecological systems. International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems, Brussels. ix

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12 CHAPTER ONE SETTING THE CONTEXT: BURKINA FASO AND COTTON Introduction BURKINA Faso is approximately 1,000 km from the sea and is landlocked by six countries Mali, Niger, Benin, Togo, Ghana and the Ivory Coast. Burkina Faso ranks 183rd in the Human Development Index, between two neighbours in the region, Chad (185) and Mali (179). 10 Cotton is the main cash crop in Burkina Faso, accounting for about 27% of cash income from agriculture. 11 Cotton production occupies around 10-15% of arable land in the country; 12 the crop is planted on around 586,000 ha. 13 From 1960 to 2005, the cotton sector in Burkina Faso increased production from 2,772 tonnes to 600,000 tonnes UNDP Human Development Report. Burkina Faso. all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/bfa.pdf 11 Anonymous Burkina Faso. The challenge of export diversification for a landlocked country. Diagnostic Trade Integration Study for the Integrated Framework program SR0White1ete0Report1eng1rev00.pdf 12 Burkina Faso Ministère de l Environnement et du Cadre de Vie (MECV) Projet Initiative Pauvreté Environnement (IPE) Analyse economique du secteur du coton. Liens pauvreté et environnement. 13 See Ministere de l agriculture de l agroalimentaire et de la foret Les politiques agricoles a travers le monde quelques examples. files/fichepays2014-burkina-faso_cle pdf 14 Burkina Faso Ministère de l Environnement et du Cadre de Vie (MECV) Projet Initiative Pauvreté Environnement (IPE) Analyse economique du secteur du coton. Liens pauvreté et environnement. 1

13 Cotton, also called white gold, has been cultivated for generations in West Africa. The West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) estimates that the UEMOA cotton-cultivated area accounts for approximately 8% of world cotton exports ( ). 15 For some countries in UEMOA, like Burkina Faso, cotton had for many years contributed between 60% and 70% of export earnings. 16 However, since the gold mining boom of 2009/10, Burkina Faso has succeeded in reducing its dependence on cotton, which has become the second leading export commodity after gold, accounting for about 15% of export revenues in Nevertheless, Burkina Faso remains one of the main cotton producers and exporters in Africa. In Burkina Faso, there are some 300,000 cotton farmers, the great majority of whom are small farmers who cultivate just a few hectares each. Cotton is one of the main sources of revenue for a large portion of the Burkinabé population (30%). Cotton activity represents approximately 65% of the monetary revenue of households. 18 Today cotton is the second most important export product after gold in Burkina Faso. Its cultivation is a source of livelihood for 3 million people in rural areas. 19 Burkinabé cotton fibre destined for international markets is bought by Western dealers such as the Swiss company Paul Reinhart or the French firm Louis Dreyfus to be sent mainly to Asia China, Thailand, 15 UEMOA. Undated. Cotton from UEMOA. The White Gold from West Africa Conquering the World Market. 16 SOFITEX FAO Country fact sheet on food and agriculture policy trends. docrep/field/009/i3760e/i3760e.pdf 18 Burkina Faso Ministère de l Environnement et du Cadre de Vie (MECV) Projet Initiative Pauvreté Environnement (IPE) Analyse economique du secteur du coton. Liens pauvreté et environnement. 19 SOFITEX. 2

14 India, Indonesia, Singapore, Vietnam and Taiwan and Europe Germany, Switzerland, Italy, France and Portugal. 20 The cotton sector in Burkina Faso is highly structured at the national and regional levels, being characterized by a hierarchical organization of producers and other actors (see Chapter Two). 21 Besides cotton production itself, there are several manufacturing industries dependent on cotton, for instance ginning, cotton oil and fertilizers. 22 Genetically modified (GM) Bt cotton was introduced commercially in Burkina Faso in 2008 and the first cotton-growing season of 2008/09 planted over 100,000 ha of Bt cotton. About this paper: Interviews and focus groups around conventional and Bt cotton Houndé is one of the largest areas of cotton production in the country. While a significant part of the cotton grown in recent years in this area was Bt cotton, for the 2016/17 season all the harvest was composed only of conventional cotton. A research team visited Houndé, led by the Burkina Faso chapter of the Food First Information and Action Network (FIAN), in September 2016, with the aim of obtaining more information and perspectives from cotton growers in the area. Two field workers 20 NetAfrique.net Filature: une usine de plus de 35 milliards de FCFA en vue à Bobo Burkina Faso Ministère de l Environnement et du Cadre de Vie (MECV) Projet Initiative Pauvreté Environnement (IPE) Analyse economique du secteur du coton. Liens pauvreté et environnement. 22 Anonymous Burkina Faso. The challenge of export diversification for a landlocked country. Diagnostic Trade Integration Study for the Integrated Framework program SR0White1ete0Report1eng1rev00.pdf 3

15 and translators accompanied the team to assist with translation into local languages. The fieldwork was largely based on individual interviews and focus group discussions. In total, 39 individual questionnaires were completed. The discussions in four focus groups involved 58 people. The total of 97 people, while a limited sample size, provided a good indication of the perspectives of producers in Houndé on both Bt and conventional cotton (see Annex I). 23 The details of the information obtained during the fact-finding mission are contained in Annex I, and are primarily drawn upon in this report to indicate the perceptions and opinions of cotton farmers in relation to Bt cotton varieties, as well as to contrast or reinforce existing data, research and information available in the public domain. 23 FIAN Burkina Faso Rapport de la mission de récolte de données à Houndé. 4

