Bridge Engineering. Demetrios E. Tonias, RE. President HMC Group Ltd. Me Graw Hill. Jim J. Zhao, P.E. President Frederick Engineering Consultants, LLC

Transcription

1 . *<< Bridge Engineering Demetrios E. Tonias, RE. President HMC Group Ltd. Jim J. Zhao, P.E. President Frederick Engineering Consultants, LLC Second Edition Me Graw Hill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

2 Contents Design Examples and Perspectives Preface Preface to First Edition xvii xk xxi Section 1 The Structure USE AND FUNCTIONALITY Terminology and Nomenclature Superstructure Substructure Appurtenances and Site-Related Features Miscellaneous Terms Structure Types and Applications Slab-on-Stringer One-Way Slab Steel and Concrete Box Girder Cable-Stayed Suspension Steel and Concrete Arch Truss ORIGINS OF THE MODERN HIGHWAY BRIDGE BRIDGE DESIGNERS AND THEIR PROJECTS THE BRIDGE ENGINEERING LEXICON 21 REFERENCES 37 Section 2 Project Inception PROJECT FUNDING User Fees NonuserFees Special Benefit Fees Private Financing Debt Financing Conclusions - 42

3 vi BRIDGE ENGINEERING fn TT^7 2.2 Types of Design Standards to Supplementing As-Built Plans 2.2 TYPES OF DESIGN STANDARDS General Specifications Material-Related Design Codes Steel Concrete Timber Use of Design Standards SITE INSPECTION The Scoping Inspection Recording the Inspection Rating Substructure Elements Joints Bearings, Bridge Seats, and Pedestals Concrete Elements Steel Elements Timber Elements Embankment Rating Superstructure Elements Deck and Wearing Surface Primary and Secondary Members Rating Appurtenance and Site-Related Elements Railing Drainage Systems Utilities Lighting and Signing Inspecting for Scour The Channel The Substructure Conclusions SITE SURVEY Topography Planimetry Structure Features PHYSICAL TESTING Coring Delamination Testing Testing for Cover Measuring Steel Thickness Detecting Fatigue Cracks THE INSPECTION TEAM AS-BUILT PLANS AND OTHER RECORD DATA Supplementing As-Built Plans Guard Railing Drainage Facilities - 69

4 Contents from Other Sources to Latex Modified Concrete CONTENTS vii 3. TrafficBarriers Miscellaneous Elements Other Sources CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES Section 3 The Superstructure SUPERSTRUCTURE TYPES Steel Superstructures Rolled Beam Rolled Beam with Cover Plate Plate Girder Box Girder Steel Rigid Strut Frame Large Structures Concrete Superstructures Prestressed Concrete Girder Concrete Box Girder Concrete Slab Adjacent Prestressed Slab Concrete Rigid Frame Concrete Strut Frame Concrete Arch Timber Superstructures Glulam Timber Stressed-Laminated Timber Deck Trestle Truss Secondary Members Diaphragms Lateral Bracing Portal and Sway Bracing DECK TYPES Noncomposite and Composite Decks Cast-in-Place Concrete Slab Precast, Prestressed Concrete Panels Steel Orthotropic Plate Steel Grid Timber Corrugated Metal Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) WEARING SURFACE TYPES Asphalt Concrete Latex Modified Concrete

5 viii BR.DGE ENGINEERING 3jj The Many Names of Working Stress and Limit States High Density-Low Slump Concrete Integrated Wearing Surface DECK JOINT TYPES Open Joints Filled Joints Compression Seal Joints Strip Seal Joints Modular Joints Finger Plate Joints Sliding Plate Joints Conclusions DESIGN LOADS Background and History Permanent Loads Dead Load Superimposed Dead Load Pressures Temporary Loads Vehicle live Load Earthquake Loading Wind Loading Channel Forces Longitudinal Forces Centrifugal Forces Impact (Dynamic Load Allowance) Construction Loads Deformation and Response Loads Creep Shrinkage Settlement Uplift Thermal Forces Group Loading Combinations AASHTO Standard Specifications AASHTO LRFD Specifications DESIGN METHODS Working Stress Design Limit States Design Background and History The Many Names of Working Stress and limit States Allowable Stress Design Service Load Design Load Factor Design Strength Design Ultimate Strength Load and Resistance Factor Design - 126

