Arezoo Soltani a & Tron Eid a a Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management,

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1 This article was downloaded by: [Norges Landbrukshoegskole] On: 07 February 2013, At: 06:46 Publisher: Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: Registered office: Mortimer House, Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Forests, Trees and Livelihoods Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: Organization, practices and performance of community-based traditional forest management empirical evidence from Zagros, Iran Arezoo Soltani a & Tron Eid a a Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432, Aas, Norway Version of record first published: 06 Feb To cite this article: Arezoo Soltani & Tron Eid (2013): Organization, practices and performance of community-based traditional forest management empirical evidence from Zagros, Iran, Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, DOI: / To link to this article: PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

2 Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, Organization, practices and performance of community-based traditional forest management empirical evidence from Zagros, Iran Arezoo Soltani and Tron Eid* Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Aas, Norway The main objective of the forest policy in Iran is to protect forests through centralized state forest management. Still, forests are subject to deforestation and forest degradation. Parallel to centralized management, community-based traditional and informal practices are implemented. The aim of this study was to provide empirical evidence on organization, practices and performance of this management. The study was conducted in a village forest in northern Zagros by means of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and a systematic sample plot inventory. In general, the management appeared to be well organized and based on a rich knowledge base among local people. The PRA showed conscious considerations on long-term use of the forest. This was supported by the inventory results showing that the basal area growth (0.19 m 2 ha 21 yr 21 ) was higher than natural mortality (0.06 m 2 ha 21 yr 21 ) and harvest (0.10 m 2 ha 21 yr 21 ). The study provides empirical evidence on successes and failures of community-based traditional management, which is lacking in Iran and as well as internationally. The empirical evidence may be used by Iranian authorities that recently opened up for more focus on local and traditional aspects as an alternative to the unsuccessful centralized state management. Keywords: centralized management; growth; harvest; informal practices; traditional knowledge Introduction Sustainable forest management includes economic, social and ecological aspects. The ecological aspect focuses on balancing use of wood and non-wood products on one side and preserves the forest land appropriately stocked, maintains tree and plant diversity and takes care of forest health on the other. Still, deforestation and forest degradation are key challenges at global as well as local levels. The rate of deforestation has remained alarmingly high, although it recently has been slowing down (FAO 2011). In the past century, governments in many cases shrunk community forest rights and instead imposed centralized state ownership (Enters et al. 2000; Yachkaschi et al. 2010). However, deforestation and forest degradation were in many cases even worsened compared with when local communities managed their resources (Enters et al. 2000; Gautam et al. 2004). Frequently, the process failed because governments in developing countries often are distant from the resource base and have little means to accomplish their policy (Enters et al. 2000). Based on such experiences, devolution of forest resources to communities is promoted as a route to forest resource conservation (Lund and Treue 2008). Many countries have gradually moved away from centralized state forest management towards more local and multi-stakeholder engagement *Corresponding author. arezoo.soltani@umb.no q 2013 Taylor & Francis

3 2 A. Soltani and T. Eid (White and Martin 2002; Gautam et al. 2004; Hayes 2006; Sunderlin et al. 2008; Zoysa and Inoue 2008). Institutional arrangements and forest governance, which help achieving sustainable forest management, have been under discussions since 1980s (Agrawal 2001; White and Martin 2002). Who should own forest, who should have the right to use forest and who should manage the forest, in a context of centralized versus locally based management, have been among the key questions. Some are critical to hand over forest resources to local communities (Robbins 2004), while others are sceptical to the actual results derived from community forest management (Hayes 2006; Brockington 2007); some have concerns on corruption (Veron et al. 2006) or the appropriateness of democratic processes (Hobley 2007), while others believe that local communities and users have sufficient institutions, rules and knowledge to facilitate a sustainable forest management (Ostrom 1990; Brandon and Wells 1992; Hanna et al. 1996; Wily 2004). There is a growing body of literature indicating that devolution of forest resources to local communities leads to better forest management (Gautam et al. 2004; Gibson et al. 2005; Zoysa and Inoue 2008; Kobbail 2010). The appropriateness of the empirical data describing successes or failures in these studies is questionable, however. Some of them are based on secondary information only, some use low-resolution large-scale (national) data sources and some focus on limited parameters only (e.g. species diversity only). Concerns on the lack of empirical evidence showing monitoring outcomes of different institutional arrangements have also been expressed explicitly in previous studies (Blaikie 2006; Hayes 2006). In Iran, forest covers less than 10% of the total land area (Forest, Range and Watershed Management Organization (FRWO) 2005a), and the main objective of the forest policy has been to protect forests (FRWO 2005b). In spite of this, forests in Iran are presently subject to over-exploitation because of intensive human activities and grazing (Ebrahimi Rastaghi et al. 2003). Before 1963, Iran had diversified forest tenure systems ranging from feudalism and forms of private ownership to community and state ownership (Yachkaschi et al. 2010). In 1963, all forest ownership was transferred to the government, and the country has since experienced a centralized state management (Fattahi et al. 2000; Ghazanfari et al. 2004; Yachkaschi et al. 2010). In state management, forest resources have been managed based on regulations and plans approved by the FRWO. About 40% (5 million hectares) of the forest in Iran is located in Zagros Mountains (National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Secretariat 2000). The mountain range is shared between Iran, Iraq and Turkey and is strategically important and economically valuable for Iran (Fattahi 1994; UNDP 2004). The state forest management plans developed for Zagros have focused protection issues and reforestation, but also socioeconomic issues have been involved (Fattahi et al. 2000; Ebrahimi Rastaghi et al. 2003; Ghazanfari et al. 2004; FRWO 2011). The plans have been directed by governmental experts with little participation from the local people and have partly failed because they have conflicted with the needs of local communities. In spite of the centralized state management regime started in 1963, some locally based traditional and informal management practices are still implemented in Zagros. Such practices are residuals of the management that rural and tribal communities have applied for maybe more than thousand years (Ghazanfari et al. 2004; Yachkaschi et al. 2010). The management includes utilization of forest resources by means of tree lopping (cutting branches of trees for livestock fodder), cattle grazing and fuel wood harvesting, where the forest area often is divided into sub-areas belonging to either individual households or a particular village or community (Ghazanfari et al. 2004; Yachkaschi et al. 2010).

