PAVEMENT ENGINEERING. Principles and Practice. Rajib. Second Edition. B. Mallick and Tahar El-Korchi. CRC Press. Taylor & Francis Group

Transcription

1 Second Edition PAVEMENT ENGINEERING Principles and Practice Rajib B. Mallick and Tahar El-Korchi CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis an Croup, informa business

2 Contents Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgments Authors xxi xxiii xxv xxvii Chapter 1 Introduction and Description of Pavements Importance Functions Design and Construction Maintenance and Rehabilitation Important Issues Functional Requirements Types and Uses of Pavements Different Features of Typical Asphalt Pavements Different Features of Typical Concrete Pavements Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements Composite Pavements Selecting the Type of Pavement Research on Pavements 13 Questions 14 Chapter 2 Principles of Mix and Structural Design and Construction of Asphalt Pavement Overview Traffic and Load Distribution Concept Materials and Layers Soils Aggregates Asphalt Environment Mix Design Structural Design Link between Mix and Structural Design Theoretical Considerations for Structural Design Hooke's Theory of Elasticity Boussinesq's Method Application, Extension, and Refinement of Boussinesq's Method Burmister's Method for Two-Layer Systems Odemark's Method of Equivalent Layers 33 vii

3 viii Contents Fox and Acum and Fox's Solutions Computer Programs Principles of Good Construction Putting Everything Together 42 Questions 43 Chapter 3 Principles of Structural Design, Mix Design, and Construction of Concrete Pavements Overview Structural Design Theoretical Considerations Stresses Due to Curvature and Bending in Slabs Stresses Due to Temperature Curling Stresses and Deflections due to Applied Loading Corner Slab Loading Interior Slab Loading Edge Slab Loading Computer Programs for Rigid Pavements Combined Stresses Stresses Due to Friction Joint Opening Joints Transverse Contraction Joints Longitudinal Joints Construction Joints Expansion Joints Joint Design Joint Spacing for Airfields Variable Joint Spacing Skewed Joints Aggregate Interlock between Joints Design of Dowels Dowel Diameter Design Allowable Bearing Stress Bearing Stress on One Dowel Concrete Properties and Mix Design Hydration, Strength, and Materials Construction 82 Questions 83 Chapter 4 Standards Importance of Standards The American Society of Testing and Materials The American Society of State Highway and Transportation Officials Use of Standards in Materials Selection, Mix Design, and Structural Design Use of Standards in Quality Control in Construction Important Specifications 89 Questions 92

4 Contents IX Chapter 5 Traffic Different Types of Highway Traffic Measurement of Traffic Loads Load Equivalency Factor and Equivalent Single-Axle Load Flexible Pavements Rigid Pavements Alternative Load Equivalent Factor Concept Equivalent Single-Wheel Load Conversion to Equivalent Gear Conversion to Equivalent Annual Departure Truck Tire Pressure Truck Speed Effect of Load and Tire Pressure Aircraft Loading, Gear Configuration, and Tire Pressure 109 Questions HI Chapter 6 Drainage Source and Effect of Water Estimating Flow Return Period Rainfall Intensity Hydroplaning and Surface Drainage System Inlets Subsurface Drainage System Groundwater Water Entering through Cracks Artesian Aquifers Melting Snow Design of Subsurface Drainage Structures Design of Permeable Base Materials for Permeable Base Design of Separator or Filter Layer Geotextile Separator Layer Design of Edge Drains Consideration of Drainage in Pavement Design Pumping in Rigid Pavements Use of Software for Design of Drainage Structures 143 Questions 151 Chapter 7 Soil Overview Soils in Subgrade Mass-Volume Relationships Grain Size Distribution: Gradation Effect of Water Soil Classification AASHTO Method Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM) Density and Optimum Moisture Content 163

5 X Contents 7.8 Hydraulic Conductivity Frost Susceptibility Swell Potential Stiffness and Strength of Soils California Bearing Ratio Test (AASHTO T-193) Resilient Modulus Test (AASHTO T-307) Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (ASTM D6951) Subgrade Soil Tests for Rigid Pavements Plate Load Test Subbase and Unstabilized Base Soil Stabilization Concepts and Methods: Chemical and Mechanical Mechanical Stabilization by Densification or Compaction Effect of Compaction on Soil Properties Field Compaction Field Control Measuring Devices Intelligent Soil Compaction System Use of Geosynthetics Lime Treatment of Soils Cement Treatment of Soil Mixture Design Process Asphalt (Bituminous) Treated Soil Stabilization Mechanism with Asphalt Treatment Mix Design Procedure Dust Control 194 Questions 195 Chapter 8 Aggregates for Asphalt and Concrete Mixes Definition, Parent Rock, and Types Suitability for Application Production Overview of Desirable Properties Properties Critical for Structural Layers Properties Critical for Drainage Layers Properties Critical for Asphalt Mix Layers Properties Critical for Cement Concrete Layers Gradation for Asphalt Pavements Aggregate Tests Specific Gravities and Absorption Cleanliness and Deleterious Materials Toughness or Resistance against Abrasion Loss Particle Shape and Surface Texture Durability/Soundness Expansive Characteristics Polishing and Frictional Characteristics Aggregate Tests Specifically for Concrete Fineness Modulus (FM; ASTM C125) Gradation Bulk Density and Voids in Aggregates Test 216