6 Contents from CONTENTS ix 3.7 Internal Forces to Choosing a Rolled Section 3.7 INTERNAL FORCES Bending Force Shear Force Torsional Force Axial Force LOAD DISTRIBUTION How Loads Are Distributed Different Types of Load Distribution Interior Longitudinal Members Exterior Longitudinal Members Transverse Members Multibeam Concrete Decks (Concrete Panels) Conclusions CONCRETE DECK SLABS Effective Span Length Calculation of Bending Moment Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic Dead Load Moments Total Factored Moment Distribution Reinforcement Minimum Slab Thickness Railing Loads AASHTO LRFD Method Slab Reinforcement Details Construction, Rehabilitation, and Maintenance Increased Slab Thickness and Cover Coated Reinforcement Waterproofing Membrane Drainage Snow and Ice Removal Patching Sealing Cathodic Protection Conclusions COMPOSITE STEEL MEMBERS Composite Action Shored and Unshored Construction Effective Flange Width The Transformed Section Effects of Creep Choosing a Rolled Section Compute Design Moments and Shear Forces Total Factored Moment and Shear Forces Choosing a Section Composite Section Strength - LFD Method - 178

7 x BRIDGE ENGINEERING,, Moment Distribution 5. Composite Section Strength - LRFD Method Conclusions Shear Connector Design Fatigue Additional Geometric Constraints Effect of Stay-in-Place Forms Ultimate Strength Cover Plates Advantages of a Cover Plate Cover Plate Area Cover Plate Length Fatigue - AASHTO Standard Specifications Fatigue - AASHTO LRFD Specifications Welds Problems with Cover Plates Bearing Stiffeners with Rolled Beams Deflections Camber PLATE GIRDERS Hybrid Girders Elements of a Plate Girder Flange Plate Thickness Flange Plate Economy Web Thickness Web Plate Economy Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners Transverse Intermediate Stiffener Economy Bearing Stiffeners Longitudinal Stiffeners Longitudinal Stiffener Economy Miscellaneous Economy Issues Lateral Bracing for Plate Girders Where Bracing Is Located Bracing as a Function of Span Length Placement and Types of Lateral Bracing Eliminating Lateral Bracing Economy of Lateral Bracing Cross-Frames for Plate Girders CONTINUOUS BEAMS Advantages of Continuous Beams Rolled Sections as Continuous Beams Moment Distribution Overview Fixed End Moments Relative Beam Stiffness Fixity Factor Stiffness Factor Distribution Factor - 236

8 Contorts from CONTENTS Xi Influence Lines to Weathering Steel 7. Carry Over Factor Method Synopsis Influence lines General Moment Support Equation Unit Loads Influence Data at Intermediate Points Predefined Tables Using Influence lines Area under an Influence line Conclusions Alternate Method for Analysis of Continuous Beams live Load on Continuous Beam Structures Negative Moment Using Influence lines Special Load Points Maximum Shear Impact for Continuous Beams Composite Section in Negative Bending AASHTO Standard Specifications AASHTO LRFD Specifications Conclusions Beam Splices Required Strength Welded Splices Bolted Splices Bolted Web Splices Bolted Flange Splices Hanger Assemblies PROTECTING STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURES Protective Coating Systems Background and History The Nature of Steel Corrosion Inhibitive Primers Sacrificial Primers Barrier Coatings Surface Preparation Overcoating Micaceous Iron Oxide (MIO) Coatings Conclusions Containment and Disposal of Paint Waste Background and History Containment Devices Recycling Abrasives Disposal Methods Conclusions Weathering Steel Background and History Material Properties of Weathering Steel Environmental Considerations Maintenance of Weathering Steel - 310