4 Community-based forest management 3 There have been few initiatives in Iran to involve local communities in forest policy development. However, in 2003, the High Council of Forest decided to change the name of the long-term plan from Fighting against traditional forest practices to Organizing traditional forest practices. The Extension and Public Participation Bureau is now studying and collecting traditional knowledge on, for example, silviculture, range management and afforestation. There is, however, still a way to go before communitybased forest management plans are accepted and can be implemented officially in Iran. Most previous studies on the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Iran have not focused on local communities, but rather on processes outside the forestry sector (population growth, climate change and fossil fuel prices). Ebrahimpour (2000) and Ghazanfari et al. (2004), however, pointed at the lack of social acceptance of state forest management and its inappropriateness to satisfy the needs of local communities as important reasons of forest degradation. Previous studies have also mainly focused on general effects of human interventions and ecological factors when describing forest conditions (Namiranian and Maleknia 2008; Shakeri et al. 2009), but very few studies have involved any aspects related to traditional forest management and its sustainability. An exception is Ghazanfari et al. (2004), who considered sustainability of traditional forest practices based on forest growth estimates. To understand community-based traditional forest management practices as a system, along with the impact on the long-term development of the forest resources, is important as basis for developing an appropriate forest policy. In Iran, there is certainly a lack of knowledge on community-based traditional management and also a lack of empirical evidence describing successes and failures related to this. Such empirical evidence is also in general scarce in the international literature. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to provide insights into organization, practices and performance of community-based traditional forest management in Zagros, Iran. More specifically, the aims were (1) to identify and describe the organization and practices of the traditional forest management, (2) to describe the forest conditions under such practices and (3) to assess the performance by quantifying forest changes based on growth, mortality and harvest estimates. Materials and methods Study area The study was performed in the village of Ghamishale ( N and E), province of Kurdistan (Figure 1). A long history of forest utilization, existence of traditional forest management practices, forest species distribution and forest structure make Ghamishale as a classic case for Zagros. The forest area is 2304 ha and is formally state owned (after 1963). In addition, 340 ha of pasture and 140 ha of cropland belong to the village. Minimum and maximum elevations are 1400 and 2500 m a.s.l. Annual average, minimum and maximum temperatures are 13.58C, 6.88C and 20.38C, respectively. The area receives 757 mm of annual precipitation (FRWO 2005a). The landscape is mostly steep, and 42% of the forest area has a slope larger than 60%. The main tree species are Quercus brantii var. persica, Quercus infectoria and Quercus libani. The village has 43 households and a population of 221. Economic activities include cattle raising, goat and sheep production, production of food crops including fruits, extracting resin from pistachio and a number of non-farming activities. Income from forests represents about 40% of households total income, while livestock and crop production contribute to about 35% and non-farming activities account for the remaining.

5 4 A. Soltani and T. Eid Figure 1. Study area in village of Ghamishale. Data collection One researcher stayed in the village for approximately 4 months in At the beginning of the stay, the purpose of the study was explained to the villagers to clarify that the researcher was not a governmental employee. The main approach to collect data on the traditional management practices was Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA; Chambers 1994). The information was gathered through semi-structured interviews and group discussion in two stages. First, key informants, that is, some forest owners according to the traditional system and a few members of the village council, were interviewed individually. A first draft of the information was presented to experts at the Universities of Tehran and Kurdistan to determine and verify the quality of preliminary data. Second, all villagers were invited to participate in group discussions where participation was voluntary. Households head were the main contributor to the group discussions. Group discussions were conducted mainly in mosques to secure participation from a variety of families, ages and wealth groups. Women, however, were not active in group discussion because all households heads except one were males. The group size varied between 5 and 18. The preliminary information was first presented to the participants including members of the village council. Participants were then asked to express their ideas on the management practices and the logic behind rules and regulations. The discussions formed the basis for verification and modification of the preliminary information and helped to cover up for unclear aspects.