6 Contents x' 8.14 Automated Aggregate Analysis (AASHTO TP81 and PP64) Artificial Aggregates 216 Questions 217 Chapter 9 Asphalt and Emulsions Asphalt Binder Naturally Occurring Asphalts Lake Asphalt Rock Asphalt Gilsonite Refined Asphalt from Crude Oil Safe Delivery, Storage, and Handling of Asphalts Causes of Hazards and Precautions Health Hazards Precautions and Good Practices Asphalt Binder Properties Specific Gravity: ASTM D Cleveland Open Cup Method (Flash Point): ASTM D Solubility Test: ASTM D Spot Test: AASHTO T Penetration: ASTM D Viscosity Tests Softening Point (Ring and Ball) Test: ASTM D Fraass Breaking Point Test: BS EN 12593, BS Ductility: ASTM Dl Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT): ASTM D Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT): ASTM D-2872, BS EN 12591, AASHTOT Asphalt Binder Properties and Pavement Distress and Performance Aging of Asphalt Binder Hardening Stiffness Viscosity for Stiffness Viscoelastic Nature of Asphalt and Direct Measurement of Stiffness Tensile Behavior Superpave (Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements) High-Temperature Viscosity Complex Modulus and Phase Angle Aging Tests DSR Tests Conducted on Aged Asphalt Low-Temperature Stiffness (ASTM D-6648, AASHTO T-313) Direct Tension Test (ASTM D-6723, AASHTO T-314) Superpave Requirements Explanation Multiple Stress Creep Recovery Test (AASHTO TP70, Specification, AASHTO MP19) Recovery of Asphalt Binder from Asphalt Mix Adhesion Properties Asphalt Emulsions 248

7 xjj Contents Properties Tests for Asphalt Emulsions Classification of Emulsions and Selection 251 Questions 253 Chapter 10 Concrete Fundamentals for Rigid Pavements Concrete Aggregates Cement Types of Portland Cement Water Hydration Steel in Concrete 261 Questions 262 Chapter 11 Distress and Performance Distresses in Asphalt Pavements Bleeding Block Cracking Corrugations Delamination Edge Cracks Fatigue Cracks and Edge Fatigue Cracks Longitudinal Joint Cracks Polished Aggregate Potholes Raveling Reflective Cracking Rutting Slippage Crack Thermal Cracks Distresses in Concrete Pavements Corner Breaks Durability Cracking (or "D" Cracking) Longitudinal Cracking Transverse Cracking Spalling of Transverse Joints Map Cracking and Scaling Polished Aggregate Popouts Blowups Faulting of Transverse Joints and Cracks Lane-to-Shoulder Dropoff Lane-to-Shoulder Separation Patch/Patch Deterioration Water Bleeding and Pumping Punchouts Joint Seal Damage Consideration of Performance 270

8 Contents xiii 11.4 Damage Forensic Investigation for Determination of Type and Cause of Distress Forensic Investigation Plan Nondestructive and Destructive Tests 273 Questions 276 Chapter 12 Consideration of Major Distress Mechanisms and Material Characterization for Asphalt Pavements Fatigue Cracking Material Characterization Tests Indirect Tensile Strength: Test Method Resilient Modulus Dynamic Modulus (AASHTO TP62-03) Models Definition of Failure Use of Models Relationship between Mix Design and Fatigue Performance Relationship between Pavement Structure and Fatigue Performance Steps for Avoiding Premature Fatigue Cracking Thermal Cracking Material Characterization Models Environmental Conditions Regression Equation Approach Fracture Mechanics Approach: SHRP Thermal Cracking Model Models for Cracking Cracking and Properties of Asphalts and Aggregates Rutting or Permanent Deformation Material Characterization Creep Testing TriaxialTest Models Consideration of Rutting in Asphalt Mix Only Statistical Predictive Models on the Basis of Different Properties Layered Vertical Permanent Strain Approach Permanent Strain Rate Method Plastic-Elastic Vertical Strain Ratio Method Rutting Rate Method Alternate Model Relating Tertiary Flow Characteristics to Mix Properties Models for Unbound Materials Ayres Combined Model for Subgrade and Granular Materials Equivalent Temperature Concept El-Basyouny and Witczak Mode! Definition of Failure Smoothness Consideration 315