16 CHAPTER TWO ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON SECTOR THE main players in the cotton sector in Burkina Faso are the farmer-producers, cotton companies, cotton research agencies, banks and other private stakeholders (transporters, oil players, etc.). The State is the primary owner of the cotton companies that control all seed distribution, input provisioning, cotton purchase and ginning. The State also contributes to the cotton sector through the formulation of the agrarian policy and other regulatory issues related to this particular industry. SOFITEX and other cotton companies As mentioned above, the cotton sector is highly structured at the national and regional levels, characterized by a hierarchical organization of producers and other actors from bottom to top. 24 Cotton farming was launched in Burkina Faso around the 1940s as a vertically integrated sector. A public enterprise named SOFITEX was granted a monopoly for the purchase of seed cotton and a virtual monopoly for the supply of inputs. SOFITEX was established in partnership with a French public enterprise initially named CFDT. Moreover SOFITEX delivered inputs 24 Burkina Faso Ministère de l Environnement et du Cadre de Vie (MECV) Projet Initiative Pauvreté Environnement (IPE) Analyse economique du secteur du coton. Liens pauvreté et environnement. 5

17 (seeds, fertilizers and pesticides) on credit and collected seed cotton in villages. 25 Farmers could sell their cotton only to SOFITEX, so the latter was able to recover the costs of inputs by deducting them from the purchase price of seed cotton. Village associations served as intermediaries between farmers and SOFITEX; on the other side, banks dealt with SOFITEX, acting as intermediaries with the village associations. This way of organizing the sector lowered costs and allowed small farmers to easily obtain credit. This is one key factor that made Burkina Faso attractive to the multinational biotechnology corporation Monsanto. SOFITEX today is the most powerful cotton company in Burkina Faso. The research team found that over 85% of Bt cotton growers interviewed in individual questionnaires planted Bt cotton as a result of advocacy by SOFITEX. 26 The research team further found that 76.32% of the respondents stated that they did not have the freedom to choose between conventional and Bt cotton, while the remaining 23.68% maintained that they had a choice. 27 What SOFITEX dictates therefore strongly influences what cotton farmers plant. Indeed, since cotton seeds are provided to and purchased by the farmers each year, there is little practice of or allowance for seed saving and replanting by farmers. SOFITEX s total monopoly ended in 2004, however, when two private enterprises were created: FASOCOTON, which operates 25 Anonymous Burkina Faso. The challenge of export diversification for a landlocked country. Diagnostic Trade Integration Study for the Integrated Framework program SR0White1ete0Report1eng1rev00.pdf 26 See Annexes. 27 See Annex I. 6

18 in the central region, and SOCOMA, which operates in the eastern region of the country. In the early years, the two new enterprises captured one-fifth of national seed cotton production. The three companies have a monopoly on the purchase of seed cotton within their respective zones for eight years, along with the obligation to: (i) (ii) (iii) supply producers with quality inputs on credit; clear up input credits on collection of seed cotton; and buy all the seed cotton produced in its zone at a price no lower than the national floor price. 28 In order to coordinate their activities, the three cotton companies (SOFITEX, SOCOMA and FASOCOTON) created the Professional Association of Cotton Societies (APROCOB). The National Union of Cotton Producers of Burkina (UNPCB) and APROCOB constitute the Inter-Professional Cotton Association of Burkina Faso (AICB), which is charged with managing the cotton industry and, consequently, fixing the price of cotton. 29 Producers The majority of the cotton production in the country is carried out by small family farmers. These small farmers devote a part of their farms to cotton cropping and other parts to cereals, root crops and vegetable production. The majority of the cotton 28 A single floor price, applicable throughout the country, is announced on the eve of sowing and is supported by a smoothing fund and a line of credit. Source: Anonymous Burkina Faso. The challenge of export diversification for a landlocked country. Diagnostic Trade Integration Study for the Integrated Framework program. documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/ /pdf/ SR0White1ete0Report1eng1rev00.pdf 29 SOFITEX. 7

19 producers still practise manual handling with little sophisticated equipment. It is the handpicking of cotton in Burkina Faso that contributes to its high lint quality, as handpicking maintains intact and long fibres, as well as ensures that the lint is free from other organic matter. 30 At the local level, cotton farmers are brought together in groupings of cotton producers (GCPs). In total there are over 12,200 GCPs with an average of 15 to 50 members each. At the national level, in order to improve the organization of all cotton producers, the UNPCB was established in It is estimated that the UNPCB is composed of 325,000 cotton farmers spread over 4,000 villages around the country. 31 Cotton research and development Research and development (R&D) in cotton, driven by the Institute of Environment and Agricultural Research (INERA), has played a key role in the cotton industry in recent decades through a focus on varietal improvement, agronomy and management of natural resources, agro-socioeconomic considerations, and crop protection and defence. From 1998 to 2008, it was estimated that INERA received support from SOFITEX and the cotton sector to the tune of around 2 billion francs CFA. It is estimated that this amount could increase if the development of GM varieties continues Dowd-Uribe B and Schnurr M Briefing: Burkina Faso s reversal on genetically modified cotton and the implications for Africa. African Affairs, 115 (458): Burkina Faso Ministère de l Environnement et du Cadre de Vie (MECV) Projet Initiative Pauvreté Environnement (IPE) Analyse economique du secteur du coton. Liens pauvreté et environnement. 32 AICB Secretariat General. Note d information sur la filière du Burkina. 8