6 Community-based forest management 5 A participatory land use mapping exercise was also conducted. A first sketch of a map was developed in cooperation with the villagers. This map formed the basis for a transectwalk (Chambers 1994) done in company with two villagers, covering all land uses. A GPS was used, and the data were later digitized to a map using Arc GIS 9.3. A preliminary land use map was presented to villagers, to forest owners and to village council members. The preliminary map was modified according to the complementary information and developed into a final land use map. A reconnaissance forest inventory was also done with 30 systematically distributed sample plots. Based on this, circular 1000 m 2 sample plots were systematically distributed in a 400 m 500 m inventory grid covering the entire forest area aiming for a standard error of 10% for basal area ha 21. The first plot was located randomly near the boundary of the forest, and all subsequent plots were located by means of GPS. A total of 111 sample plots were distributed. Three different traditional forest management practices were identified (Gala-jar, Alef-jar and Bayer; see Results section) during PRA. Thus, for each sample plot, the forest management practices were recorded (Table 1) in cooperation with a forestry expert, that is, a person from the community with practical skills in forestry. In addition, forest management practice changes over the past 30 years and whether there was any type of conflict between the studied village and a neighbouring village in the use of forest and pasture was asked for and recorded for each plot. Elevation, slope and aspect of the plots were measured, while some other characteristics were assessed subjectively: accessibility (easy, medium and difficult) and time needed to reach the settlement from the sample plot and soil productivity (low, medium and high). Within the 1000 m 2 sample plot, all standing trees with diameter at breast height (dbh) larger than or equal to 2.5 cm were recorded. Multi-stemmed trees were recorded as several trees if they were divided below breast height. The recorded items for each tree were species and dbh. Dbh for all standing trees that had died naturally, stump diameter (30 cm above ground) for fallen trees that had died naturally and stump diameter for trees that had been cut were also recorded. For all these categories, the number of years since they died or since they were cut was also assessed. This subjective assessment was assisted by the local forestry expert. Regeneration was considered for a circular sub-plot of 100 m 2. All trees with dbh smaller than 2.5 cm were counted. In addition, the number of trees expected to exceed a dbh of 2.5 cm for the coming year were assessed to describe tree recruitment. On each plot, the nearest and the second nearest living tree to the plot centre with dbh larger than 2.5 cm were chosen as sample trees (222 trees) to record species, stump diameter (sd) and dbh. This was done to establish a dbh stump diameter relationship that could be used to determine dbh where this was lacking because of mortality and harvest. About 82 of these trees were multi-stemmed, that is, they were divided into two or more stems below breast height, and therefore not used in the analysis. The third nearest living tree to the plot centre was selected for core samples. If this tree was multi-stemmed, the next tree was chosen, and so on, to collect data only for one-stemmed trees. Because species, stump diameter and dbh were also recorded for these trees, they could also be used to establish the dbh stump diameter relationship. The core samples were taken to laboratory and growth rings were measured. Because a few core samples were destroyed, the total number of core sample trees was 105.

7 6 A. Soltani and T. Eid Table 1. Variables description. Variable Description Dummy variable Institutional factors Management practice 1. Gala-jar, 2. Alef-jar, 3. Bayer Gala-jar, 1 ¼ yes, 0 ¼ no Alef-jar, 1 ¼ yes, 0 ¼ no Management practice change 1. Alef-jar to Gala-jar, 2. Alef-jar to Bayer Change_AG (Alef-jar to Gala-jar), 1 ¼ yes, 0 ¼ no Change_AB (Alef-jar to Bayer), 1 ¼ yes, 0 ¼ no Conflict 1. Conflict, 2. No conflict Conflict, 1 ¼ yes, 0 ¼ no Ecological and geographical factors Elevation Plot elevation in metres Slope Average plot slope in percent Aspect 1. Sun side, 2. Shadow side Sun side ¼ 1, shadow side ¼ 0 Accessibility 1. Easy, 2. Medium, 3. Difficult Easy, 1 ¼ yes, 0 ¼ no Difficult, 1 ¼ yes, 0 ¼ no Time consumption Time walking from settlement to plot (minute) Productivity 1. High, 2. Medium, 3. Low High, 1 ¼ yes, 0 ¼ no Low, 1 ¼ yes, 0 ¼ no Forest condition variables Number of trees (N) ha 21 (dbh $ 2.5 cm) Basal area (G) m 2 ha 21 Species proportion % of volume Number of seedlings (N seed ) ha 21 (dbh, 2.5 cm) Annual recruitment rate (Recr) ha 21 yr 21 Annual basal area growth (Gwth) m 2 ha 21 yr 21 Annual basal area mortality (Mort) m 2 ha 21 yr 21 Annual basal area harvest (Harv) m 2 ha 21 yr 21 Data analysis Variables describing forest conditions are shown in Table 1. Number of stems (N) and basal area (G) ha 21 were based on 1000 m 2 plots and computed from standard formulae. Species proportions were computed from basal area. Volume was not considered because no appropriate volume equation was available. Number of seedlings (N seed )ha 21 was based on the 100 m 2 sub-plots. Computation of annual recruitment rate (Recr) ha 21 was directly based on the assessment of the number of trees expected to exceed a diameter of 2.5 cm for the coming year. The core samples were measured for the width of the 10 last annual rings. A simple equation predicting annual basal area growth based on dbh was developed (annual basal area growth (m 2 ) ¼ þ *dbh (m), R 2 ¼ 0.49, RMSE ¼ ,