9 xjv Contents 12.5 Top-Down Cracking Pavement Surface Characteristics 319 Questions 320 Chapter 13 Distress Models and Material Characterization for Concrete Pavements Distresses and Models Cracking Fatigue Cracking in JPCP Zero-Maintenance Design Fatigue Model Calibrated Mechanistic Design Fatigue Model ERES-COE Fatigue Model PCA Fatigue Model ARE Fatigue Model Vesic Distress Model RISC Distress Function Transverse Cracking Transverse Joint Faulting in Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements Models to Predict Faulting Slab Corner Deflections Erosion Characterization of Base/Subbase Characterizing Free Water within a Pavement Structure PRS M-E Transverse Joint-Faulting Prediction Model Punchouts in Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements Development of CRCP Punchout Models Punchout Distress Model Smoothness Considerations Tests for Concrete Flexural Strength Tests Compressive Strength Tensile Strength Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Test Fatigue Testing for PCC 344 Questions 345 Chapter 14 Mix and Structural Design of Asphalt Mix Layers Physical and Volumetric Properties of Asphalt Mix Bulk-Specific Gravity of Compacted Asphalt Mix (Gmb) Theoretical Maximum Density or Maximum Specific Gravity of the Mix (Gmm)/Rice Specific Gravity Mix Design Methods Hveem Method (ASTM D-1560, D-1561) Marshall Method Superpave Method Mix Design Systems of South Africa, France, the United Kingdom and Australia Structural Design Empirical Methods California Bearing Ratio Method American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Method 371

10 Contents xv Mechanistic-Empirical Example of Structural Design Procedure Using Methods 375 Mechanistic Principles NCHRP 1-37A Mechanistic-Empirical Design Guide 382 Questions 397 Chapter 15 Mix Design and Structural Design for Concrete Pavements Mix Design Concrete Strength Water-to-Cementitious Materials Ratio Selection of the Water-to-Cementitious Materials Ratio Aggregates Air Content in Concrete Slump Water Content Cementing Materials Content and Type Admixtures Example of Mix Design Structural Design AASHTO Method Design Input Parameters Reliability Serviceability Drainage Coefficient (Cd) Load Transfer Coefficient (J) Rigid Foundation at Shallow Depth Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction Software Solutions AASHTO 1998 Supplement to Design Guide MEPDG Design Guide Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements CRCP Design Criteria Structural Performance Functional Performance Reinforcement for CRCP Design Methods for CRCP AASHTO Interim MEPDG AASHTO-86/93 Design Procedure Reinforcement Design Design Variables for Longitudinal Reinforcement: AASHTO Method Limiting Criteria Longitudinal Reinforcement Design Procedure 455 Questions 455 Chapter 16 Construction of Asphalt Pavements Overview Production Transportation and Laydown 458

11 <vj Contents 16.2 Description and Requirements of Components in Hot Mix Asphalt-Producing Plants Aggregate Stockpiles Cold Feed Bins Dryer Drum Hot Elevator and Bins Pugmill Hauling and Storage Drum Plant Dust Collection from HMA Plants Asphalt Storage Tanks Equipment Used for Transportation, Laydown, and Compaction Trucks Pavers Rollers Important Factors Specifications Variability of Materials Use of Quality Control Charts Preparation of Subgrade and Construction of Base and Subbase Layers Quality Control and Quality Assurance Construction of Longitudinal Joints Techniques of Constructing Good Longitudinal Joints Combination of Notched Wedge Joint, Rubberized Asphalt Tack Coat, and Minimum Joint Density Requirements Rubberized Asphalt Tack Coat and Minimum Joint Density Requirements Notched Wedge Joint and Minimum Joint Density Requirements Cutting Wheel and Minimum Joint Density Requirements Infrared Joint Heating and Minimum Joint Density Requirements 482 Questions 482 Chapter 17 Construction of Concrete Pavements Overview Concrete Production Preparation of Subgrade and Base Presetting Reinforcements such as Dowel Bars, Tiebars, and Continuous Reinforcement Dowel Bars Tiebars Reinforcing Steel (CRCP) PCC Slab Construction Slipform Paving Stringlines for Slipform Paver Fixed Form Paving Concrete Placement 494