20 Strengthening of the producer associations With the expansion of cotton cultivation, producer associations had to be strengthened. The cotton growers association (Union Nationale des Producteurs de Coton du Burkina UNPCB) became a five-level pyramid with some 250,000 growers at the bottom, 8,000 cotton producer groups at the second level, 180 departmental unions at the third level, 17 provincial unions at the fourth level and an apex at the top. As messages were transmitted rapidly from the top to the bottom and vice-versa, management remained in close contact with its base and the UNPCB became a credible institution and an indispensable element in everything related to cotton policy. In its capacity as coowner, with 30 percent of shares, the UNPCB has participated in the management of SOFITEX since 1999, and in the management board (established in June 2000), where it now holds 6 seats out of 12. [ ] Producers located in each of the three zones continue to be represented by a single association, the UNPCB. The management committee was replaced in 2005 by the Association Interprofessionnelle du Coton du Burkina (AICB) with 6 seats held by the producers and 6 by companies two seats for each company. Each company can be managed as it wishes, but the producer price remains the same in the three zones. Source: Anonymous Burkina Faso. The challenge of export diversification for a landlocked country. Diagnostic Trade Integration Study for the Integrated Framework program. Financing Local and foreign banks play a number of roles in the cotton sector, notably in credit financing for example, for the purchase of cotton grain and outputs, and credit for producers equipment. Secondly, the banks support the financing of industrial investments construction of factories and the purchase of cotton trucks and so forth that are necessary to sustain the cotton sector. 9

21 Main stakeholders and institutional structure of the cotton sector in Burkina Faso Cotton producers Cotton companies (SOFITEX, etc.) State - GCPs (groupings of cotton producers) - Departmental unions - Provincial unions Professional Association of Cotton Societies (APROCOB) Inter-Professional Cotton Association of Burkina Faso (AICB) Permanent Secretariat of the follow-up group of the liberalized cotton sector Source: AICB Secretariat General. Note d information sur la filière du Burkina. 10

22 CHAPTER THREE THE Bt COTTON RACE ENDS WITH A QUICK RETURN TO CONVENTIONAL COTTON IN 2016/17 Bt cotton: from experimentation to commercialization Bt cotton arrived in Burkina Faso in 2003, undergoing a few years of government-authorized experimentation with INERA playing an instrumental role before its commercialization in 2008/09 and eventual phaseout in Bt cotton contains a gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that confers insect resistance. This Bt trait is Monsanto-owned, and hence the company collaborated with the authorities from the outset, including to backcross the Bt gene into conventional varieties of cotton with the objective of fighting the main pests of the cotton crop, in particular the cotton bollworm. 33 In 2008, commercial seed production started, and by 2009, 128,563 ha of Bt cotton had been planted See It describes how insecticide-resistant caterpillars the Helicoverpa armigera known as the cotton bollworm or Old World (African) bollworm wreaked havoc on crops and producers livelihoods [in Burkina Faso] in 1991, 1996 and Rongre Z History of modern biotechnology in Burkina Faso and experience of BBA. ISAAA Network Meeting. Philippines. RZangre-History%20of%20Modern%20Biotechnology%20in%20Burkina%20Faso. pdf 11

23 Bt cotton in Burkina Faso: From experimental release to commercial production 2003: Introduction of Bt cotton (Monsanto) and VIP (vegetative insecticidal protein) cotton (Syngenta) for experimentation by INERA : Experimentation confined to INERA research stations of Farako-Ba (Bobo) and Kouaré (Fada) : Conclusive results and early gene transfer of Bt gene to INERA cotton improved varieties by a series of backcrosses : Conclusive experimental station results and experimentation in farmers fields : Early commercial seed production of GM Bollgard II cotton and outdoor cropping. Source: Rongre Z History of modern biotechnology in Burkina Faso and experience of BBA. ISAAA Network Meeting. Philippines. bicmtg/2013/ppts/rzangre-history%20of%20modern%20biotechnology%20in %20Burkina%20Faso.pdf Monsanto successfully penetrates the Burkina Faso cotton sector Monsanto built strong relations with all key actors in the cotton sector in Burkina Faso to develop and ultimately commercialize its transgenic technology. For instance, in 2001, the company signed an agreement with INERA regarding cooperation on research in Bollgard technology. 35 This agreement is still valid today but its contents are confidential. During the 2008/09 planting season, Monsanto and the AICB signed a Licensing contract between the AICB represented by SOFITEX and Monsanto for the commercial exploitation of 35 Bollgard is the Monsanto technology with the insect resistance trait that claims to protect cotton against the cotton bollworm, among other pests. See

24 Bollgard technology, which was renewed every three years. Eight years later, however, this contract was not renewed, and it ended on 16 January This agreement is also confidential and inaccessible to the public. Monsanto s strategy for developing and commercializing Bt cotton in Burkina Faso proved very effective in the early years. The influence that institutions like SOFITEX had over farmers guaranteed a smooth transition from conventional to Bt cotton at the local levels, and this was done with barely any opposition. Because the State is the primary owner of the cotton companies, controlling all seed distribution, input provisioning, cotton purchase and ginning, this allows for stable credit, which consequently facilitated the adoption of the more expensive Bt cotton by small farmers. Moreover, since cotton seeds are provided to the farmers by the cotton companies, it was easy to use this arrangement to ensure that Bt cotton was widely planted. Problems with Bt cotton in Burkina Faso After Bt cotton was commercialized in 2008, reduced length of the fibre was observed. 36 Cotton companies discovered, to their dismay, that the Bt cotton lint was shorter and hence less profitable on the international cotton market. 37 In May 2015, Ali Compaore, Director of SOCOMA, confirmed, We have realized that since the 2010/2011 [season] [there has been] a shorten- 36 Lefaso.net Le Burkina Faso abandonne le coton Bt transgénique. spip.php?article AICB Press release. 20 April. 13