9 Xil BRIDGE ENGINEERING Contents from Galvanising to Deterioration of Prestressed Concrete 5. Inspection of Weathering Steel Rehabilitation of Weathering Steel Conclusions Galvanizing Overview Benefits and Drawbacks Conclusions LOAD RATING Inventory and Operating Ratings Field Measurements and Inspection Loading the Structure Working Stress Method Steel and Wrought Iron Conventionally Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Timber Load Factor Method LRFD Method Overview The Concept of Safe Evaluation Conclusions PRESTRESSED CONCRETE Overview of Prestressed Concrete Pretensioned Beams Posttensioned Beams Application ofpre-and Posttensioned Concrete Prestressing Steels Concrete for Prestressing Composite Beams Advantages Effective Flange Width Horizontal Shear Required Prestress Force Loss of Prestress Elastic Shortening of Concrete Shrinkage of Concrete Creep of Concrete Friction Relaxation of Prestressing Steel Total Loss Estimated Losses Allowable Stresses Flexural Strength PRESTRESSED CONCRETE MAINTENANCE Overview Deterioration of Prestressed Concrete Cracking Other Forms of Concrete Corrosion Deterioration of Prestressing Steel - 356

10 Contentsfrom Inspection of Prestressed Concrete to Rehabilitation and Maintenance CONTENTS Inspection of Prestressed Concrete Rehabilitation of Prestressed Concrete Patching Permanent Formwork Crack Injection Sealers Strengthening Conclusions REFERENCES 362 Section 4 The Substructure ABUTMENTS Types of Abutments Gravity Abutment U Abutment Cantilever Abutment Full Height Abutment Stub Abutment Semi-Stub Abutment Counterfort Abutment Spill-through Abutment Pile Bent Abutment MSE Systems Coulomb Earth Pressure Theory Abutment Stability - Service Load Design Method Load Factor Design Method Load and Resistance Factor Design Method Other Related Foundation Topics Mononobe - Okabe Analysis Background Horizontal and Vertical Seismic Coefficients Basic Assumption Active Earth Pressure Applying Active Earth Pressure Caveats Superstructure Loads Rehabilitation and Maintenance Cracking Surface Deterioration Stability Problems Bridge Seat Deterioration Sheet Piling Abutments Stone Masonry Abutments MSE Systems Footings Piles - 400

11 xiv BRIDGE ENGINEERING Maintenance of Traffic 4.2 PIERS Types of Piers Hammerhead Column Bent PileBent Solid Wall Integral Single Column Behavior and Loading of Piers Design Criteria Design of Compression Members Load Factor Design Considerations Load and Resistance Factor Design Considerations Slenderness Effects Interaction Diagrams Rehabilitation and Maintenance Scour Overview Rehabilitation and Maintenance Replacement of Material Changing the Structure Replacing the Structure BEARINGS Forces Acting on a Bearing Movement of Bearings Types of Bearings Rocker Bearings Roller Bearings Sliding Plate Bearings Pot Bearings Spherical Bearings Elastomeric Bearings Lead Rubber Bearings Rehabilitation and Maintenance REFERENCES 437 Section 5 Implementation & Management THE HIGHWAY Design Elements of a Highway Horizontal Alignment Vertical Alignment Stopping Sight Distance Roadway Width Maintenance of Traffic - 451

12 Contentsfrom CONTENTS X 5.2 Contract Documents to Index 5.2 CONTRACT DOCUMENTS Design Submissions Alternative Study Preliminary Submission Advanced Detail Submission Final Submission Computer Aided Design and Drafting File Organization Geometric Source Files The Forgotten D in CADD Graphic Standards and Quality Control Conclusions BRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Background and History Inventory Database Maintenance Database Project and Network Level Analysis Predicting the Condition of Bridges Miscellaneous Decision Assisting Criteria Costing Models Optimization Models Building the Database Managing Small and Large Structures Current Bridge Management Systems BMS link to Design of Bridges BMS link to Pavement Management Systems GIS and Imaging Technologies REFERENCES 475 Appendix 477 Acknowledgments 479 Illustration credits 480 Index 48i