8 Community-based forest management 7 n ¼ 105) and then applied to individual trees to estimate annual basal area growth per tree. Growth (Gwth) ha 21 yr 21 was computed by summarizing growth for all trees on the plot. Annual basal area mortality (Mort) and harvest (Harv) ha 21 yr 21 year were based on the dbh measurements for standing trees that had died naturally, and stump diameters for fallen and cut trees, and on the assessment of the number of years since they died or since they were cut, respectively. Dbh for stumps and fallen trees was estimated from a dbh stump diameter equation developed from all one-stemmed sample trees (dbh ¼ þ 0.84 * sd, R 2 ¼ 0.91, RMSE ¼ 2.51, n ¼ 245). Ordinary least square regression was applied to identify forest condition determinants, that is, to analyse relationships between forest condition variables and institutional, ecological and geographical factors. Dummy variables were applied for the noncontinuous variables (Table 1). The balance between net growth (growth 2 mortality) and amount harvested was applied as an indicator of sustainable use of growing stock, and relationships between this indicator and institutional, ecological and geographical factors were also analysed. Sustainability in this context was assessed as a dummy variable (1 $ 0or0# 0), and logistic regression analysis was applied. Results Local traditional forest management practices Formally, the forest territory holds state ownership (since 1963). Villagers are not allowed to use forest resources without permission from the FRWO. Lopping (cutting small branches of trees for livestock fodder) and tree harvest are banned. The villagers are fined if they are observed doing such activities. Therefore, they exercise lopping and harvest activities hidden. Collecting dead wood and all non-wood forest products are allowed without permission, except extracting pistachio resin, which requires the villagers to pay a fee to FRWO. The outcome of the participatory land use mapping exercise is shown in Figure 2. The village is divided into three parts: Gala-jar, Alef-jar and Bayer. In the Gala-jar part of the territory (Table 2), individual households have private rights to trees on which they may perform tree lopping while the public may use this part for animal grazing and collecting dead wood and non-wood products (e.g. collecting fruits and nuts and extracting resin from wild pistachio). Cutting trees in Gala-jar is forbidden because trees are needed for lopping. In the Alef-jar part, collecting grass is a private right for individual households while all other activities as a main rule is open to the public. In the Bayer part, there is no private right and all activities are in general open to the public (i.e. the area is a common resource pool). The PRA showed that the Gala-jar is divided into sub-areas belonging to individual households. Each household divides its own sub-area into four parcels in which tree lopping is carried out. The lopping is implemented in 4 year rotations, and the parcels of annual lopping areas are named according to when they last were treated (Figure 3). In tree lopping, fresh branches of trees up the stem are trimmed and then stored for use in winter. Leaves, limbs and fresh and young branches are used as fodder mainly for goats, but also for sheep, while the woody part of the branches is used for fuel wood during winter. The lopping is done on the three oak species present in the area: Q. brantii, Q. infectoria and Q. libani, which are different regarding nutrition content and palatability. Villagers prefer Q. libani. Therefore, Gala-jar parts with much of Q. libani are considered to be the most valuable areas. The time for tree lopping is September when most of the

9 8 A. Soltani and T. Eid Figure 2. Management practices in village of Ghamishale. growing season is over (Table 2). Before this time, leaves contain too much of water and are heavy, which makes lopping difficult and increases the probability of leaves to become rotten. If villagers do lopping too late, the trees start losing their leaves. Leaves also start to lose their nutrition quality by the end of September. Therefore, they have to be punctual in the timing of the lopping.