25 ing of the Burkinabé fibre. This is a commercial problem and a problem for the reputation of our cotton. This is why, jointly with the promoter, we have decided to give ourselves a period of three years to correct this problem before coming back to this cotton. 38 But it appears as if the problem could not be resolved for whatever reason. Therefore, a complete return to conventional cotton production was decided upon in 2015 by some of the leading actors in the country s cotton sector. Due to the decline in fibre quality, many farmers also observed a decrease in their earnings. A GCP leader interviewed in the east of the country claimed that his annual profit per hectare decreased from 245,000 francs CFA (372 euros) to 225,000 francs CFA (342 euros), while the cost of inputs (seeds, fertilizer, pesticides) multiplied at least threefold. 39 As a result, it was decided that Monsanto would compensate for the financial losses suffered by the cotton companies. These losses were linked to the fibre characteristics, particularly its reduced length, and the reduced output of the variety CGM FK 96 BG2 as compared with the conventional STAM 59 A variety from which it is derived. 40 In addition, the consequent decline in the reputation of the country s cotton would also have an 38 Ecofin Le Burkina Faso reduira la superficie consacrée au coton transgenique durant la nouvelle champagne Le Monde Manifestations au Burkina contre les OGM de Monsanto SOFITEX Suspension de la culture du coton genetiquement modifie au Burkina Faso. 14

26 adverse impact. 41 It is not clear, however, if this compensation has actually been paid out yet, and to whom. 42 What is clear, though, is that for the 2016/17 growing season, SOFITEX aims to return to 100% conventional cotton production and increase output. 43 Indeed, the research team found no trace of Bt cotton available for planting for this season. Furthermore, all the cotton growers interviewed declared that SOFITEX had told them that Bt cotton, with its fibre defects, was considered non-competitive on the international market. 44 However, the question remains: Why, when the deficiencies in fibre length had been noted earlier, did it take up to five years before the phaseout of Bt cotton occurred? It has to be noted that the contract that linked Burkina Faso with Monsanto in the commercialization of Bt cotton expired in January Given the confidentiality of the contracts that have been signed with Monsanto, it is impossible at this stage to determine what exactly Monsanto can be held accountable for. 41 Ibidem. 42 A recent news report indicates that the AICB and Monsanto have reached agreement on the division of the royalties withheld for the 2014/15 and 2015/16 harvests, which amounted to 15 billion francs CFA owed to Monsanto. The Burkinabé side will retain 75% of the royalties and Monsanto will accept 25% of royalties, which amount to 11.3 billion and 3.7 billion francs CFA, respectively. See Reuters Burkina Faso settles dispute with Monsanto over GM cotton. 8 March SOFITEX Forum de la SOFITEX. evenement.php?num= FIAN Focus Groups. 15

27 Bt cotton and the degradation of fibre length In 2007/08, before the large-scale cultivation of GM cotton, the majority (94%) of cotton fibres from Burkina Faso had an average length of mm. Short fibres (26.98 mm) accounted for only 6% of the production. Seven years later, however, most of the fibres measure mm or less in length. There has thus been a loss of about 1.6 mm in the fibre length. This degradation of length is not without impact on the competitiveness and reputation of the fibre on the world market. Source: AICB Press release. 20 April. The end of transgenic cotton in Burkina Faso or a future return to Bt cotton? In April 2016, the AICB, which represents and manages the cotton sector in the country, sought to claim $84 million in compensation from Monsanto. An article in the online Africa edition of the French newspaper Le Monde has described this situation as marking the end of transgenic cotton, 47 yet the AICB itself has never claimed the same. Instead it has expressed the following views: Monsanto s GM technology has allowed better control of the targeted pests of cotton, as well as comfort in the work of cotton farmers, [confirming] the correctness of the decision taken in favour of the adoption of transgenic technology. 45 Reuters Burkina Faso seeks $84 million from Monsanto over GM cotton strain AICB Secretariat General. Note d information sur la filière du Burkina. / 47 Le Monde Burkina Faso: les leçons à tirer de la fin du coton transgénique. 16

28 The decision to suspend the planting of Monsanto GM cotton will be maintained until a technical solution can be found by Monsanto or any other partner. There is no question at this stage of breaking with Monsanto, much less of challenging the GM technology and the effectiveness of the introduced genes in the defensive system of the cotton plant. The AICB and all stakeholders in the cotton sector reaffirm their commitment to modern biotechnology, as it could provide solutions to the current challenges faced by Burkinabé agriculture in general and cotton cropping in particular. 48 SOFITEX has estimated that due to the problems linked to the length of the fibre, Burkina Faso has lost around 48 billion francs CFA (73 million euros) in total (including for the 2015/ 16 season). 49 According to SOFITEX, numerous interventions and communications had been undertaken with Monsanto since 2011 in an attempt to resolve the problems, but the situation did not change and therefore the AICB contract was not renewed after it expired in January Despite this experience, most of the senior officials from the cotton companies, INERA and the AICB believe that a return to Bt cotton in the future is possible. SOFITEX has stated that a return to GM cotton by Monsanto or any other firm developing similar technologies would be considered by the AICB if the work of restoring the characteristics of the Burkinabé cotton label is completed AICB Press release. 20 April. 49 Around $78 million. 50 See SOFITEX Ibidem. 17

29 While some of the most important cotton institutions in Burkina Faso are hopeful that there will be further commercialization of Bt cotton in the future, cotton farmers in Houndé do not seem as excited by the prospect. More than 85% of the farmers interviewed in the fact-finding mission would prefer to cultivate conventional cotton in the future, rather than Bt cotton. The preference for conventional cotton is likely to be reinforced by the 2016/17 harvest, which is expected to be 750,000 tonnes, showing significant improvement in quality and production, according to the country s Minister of Agriculture, Jacob Ouedraogo. 52 The Minister also signed an agreement in January 2017 to develop the soybean sector based on non-gm soy. 52 St Louis Post-Dispatch Burkina Faso says cotton production increases after it discontinues Monsanto variety. says-cotton-production-increases-after-it-discontinues-monsanto/article_7902cb48-3b aa98b5.html 18