12 Contents xvii Consolidation Screeding Finishing Bullfioating Texturing Protection of Pavement Surface from Rain Construction Headers Curing Evaporation Rate Paving in Hot and Cold Weather Conditions Edge Slump Smoothness Jointing HIPERPAV Software Joint Sealing Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QC/QA) Differential Scanning Calorimeter Blaine Fineness Gradation Penetration Resistance Cement Materials Temperature Profile (the "Coffee Cup Test") Water-Cement Ratio (Microwave Oven Test) Concrete and Subgrade Temperature and Environmental Conditions Concrete Strength (Early Age) Air Void Analyzer Maturity Test Consistency Air Content Density and Yield Sampling Fresh Concrete 514 Questions 514 Chapter 18 Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements: Pavement Management Systems Overview Steps in PMS Different PMS Approaches Criteria for Making Decisions Distress Survey Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Asphalt Pavements Maintenance Primary Corrective Maintenance Activities Primary Preventive Maintenance Activities Recycling Hot In-Place Recycling Cold Recycling Hot Mix Recycling Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Concrete Pavements Joint and Crack Sealing Slab Stabilization 534

13 xviij Contents Diamond Grinding Load Transfer Devices Precast Panels for Repair and Rehabilitation Portland Cement Concrete Overlays Warranty Projects 536 Questions 537 Chapter 19 Airport Pavements Types, Importance, and Specifications Structural Design of Airport Asphalt Mix Pavements Design of Flexible Pavement over Existing Pavement HMA Overlay on Existing Flexible Pavement HMA Overlay on Existing Rigid Pavement with or without Existing HMA Overlay Design of Concrete Pavements Design for Airport Pavements with Light Aircrafts Advanced Design Methods Asphalt Pavements For Vertical Strain ev on Top of the Subgrade For Horizontal Strain eh at the Bottom of the Surface Layer Rigid Pavements Nondestructive Testing and Rehabilitation of Airfield Pavements ACN-PCN Rehabilitation of PCC Airport Pavements Construction Quality Control and Acceptance Testing Constructing, Checking, and Improving Friction/Skid Resistance Drainage of Runways Asphalt Mixes for Airport Pavement Fuel-Resistant Mix Construction and Maintenance of Longitudinal Joints Time of Construction De-Icing and Anti-Icing Maintenance of Airport Pavements 571 Questions 572 Chapter 20 Nondestructive Tests Nuclear Gage Falling Weight Deflectometer Direct Use of Deflections Relationship between Deflection Bowl Parameters and Stresses and Strains at Various Locations in the Pavement Back-Calculation Steps in Performing Back-Calculation 578, with Evercalc Program Detection of Voids in PCC Pavements Detection of Nonresilient Pavement Layer Behavior 580

14 Contents xix Evaluation of Experimental Paving Materials Determination of Load Transfer Efficiency for Jointed PCC Pavements Portable Falling Weight Deflectometer Rolling Wheel Deflectometer GeoGauge (Soil Stiffness Gauge) for Soil Compaction Ground-Penetrating Radar Portable Seismic Pavement Analyzer Free Free Resonant Column Test Ultrasonic Test Magnetic Induction Tomography 586 Question 586 Chapter 21 Economic Analysis and Cost-Saving Concepts Economic Analysis Engineering Economy Concept of Life Cycle Cost Techniques Costs in Life Cycle Cost Analysis Probabilistic versus Deterministic Approach Information on Life Cycle Cost Analysis for Pavements Software for Running Life Cycle Cost Analysis Cost-Saving Concepts Principles of Perpetual Pavements Economic Benefits of Recycling 594 Questions 594 Chapter 22 Instrumentation in Asphalt and Concrete Pavement Temperature Soil Moisture Content Frost Depth Strain in Asphalt or Concrete Pavement and Soil Layers Stress in Soil Layers Deflection in Layers Data Acquisition Systems 600 Questions 602 Chapter 23 Specialty Applications Asphalt Mixtures Polymer-Modified Asphalt Asphalt Rubber Mixes Stone Matrix Asphalt Porous Friction Course Warm Mix Asphalt Ultrathin Wearing Course Concrete Whitetopping 608 Questions 608

15 xx Contents Chapter 24 Sustainable Pavement Engineering Need for Pavements First Consideration Design of Layout of Pavements Construction of Pavements Use of Waste and Byproducts in Pavements Workers Pavement-Building-Nature Symbiosis Regulatory Bodies and Impetus for Sustainability Human Factor 622 Questions 622 Chapter 25 Environmental Mitigation in Transportation Projects How Transportation Impacts the Environment Model for Assessing Impacts and Developing Mitigation Measures Project Conception Impact Assessment Alternatives Analysis Public Involvement and Review Enforcement and Post-Project Monitoring Transportation Planning and Regional Mitigation Approaches 634 Questions 637 Conversion Factors 639 References 641 Bibliography 649 Index 655