10 Community-based forest management 9 Table 2. Management practices and corresponding rights and activities. Management practice Private rights Private activities Public activities Gala-jar Trees Tree lopping for winter fodder (September) Alef-jar Grass Collecting grass for winter fodder (June) Grazing (whole year, i.e. growing season) Collecting dead wood for fuel wood (whole year) Collecting non-wood forest products (May and August October) Grazing (July November) Cutting trees for fuel wood and construction (November) Collecting dead wood for fuel wood (whole year) Collecting non-wood forest products (May and August October) Bayer None None Grazing (whole year, i.e. growing season) Cutting trees for fuel wood and construction (November) Collecting dead wood for fuel wood (whole year) Collecting non-wood forest products (May and August October) Note: Time for exercising activities in parentheses. Tree lopping is team work and usually done by three people: one climbs up trees and cut branches, while the others collect branches, compact them and in the end store them in the tree canopy. During winter, livestock are taken to where the compacted branches are stored and fed. In Gala-jar (and partly Bayer), grazing starts at the beginning of April and continues throughout the growing season. Because the grass at the beginning of April is not grown sufficiently, the livestock eat limb and young branches of small trees for about 1 month. Many participants in the group discussions mentioned that the owners select a few oak trees for undisturbed growth in Gala-jar territory. These trees are not lopped or harvested, and the idea of saving them is to provide better shade for humans and livestock to facilitate for seed tree regeneration and in general secure resources for the future. The Alef-jar part of the territory is generally located at higher altitudes than Gala-jar because better grasses are available there. Collecting grass is a private right in Alef-jar, while other types of forest utilization are public (Table 2). This part is also divided into sub-areas among the households living in the village. Grazing by cattle is forbidden within the grass growth period (April June). After collecting grass from Alef-jar, grazing by cattle is a public right. All respondents of interviews and participants in group discussion agreed that the above described rights and practices are still valid among local people. Members of the village council and respected old men are the ones deciding on the rules of forest management. They are also active when there are conflicts among villagers because such conflicts cannot be handled in any official court as long as the management is not formally recognized by the state. A higher level Dispute Resolution Council may, however, deal with conflicts between different villages. The owners can sell or rent their own forest areas to other residents of the same village. Children (usually the male ones) will inherit the areas from their parents. It was mentioned

11 10 A. Soltani and T. Eid Figure 3. Illustration of annual lopping area for individual households in Gala-jar territory (Kurpe, Chetir, Khert and Dokhert means lopping 1 2, 3 and 4 years ago, respectively). during the group discussions that this may be a threat to the system because the areas in this way become smaller and may therefore not provide sufficiently for a household s livelihood. It may also force owners to make the period of lopping shorter and intensify harvest, that is, it might be a threat to sustainability. The forest areas belonging to the households under this system are not formally accepted. For example, people cannot use it as collateral to get loan from bank. The results from the PRA also showed that the Gala-jar territory has increased over the past 30 years. Increasing numbers of livestock and thus grazing pressure has led to decreasing grass availability in some parts of Alef-jar territory. Therefore, in parts where grass availability has become lower, villagers have decided to exercise tree looping instead of collecting grass, that is, a change from Alef-jar to Gala-jar. The PRA showed a conflict between the village Ghamishale and the neighbouring village Veshkalan. About 50 years ago, some households moved from Ghamishale and built a new village named Veshkalan. Now, they have claimed one third of Ghamishale s territory. This conflict has been in court but has not yet been solved. The conflict, however, has led to changes in land use. The villagers in Ghamishale claim that the livestock of the neighbouring village graze in their territory without permission and that this has decreased the grass availability in their Alef-jars. Therefore, they have decided, for the parts of Alefjar located close to border between the villages, to change the management practice to Bayer, that is, open access to everybody. An interesting observation was done regarding extraction of resin from wild pistachio. This non-wood forest product can in general be collected all over the territory (Table 2) and may generate significant revenues for individual villagers. The resin can be extracted with permission from FWRO after paying a fee. The members of the village council and respected old men are in charge of spending this revenue for village common benefits like the mosque and the school.

12 Community-based forest management 11 Table 3. Classification of sample plots and corresponding area. Classification Number of sample plots Area (ha) Gala-jar Alef-jar Bayer Conflict with neighbouring village No conflict with neighbouring village Management practice change from Alef-jar to Gala-jar Management practice change from Alef-jar to Bayer No change Total Forest conditions and balance between net growth and amount harvested All 111 plots in the systematic sample plot inventory were classified according to different criteria (Table 3). The classification was done in the field in cooperation with a forestry expert (see also Figure 2). The forest is characterized by low-value stocking parameters (Table 4). The average basal area, for example, was estimated to be 10.1 m 2 ha 21. In general, the variation was small between the management practices for most parameters. However, the estimated number of seedlings (N seed ) and the proportion of Q. libani was higher in Alef-jar than in the others. The differences between the practices were also small for the diameter distributions (Figure 4), where the typical inverse J-shape pattern of a naturally regenerated forest was observed. The annual recruitment rate was estimated to be 2368 seedlings ha 21 in the Alef-jar part, while they were much lower for the other parts. The basal area growth rates were quite similar for all three parts, while the mortality rate was high and the harvest rate was low in the Alef-jar part compared with the others. The highest harvest rate was found in Gala-jar. Models for forest stocking and forest dynamics determinants are shown in Table 5. The upper part of the table comprises variables describing institutional factors, while the lower part comprises variables describing ecological and geographical factors (see also Table 1). In general, the models provided low correlation coefficients and relatively few cases where the variables significantly contributed to explain the variability of the parameters. For basal area, however, change in land use to some extent seemed to be influential, that is, a change from Alef-jar to Gala-jar and the presence of conflict provided a higher value for basal area. Aspect and productivity were the most important ecological variables influencing the stocking parameters, that is, sunny side of the valley and low-productivity locations had low values for basal area. Furthermore, the number of seedlings seemed to be affected by aspect and productivity, while no variables describing institutional factors had any significant impacts. Also for the parameters describing forest dynamics, only a few variables seemed to be influential (Table 5). For the growth, no institutional factors had any significant influence, but again the sunny side and low-productivity locations had a negative impact. Natural mortality was slightly lower on locations with easy access and low productivity and slightly higher on locations where land use has changed from Alef-jar to Bayer. Harvests were slightly influenced by land use changes from Alef-jar to Gala-jar and were also lower on the sunny locations, but the relationships were in general weak and a non-significant overall model was provided.