30 CHAPTER FOUR THE IMPORTANCE OF BREEDING IN CONSOLIDATING SOLID CROP TRAITS Quality is key: when theory does not match reality CONVENTIONAL Burkinabé cotton is of very high quality, due to a very successful breeding programme which commenced many decades ago. Burkinabé cotton has a comparative advantage in lint quality long fibres that can be spun into highquality cotton and with high fibre efficiency or ginning ratio, which is the amount of lint that can be extracted per unit of cotton weight. The breeding programme dates back to the founding in 1946 of the Institute for Research on Cotton and Tropical Textiles (ICRT) by the French government to support the cotton breeding programmes in the colonies. 53 Later, the work of the ICRT was part of the French agricultural research organization CIRAD, and subsequently absorbed into national research institutes. Some of the key goals of the ICRT-CIRAD breeding programme were the following: to create cultivars that were well adapted to the growing conditions in West Africa, and exhibited desired quality characteristics such as a high ginning ratio and long staple 53 Dowd-Uribe B and Schnurr M Briefing: Burkina Faso s reversal on genetically modified cotton and the implications for Africa. African Affairs, 115 (458):

31 The high quality of West African cotton One of the most important traits distinguishing West African cotton from its international competitors is its quality. We use the term quality here to denote two groups of related phenomena. The first relates to the quality features of the fibre. Burkinabe cultivars are the product of decades of careful breeding that has resulted in premium cotton fibres, which are long, strong, and uniform. These traits are highly sought after for the production of high-end textiles and fetch a premium on the global market. The second reason why Burkinabe cotton fibre is of such high quality stems from it being hand-picked, which ensures that the fibre is free of other organic matter. Hand picking influences the other quality trait valued by cotton companies, known as the ginning ratio, which is the percentage of fibre per unit weight of cotton delivered to the gin. The ginning ratio of Burkinabe cotton is high, the result of decades of targeted breeding and careful hand picking. A high ginning ratio is attractive to Burkinabe cotton companies since it increases the total amount of fibre that it can sell at a high value compared to the total harvest weight. Burkinabe cotton has gained a stellar international reputation and a premium price based on these quality traits. Source: Dowd-Uribe B and Schnurr M Briefing: Burkina Faso s reversal on genetically modified cotton and the implications for Africa. African Affairs, 115 (458): length. This breeding programme achieved considerable success. Between the 1970s and 2006/7, the average ginning ratio for Burkinabe cotton increased from 36 percent to 42 percent. The improved ginning ratios in the Francophone West African cotton sector in general, and the Burkinabe cotton sector in particular, were to a large extent the distinguishing feature that made them more competitive in the global market. 54 A key challenge for conventional and modern biotechnology breeders is ensuring that desired characteristics of the parents 54 Ibidem. 20

32 are passed on to the progeny. In theory, if you insert a Bt gene into the Burkinabé germplasm, the resultant progeny should be identical to its parent in every way except for the inserted trait conferring insect resistance. However, in reality, the Bt varieties that were bred in Burkina Faso did not retain the lint quality characteristics of their Burkinabé parent, which affected the fibre length of the cotton in particular, leading to a downgrade of the famed quality of the country s cotton. 55 Not even Monsanto scientists can explain why this was so. There remain other unanswered questions. Given the stellar reputation of the cotton breeding programme of Burkina Faso, it is not clear how this situation was allowed to develop. Who was involved and at what stage? Why were the deficiencies not identified earlier during experimentation and variety testing? Why did it take so long to initiate the phaseout when the short fibre lengths had already been noted earlier? Nonetheless, it is clear that the involvement of the private sector played a role at least, as the Bt cotton was apparently rushed to market at Monsanto s behest. Cotton breeders had advised that the cotton be backcrossed for at least five generations to ensure the carry-over of desired beneficial traits, but, in the Burkina Faso case, only three generations of backcrossing were undertaken. 56 Since each backcrossed generation takes a year of careful breeding and selection, it appears that the quality aspects suffered as a result of the desire to get the Bt cotton to market quickly. 55 Ibidem. 56 Ibidem. 21

33 Furthermore, the narrow corporate focus on pest resistance contrasts with Burkina Faso s public breeding efforts that had successfully integrated a broad spectrum of adaptability to local growing conditions and multiple fibre quality characteristics. This failure calls into question the potential for combining GM technology and local cotton varieties to produce GM crops that can perform well across multiple criteria, 57 which is what is needed in real-world situations. While yields were reportedly high, the experience of Burkina Faso also demonstrates that yield alone is not the defining factor of a crop s success. 57 Ibidem. 22

34 CHAPTER FIVE INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES WITH Bt COTTON AND SOCIOECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS BURKINA Faso is not the only place where failures in Bt cotton performance and adverse socioeconomic impacts have occurred. For instance, India and South Africa have also experienced significant problems associated with the introduction of Bt cotton. India Mahyco-Monsanto Biotech (India) Pvt. Ltd. (MMBL), a joint venture between Mahyco Seeds Ltd. and Monsanto Co., supplies its GM Bollgard II technology to over 40 seed companies in India in exchange for a trait or royalty fee. To date, it is estimated that over 90% of India s cotton crop uses this technology. 58 In over a decade, Monsanto has managed to penetrate a great part of the cotton market in India. Nevertheless, Bt cotton in India has been dogged by controversy. Some similarities to the situation in Burkina Faso were also noted in the early seasons in India. In some cases, the 58 Livemint Take liability for failure of Bt cotton crop, seed industry tells Mahyco- Monsanto. 23