13 12 A. Soltani and T. Eid Table 4. Forest stocking and forest dynamics according to management practices. Forest conditions Parameter Gala-jar (n ¼ 44) Alef-jar (n ¼ 29) Bayer (n ¼ 38) Total (n ¼ 111) mean ^ CI mean ^ CI mean ^ CI mean ^ CI Stocking N (ha 21 ) 682 ^ ^ ^ ^ 52 G (m 2 ha 21 ) 10.2 ^ ^ ^ ^ 1.2 N seed (ha 21 ) 6343 ^ ^ ^ ^ 751 Brantii_prop (%) Infectoria_prop (%) Libani_prop(%) Others_prop (%) Dynamics Recr (ha 21 yr 21 ) 1396 ^ ^ ^ ^ 225 Gwth (m 2 ha 21 yr 21 ) 0.20 ^ ^ ^ ^ 0.02 Mort (m 2 ha 21 yr 21 ) 0.03 ^ ^ ^ ^ 0.01 Harv (m 2 ha 21 yr 21 ) 0.15 ^ ^ ^ ^ 0.02 p Note: Confidence interval (CI) ¼ ^tðstd= ffiffiffi n Þ, t-value is determined according to p ¼ 0.05.

14 Community-based forest management Gala-jar Alef-jar Bayer Number of tree (ha 1 ) Basal area (m 2 ha 1 ) D5 D10 D15 D20 D25 D30 D35 D40 D45 D50 D55 D60 D65 D70 D75 D80 Diameter classes (cm) Gala-jar Alef-jar Bayer 0 D5 D10 D15 D20 D25 D30 D35 D40 D45 D50 D55 D60 D65 D70 D75 D80 Diameter classes (cm) Figure 4. Number of trees and basal area according to diameter classes for the different management practices. In average, for all plots, the basal area growth, mortality and harvest was estimated to be 0.19, 0.06 and 0.10 m 2 ha 2l yr 21, respectively (see Table 3), that is, overall difference between net growth and harvest was positive and indicating a sustainable use of the growing stock. Following this definition, 75.7% of the sample plots (84 of 111) were

15 14 A. Soltani and T. Eid Table 5. Forest stocking and forest dynamics determinants. G (m 2 ha 21 ) N seed (ha 21 ) Gwth (m 2 ha 21 yr 21 ) Mort (m 2 ha 21 yr 21 ) Harv (m 2 ha 21 yr 21 ) Variable Coeff. SE Coeff. SE Coeff. SE Coeff. SE Coeff. SE Intercept *** *** *** Alef_jar Gala_jar Change_AG 4.93 ** ** 0.13 Change_AB * Conflict Elevation ** ** Slope Aspect_sun *** *** *** * 0.09 Access_diff Access_easy 22.83* * * Time cons Prod_low ** ** *** ** Prod_high R F test 4.46 *** 3.21 *** 3.25 *** 3.22 *** 1.51 ns Note: Significance levels: *0.1; **0.05; ***0.01.

16 Community-based forest management 15 Table 6. Growing stock sustainability determinants. Growing stock sustainability (a positive balance between net growth and amount harvested) Variable Coeff. SE Intercept Alef_jar Gala_jar Change_AG Change_AB Conflict Elevation Slope ** 0.02 Aspect_sun 20.59* 0.36 Access_diff Access_easy 1.83 *** 0.58 Time cons *** 0.01 Prod_low Prod_high Likelihood ratio p value ¼ Hosmer and Lemshow 4.46 p value ¼ Note: Significance levels: *0.1; **0.05; ***0.01. classified as sustainable. The corresponding percentages for Gala-jar, Alef-jar and Bayer were 81.8%, 72.4% and 71.1%, respectively. The variables describing institutional factors did not significantly influence the probability of a plot to be sustainable (Table 6). This probability, however, decreased when the slope was increasing and when the plot was located on the sunny side of the valley, while the probability increased when the accessibility to the plot was easy and when the time consumption to reach to the plot was increasing. Discussion The results from the PRA to a large extent showed that the traditional forest management practices are relatively well organized (Table 2) and based on a rich knowledge base among the local people. First, the system allows villagers to manage forests with focus on their own livelihoods. Each part of the territory is specialized to satisfy particular livelihood needs (e.g. collecting fodder in Alef-jar, lopping trees in Gala-jar and collecting fuel wood in Bayer). Second, the temporal and spatial allocation of forest uses are based on experiences gained over many years. For example, the timing of lopping and collecting grass over the year shows that the villagers are adapting to biological functions (e.g. to the growing season of trees and grass). The practices also aim to be as less harmful to forest resources as possible. For example, the time of lopping is at the end of the growing season, and this decreases negative influences on the tree growth. The spatial organization of the management practices is based on ecological (e.g. altitude) as well as economic considerations (e.g. distance to the settlement). For example, because grass is growing faster at high altitudes, the main parts of the Alef-jar territories are located there. During winter, the livestock are taken to the lopped trees in the Gala-jar territory to be fed, and the fact that the Gala-jar territory in general is located relatively near the village (Figure 2),

17 16 A. Soltani and T. Eid that is, a short distance to walk on snow, is an indication of conscious economic thinking among the villagers. A third issue indicating that the traditional forest management is well organized is the fact that the system seems to be quite flexible. For example, when they need more areas for lopping trees, areas from the Alef-jar territory may be converted to Gala-jar to adapt to a new situation. A forth issue, indicating appropriate management, is the practice of saving some trees for undisturbed growth. This shows that villagers are conscious about sustainability aspects and long-term use of forest. Also the results from the forest inventory provide some evidence of a well-organized management. Although the variation was small between the management practices for most parameters (Table 3), it is interesting to observe that the tree density (N) is higher in the Gala-jar territory than in the others. This probably shows that villagers are less willing to cut trees here because oak trees are providing winter fodder through lopping. Another observation is the higher numbers of seedlings (N seed ) and annual recruitment rate (Recr) in Alef-jar territory compared with the others. This is most likely a result of prohibiting public grazing for parts of the year. When considering the determinants of forest stocking parameters (G and N seed in Table 5), the ecological variables, rather than the institutional, seem to play a role in shaping the forest resources. At least there is no evidence in the models showing that the variables related to the land use changes or to the conflict with the neighbouring village have any negative impact. For the ecological variables, both higher basal area and number of seedlings were observed in plots located on the shadow side of the valley and on the most productive sites. Similar results have previously been observed in other parts of Zagros (Namiranian and Maleknia 2008; Shakeri et al. 2009). As mentioned previously, the results from the PRA showed conscious considerations on long-term use of the forest among the villagers. Also this is supported by the results of the forest inventory. First of all, in average for the whole forest, growth is estimated to be larger than summarized mortality and harvest (Table 3). Ebrahimi Rastaghi et al. (2003), Ghazanfari et al. (2004) and Salehi (2009) have all mentioned lack of adequate regeneration as a major challenge for forest management in Zagros. However, the shape of the diameter classes distribution (Figure 3, upper part), that is, an inverse J-shaped distribution, is indicating a healthy forest structure for this kind of naturally regenerated forest. The number of seedlings (N seed ) and the annual recruitment rate (Recr) were also in general high (Table 3). The presence of some very large trees (Figure 3, lower part), probably a result of the practice where trees are saved for undisturbed growth for longer periods, is also compatible with concerns on long-term sustainability as a part of the traditional forest practices. When considering the determinants of forest dynamics (Table 5) and sustainability as approached in this study (Table 6), there is little evidence indicating that the institutional variables are influential. The only exception is the significant contribution to a higher harvest level when land use is changed from Alef-jar to Gala-jar. This is probably because of the restrictions on tree cutting in Gala-jar (Table 2). Most influential among the ecological and geographical variables are accessibility and time consumption for walking to the settlement (Table 6), that is, the easier access and the higher time consumption, the higher probability of sustainability. Normally, one would expect that easier access is correlated with lower probability of sustainability. However, in the present case, the opposite result could be because of the fact that accessibility (which mainly is reflecting terrain conditions) is a main criterion when allocating areas to Gala-jar because it should be easy to reach them with livestock. The Gala-jar areas will still, however, in most cases