35 staple length of the Bt cotton was also short, a significant factor that translates into lower economic returns: The average boll weight of Mahyco Bt cotton varieties [ ] is very little in comparison with other non-bt popular hybrids; the staple length of the Bt cotton varieties is also short, and hence it fetches lower prices in market compared with other popular hybrids; the Bt cotton varieties show more susceptibility to wilting under heavy rains compared to other popular varieties. 59 A study from the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh concluded that the net profit for Bt cotton farmers was markedly less than that of conventional farmers, and even the state s Minister of Agriculture said in March 2003 that the overall information is that the farmers have not experienced very positive and encouraging results. 60 Despite the reports of negative results and problems with Bt cotton varieties, Mahyco-Monsanto did not acknowledge this nor offer compensation to farmers. Instead, through intensive media campaigns, it claimed positive outcomes: 61 The company launched media campaigns in which GM seeds were portrayed as highly performing and endowed with magical qualities. It also spread propaganda about the excellent results of Bt cotton in other parts of the world, including the United States and Australia. Free gifts, feasts 59 Maharashtra State Department of Agriculture Performance of Bt Cotton Cultivation in Maharashtra. 60 Center for Sustainable Agriculture The Story of Bt Cotton in Andhra Pradesh: Erratic Processes and Results. February. 61 Lopez Villar J et al Who Benefits from GM Crops? An analysis of the global performance of GM crops ( ). Friends of the Earth International. 24

36 and per diems were offered to farmers in Monsanto s Bt cotton promotional drive. Intensive marketing through local newspapers, local meetings and television advertisements some featuring popular actors appeared in several Indian states. 62 This is similar to what occurred in Burkina Faso, which was portrayed as a Bt cotton success story and held out as an example for others to follow. For example, the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA), a pro-biotech think-tank, announced that 2015 was the eighth year for farmers in Burkina Faso to benefit significantly from Bt cotton. More precisely it estimated that Bt cotton adoption generated an economic benefit of more than $70 million a year for Burkina Faso. Its estimations were based on yield increases of 20.5% plus 66.7% reduction in insecticide sprays, from a total of 6 sprays required for conventional cotton, to only 2 for Bt cotton. 63 In the light of the preceding discussion, these data do not seem to accurately depict the situation in Burkina Faso in the year 2015, when the first phaseout of Bt cotton occurred, followed by a total withdrawal from planting Bt cotton in In India some GM cotton varieties were effectively banned, having lost the licence for sale. This occurred in Andhra Pradesh, where after three years of commercialization of Monsanto s Mech-12 Bt, Mech-162 Bt and Mech-184 Bt, the authorities concluded that the varieties had been found to be ineffective in controlling pests in the state Ibidem. 63 ISAAA Burkina Faso. Biotech country facts and trends. resources/publications/biotech_country_facts_and_trends/download/ Facts%20and%20Trends%20-%20Burkina%20Faso.pdf 64 Lopez Villar J et al Who Benefits from GM Crops? An analysis of the global performance of GM crops ( ). Friends of the Earth International. 25

37 In India, as well as in other places around the world, Bt cotton has been presented as a quick technical fix that would improve the livelihoods of cotton farmers. However, this is a fallacy, as the following analysis shows: Are there solutions that will improve the livelihoods of small cotton farmers? While seed agribusinesses are putting great effort into pushing technological answers like Bt cotton, the truth is that the main agrarian problems do not lie in technological deficiencies. The challenges faced by Indian cotton need a holistic set of solutions, most of which have little to do with technology fixes. In his 2006 study, Srijit Mishra of the Indira Gandhi Institute proposes several policy interventions that would help to tackle the agrarian crisis including the revitalization of the rural financial market; making cooperative credit societies accountable; the reorganization of regional rural banks; the regulation of private moneylenders; strategies to increase irrigation potential; the diversification of cropping pattern; the promotion of organic farming; and so on. Despite claims by companies of reductions in input costs, the introduction of Bt cotton does not seem to have been accompanied by a decrease in pesticide use. According to Mr. Deepesh Shroff of Excel Crop Care, a leading Indian pesticide manufacturer, the increase in Bt cotton plantations has not meant a decrease in overall pesticide use. More sustainable alternatives exist. Mishra encourages the introduction of organic farming, which would reduce the costs associated with pesticides and fertilizers, and would also decrease the availability of pesticides for suicidal farmers Ibidem. 26

38 In this context, Indian authorities have started to realize the importance of looking to solutions other than Bt cotton. Contrary to what was announced, after cultivating Bt cotton, input costs have increased threefold within a decade as seeds become more expensive and farmers have had to use more fertilizers to increase yield while also spraying pesticides. 66 This situation, particularly the resistance developed by the pink bollworm to the Bt gene and attacks by the whitefly, has compelled the authorities to return to popularizing the cultivation of indigenous varieties instead of Bt cotton. 67 This decision was made in 2016 at a meeting headed by Agriculture Minister Radha Mohan Singh, who aims to reduce significantly the expenditures on pesticides and to allow the farmer to save the seeds season after season, in contrast to the GM system. South Africa In 1997, large-scale commercial cotton farmers in South Africa quickly adopted Bt cotton after it was introduced, believing it would bring about reductions in pesticide use. In 1998, Monsanto went further, and launched a campaign to popularize Bt cotton among smallholder farmers in the Makhathini Flats. The adoption of GM cotton in the Makhathini Flats was heralded as a case of how agricultural biotechnology could benefit smallholder farmers. 68 For several years, the Makhathini Flats 66 Yadav S Fly in the face of Bt cotton. BL Ink. com/blink/know/fly-in-the-face-of-bt-cotton/article ece 67 The Economic Times Failure of Bt cotton forces government to promote native seeds. 68 Witt H et al Can the poor help GM crops? Technology, representation and cotton in the Makhathini Flats, South Africa. Review of African Political Economy, 109:

39 Bt cotton project was promoted vigorously all over the African continent as an example of successful GM crop cultivation by smallholders. However, the reality on the ground was very different. While initial results showed that Bt cotton s performance in Makhathini was positive, after only a few years of operation, the success of Bt cotton was compromised, particularly when a facilitative environment of easy access to credit and a guaranteed market disappeared. This happened when the cotton company that operated the local gin and provided credit for the purchase of the more expensive GM seeds went bankrupt. 69 A new company took over but it did not manage to make it work, and within ten years of its introduction, most growers had abandoned Bt cotton altogether. 70 Much of the problem lay in the fact that the Bt cotton model, to be financially viable, required centralization, heavy mechanization and cotton monocultures, something that was not possible with the numerous smallholder farmers involved in cotton production in Makhathini. 71 Recent data from cotton farmers provides a clear picture of the fall of the Makhathini Flats model: The total number of Bt adopters in the 2014/15 growing season was below 5 percent of what it was in the peak production years that followed the introduction of GM. [ ] [T]he South African case underlines the potential gulf between the representation and reality of GM adoption. GM 69 Dowd-Uribe B and Schnurr M Briefing: Burkina Faso s reversal on genetically modified cotton and the implications for Africa. African Affairs, 115 (458): Ibidem. 71 Ibidem. 28

40 proponents have used the Makhathini case to promote and advance the introduction of GM crops in other parts of sub-saharan Africa, long after the benefits they offered to farmers had declined. The South African precedent is a reminder of how an initial success story can endure and influence the political debate in other locales, even after the real benefits to end users have faded. 72 A similar situation occurred with Burkina Faso, which has received numerous visits from research, governmental and corporate institutions to observe the initial success with Bt cotton. For example, in 2014, delegations from neighbouring Benin and Togo visited Burkina Faso at the invitation of the biosecurity experts network of the New Partnership for Africa s Development (NEPAD). The message they received was very clear: Burkina Faso in West Africa has had a tremendous success with Bt cotton. Yields and farmers incomes have risen, chemical use is down, and cotton and cottonseed oil have become major export earners. Burkina s [neighbours] are beginning to take note. 73 Yet, just one year later, the phaseout of Bt cotton started in Burkina Faso. 72 Ibidem. 73 Monsanto blog. Bt cotton wins fans in West Africa. burkina-faso/ 29

41 CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS THE introduction of GM crops in developing countries is often heralded as a solution to the agricultural challenges and poverty that many small farmers face. Yet, closer examination of the evidence has shown that the performance and impacts of GM crops have in reality been extremely inconsistent, with differentiated effects and dependent on a range of factors such as agronomic, socioeconomic and institutional aspects. 74 Bt cotton has been introduced in developing countries in the context of a narrow focus on the insect resistance trait. This cotton variety has taken the place of other varieties in countries such as India and Burkina Faso, despite the latter varieties having long traditions of high-quality cotton bred for numerous traits important to farmers and textile producers. The rush to market and the single-trait focus have been at the heart of significant failures such as the one experienced in Burkina Faso. Nature and agricultural crops work together in a holistic manner, and many elements and factors need to be taken into account when conducting research and farming. Yield is by no means the only measure of success. Any assessment of the 74 Glover D Is Bt Cotton a Pro-Poor Technology? A Review and Critique of the Empirical Record. Journal of Agrarian Change, 10 (4):

42 implications of GM crops on smallholder farmers in developing countries would therefore necessitate a broader range of research questions and methods. 75 Despite the national biosafety law requiring a study about the ethical, social and economic impacts of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) prior to their introduction, it is not known whether such a study was conducted in Burkina Faso. The introduction of Bt cotton in Burkina Faso was greatly aided by the particular circumstances there: the highly vertically integrated cotton sector, dominated by a few cotton companies backed by the State. Even with the facilitative conditions such as easy access to credit and provision of Bt cotton seed to farmers, however, the loss of quality characteristics with Bt cotton has had serious market impacts on the country s main export crop. An important factor in relation to the adoption of Bt cotton in Burkina Faso is the lack of choice that farmers had. Many farmers who were interviewed felt that the cultivation of Bt cotton had been a decision imposed on them by the cotton company SOFITEX given its dominant position in the cotton sector. In the end, the whole saga has left small farmers vulnerable and disempowered. While the majority of the farmers interviewed would prefer to grow conventional cotton, it remains to be seen if their opinions will be valued in any future decision on whether to return to cultivating Bt cotton or not. 75 Ibidem. 31

43 African countries should learn the lessons from what happened in Burkina Faso and make a step up towards supporting African family farmers in promoting sustainable agroecology practices. A revolution in agriculture is needed, taking into account that the agrochemical- and transgenic-centred model is fast becoming obsolete in many parts of the world. As a recent report from the African Centre for Biodiversity and Friends of the Earth Africa concludes, The current chemical-input approach to agriculture that has dominated the agricultural discourse, policy and practice since the 1960s must be urgently replaced with a biological approach. 76 Instead of promoting the use of transgenic varieties, which often fall short of their promise in the short or long term, indigenous varieties should be protected and promoted. 77 Ample evidence exists showing that supporting and empowering African family farmers in cultivating with agroecological practices can effect the real revolution needed to bring about a system of agriculture that is sustainable, is resilient, enhances livelihoods, provides adequate nutrition and is more equitable African Centre for Biodiversity and Friends of the Earth Africa Who will feed Africans? Ibidem. 78 IPES-Food From uniformity to diversity: A paradigm shift from industrial agriculture to diversified agroecological systems. International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems, Brussels. 32