18 Community-based forest management 17 be classified as sustainable regarding forest use because less tree harvesting is exercised here to save trees for lopping and feeding of animals. There are also some factors indicating that the traditional management system may be vulnerable. One example is the inheritance practices and division into smaller forest areas distributed among the children. This, in combination with high population growth rates, may be a threat to the whole system in the future if no outmigration takes place. The conflict with the neighbouring village is another example of a factor, which may change the present mainly positive situation in a negative way. It is also important to mention that the positive difference between net growth and harvested amount was quite small (Table 3). Although the inventory procedures to a large extent were based on objectively quantified and measured variables, the results also rely on subjective elements, that is, the assessment of time since trees were harvested or died naturally made by the local forestry experts. Because of this, and the quite simple model developed for estimating basal area growth, there is of course uncertainty related to the results. There is, however, no reason to believe that using local experts for such assessments is causing large discrepancies. Using local experts and their knowledge may also in general be valuable in developing forest management plans because their priorities, much earlier and more actively, are incorporated in the management issues related to the forest. Also, previous scholars have recognized the value of using local knowledge in environmental assessment and monitoring (Reed 2008; Mueller et al. 2010). The small positive difference between net growth (growth 2 mortality) and harvest also means that this balance, accidentally and without anybody being aware of it, could easily change to be negative. To control for this, inventories and tools for quantifying growth and harvest are needed. To provide for such support and tools could be a task for the local forest authorities, where they in a positive way seen from the villagers perspective contribute to sustainable use of forest resources, instead of focusing solely on conservation. The documentation of a locally based forest management system provided in this study, which is lacking in Iranian as well as international literature, may be valuable for the authorities in Iran because they have recently opened up for a shift towards more focus on local and traditional aspects in their search for instruments to facilitate sustainable forest management. However, the present research is based on a case study in one village forest. One should therefore be careful in generalizing the results. The described traditional management practices are quite widespread in Zagros. They may of course vary, but mainly they have the same main objective, that is, to satisfy villager s livelihoods. Because the results from this study are quite positive regarding organization and several sustainability aspects, it is recommended that further studies are conducted to other sites and management regimes elsewhere in Zagros to obtain more documentation. It may also be useful to make a comparative study of the forest structure in Ghamishale and other forests in Zagros under different management rules involving also less or no human intervention. This study has mainly focused on the sustainability from a growing stock perspective, but non-wood products, tree species, plant diversity and other ecosystem services are of course also important. In addition, more documentation on economic and social aspects is needed. Conclusions Empirical evidence on the organization, practices and performance of community-based traditional forest management in Zagros, Iran, is provided. In general, the management is

19 18 A. Soltani and T. Eid relatively well organized and the practices are based on a rich knowledge base among the local people. The PRA showed conscious considerations on sustainability aspects and long-term use of the forest. This was also supported by the results from the forest inventory showing that the growth was higher than summarized mortality and harvest. The study provides empirical evidence on success and failures of community-based traditional management, which is lacking in Iran and as well as internationally. The empirical evidence may be valuable to the authorities in Iran, which in their search for instruments to facilitate sustainable forest management recently has opened up for more focus on local and traditional aspects as an alternative to the unsuccessful centralized state management. Acknowledgements This research has mainly been funded through the Norwegian Quota-programme. The authors are also grateful to the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB) for financing the field work. We appreciate farmers in Zagros for their hospitality, Headquarters of Natural Resources of Marivan for suportive help and Arkan Haidari and Morteza Poureza for valuable assisstance in field. We also thank Manoochehr Namiranian, Anoushirvan Shirvani and Hamid Sofi at the University of Tehran and staff members of University of Kurdistan for valuable advices during data collection. References Agrawal A Common property institutions and sustainable governance of resources. World Dev. 29: Blaikie P Is small really beautiful? Community-based natural resource management in Malawi and Botswana. World Dev. 34: Brandon KE, Wells M Planning for people and parks: design dilemmas. World Dev. 20: Brockington D Forests, community conservation, and local government performance: the village forest reserves of Tanzania. Soc Natur Resour. 20: Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisal. World Dev. 22: Ebrahimi Rastaghi M, Latifi G, Bodaghy E The role of Pistacia atlantica in forest management outside the Caspian region in Iran. Iran J Forest Poplar Res. 333: (in Iranian). Ebrahimpour M Determinants of forest and range degradation in Iran, particulary in Zagros region. Jahad. 19: (in Iranian). Enters T, Durst PB, Victor M Decentralization and devolution of forest management in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: RECOFTC Report No. 18. FAO State of the World s forests Rome Italy: Policy and Support Branch. Office of Knowledge Exchange. Research and Extension. Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations. Fattahi M Study of western Iranian oak forests and their main degradation causes. Tehran, Iran: Forest Research Division. Research Institute of Forest and Rangelands (in Iranian). Fattahi M, Ansari N, Abbasi HR, Khan Mohammadi M Management of Zagros forests (case study: Darbadam forests in province of Kermanshah, Iran). Basic study, No Tehran, Iran: Forest Research Division. Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands (in Iranian). FRWO. 2005a. Multi-purpose forest management plan for Bakhan and Chenare watersheds, final and practical program. Sannandaj province of Kurdistan Iran: Forest, Range and Watershed Organization (FRWO) (in Iranian). FRWO. 2005b. National report to the fifth session of the United Nations Forum on forests of Iran. Tehran, Iran: Forest, Range and Watershed Organization. FRWO National plan for development and conservation of Zagros and southern forests program. Tehran, Iran: Available at: pageid/91/language/en-us/default.aspx, date 5th November Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF). International Affairs and Public Relations Bureau, Forest, Range and Watershed Organization (FRWO).