44 ANNEX I. EXPLANATORY NOTE ON THE FACT-FINDING MISSION IN HOUNDÉ THE fact-finding mission to Houndé, one of the main cottonproducing areas in Burkina Faso, took place on September The mission primarily aimed to obtain data related to the cultivation of Bt cotton that was representative for a sample of approximately a hundred cotton farmers in the area. The mission was led by Mr. Lucien Silga, coordinator at FIAN Burkina Faso, and Dr. Juan López Villar on behalf of the nongovernmental organizations African Centre for Biodiversity and Third World Network. Two resource persons accompanied the mission to provide interpretation and guidance in the area: Ousamane Tiendrebeogo and Mohamed Traore. Focus groups A total of 58 cotton producers attended four focus groups covering four different localities of Houndé. Three of the focus groups were composed of male cotton producers, and one (Dohoun) was exclusively composed of female participants. Venue and number of participants in focus groups Locality Number of participants Pê 16 Karaba 9 Dohoun 13 Boni-Bancié 20 33

45 The main findings of the discussions in the four focus groups were the following: 79 Farmers felt that the cultivation of Bt cotton had been more a result of an imposition from SOFITEX rather than a recommendation. There had been no meetings with the farmers to clearly explain the decision to adopt Bt cotton. They felt that SOFITEX did not give a choice to the producers as it was the company that provided them with agricultural inputs. Some said that SOFITEX told some farmers that if they did not take the GM varieties, they would not be given fertilizers. SOFITEX has a dominant position in the cotton sector. It fixes the prices of agricultural inputs and organizes credit to farmers as well. For instance, it provides seeds on credit and when the farmer comes to sell it the cotton, it recovers the cost of the seeds; if the farmer s cotton harvest is not enough to repay the credit, then the farmer is in debt. Farmers were told by SOFITEX that Bt cotton did not have to be treated with pesticides. The farmers eventual experience contradicted that claim. Some of them said that they spent the same amount on pesticides with Bt cotton as with conventional cotton. According to the farmers, the cotton fibre from conventional cotton was of better quality than that of Bt cotton. The reason given to the farmers for subsequently abandoning Bt cotton was that the Bt cotton had lost markets, particularly abroad. Several farmers reported having lost numerous head of cattle that had been in contact with Bt cotton. 79 See Annex II for the questions discussed in the focus groups. 34

46 Individual surveys Thirty-nine individual surveys were conducted with cotton farmers from different parts of Houndé. Those interviewed individually did not participate in the focus groups. Below are the main findings from the individual surveys: 80 All the farmers interviewed had cultivated cotton and almost 90% of them had planted an average surface area of between 1 and 10 ha. According to the people queried, the cultivation of cotton was very important for the community as a whole, as well as at the household level % of all the participants in the individual surveys agreed that the awareness-raising activities carried out by SOFITEX were the major determining factor compelling them to choose to cultivate Bt cotton and not other varieties. SOFITEX is the only cotton buyer. In the context of the relations between SOFITEX and the producers, 97.50% of the farmers surveyed affirmed that they did not have the freedom to sell their cotton to other buyers % of the cotton producers surveyed declared that conventional cotton is more profitable than Bt cotton % of those surveyed affirmed that conventional cotton requires greater labour in comparison with Bt cotton % said that they did not have a choice between the cultivation of conventional cotton and Bt cotton % of the cotton farmers interviewed were convinced that they did not receive full information about Bt cotton % of the cotton producers interviewed with experience in cultivating both types of cotton said that they preferred to cultivate conventional cotton. 80 See Annex III for the questions posed in the individual surveys. 35

47 ANNEX II. QUESTIONNAIRE MODEL FOR THE FOCUS GROUPS Questions for the focus groups relating to the socioeconomic effects of Bt cotton in Houndé 1. Was Bt cotton cultivation imposed or recommended to you? 2. Who imposed or recommended the cultivation of Bt cotton? 3. What information was given to you about Bt cotton? 4. How do the prices of Bt cotton and conventional cotton compare? 5. What are the comparative costs of pesticides to treat one hectare of Bt cotton and one hectare of conventional cotton? 6. In terms of quality, what comparison can you make between the fibre of Bt cotton and that of conventional cotton? 7. In terms of profit, which variety is more profitable? 8. In your opinion, for what reason has Bt cotton production been abandoned this year? 9. What are your real concerns about cotton production? 10. If you really have the choice, which variety would you prefer to cultivate? 11. What solutions would you propose? 36

48 ANNEX III. FORMAT OF INDIVIDUAL SURVEY Text of the individual questionnaire about the effects of Bt cotton in Houndé IDENTIFICATION Cotton zone Locality (village) Name Age and gender Marital status INDIVIDUAL SURVEY 1. Have you cultivated cotton in the past 10 years? a. Yes b. No 2. What is the average surface area of cotton cultivation? a. < 1 ha b. > 1 ha < 10 ha c. > 10 ha 3. What is the importance of cotton cultivation within your community? a. Very important b. Important c. Marginal 4. What is the importance of cotton cultivation in your own household? a. Very important b. Important c. Marginal 37

49 5. Have you cultivated Bt cotton? a. Yes b. No 6. If so, since when?. 7. Who recommended the cultivation of Bt cotton? 8. Before Bt cotton, did you cultivate conventional cotton? a. Yes b. No 9. How do you compare the revenues of Bt cotton with those of conventional cotton? a. More revenue with the conventional cotton b. More revenue with the Bt cotton 10. Explain the differences if any exist 11. Did you have the choice of cultivating Bt cotton or conventional cotton?. 12. Do you think you have obtained all the necessary information in relation to Bt cotton?. 13. With the experience acquired, what would you chose to cultivate, conventional cotton or Bt cotton?. 14. Do you think you have the ability to choose? a. Yes b. No 15. If not, explain. 38

50