CHAPTER 3 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

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1 Chapter 3 Introduction CHAPTER 3 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES I. INTRODUCTION This chapter presents the existing environment of the Soldier Addition II Project area and the potential consequences to that environment that may be caused by implementing any of the alternatives described in Chapter 2. Within each resource section, the boundaries of the area used for the resource analysis is disclosed. The discussions of resources and potential effects take advantage of existing information included in the Forest Plan, other project documents, projectspecific resource reports and related information, and other sources as indicated. Where applicable, such information is briefly summarized and referenced to minimize duplication. The Project File includes all additional project-specific information, including resource reports and results of field investigations. Affected Environment/Existing Condition Discussions of current conditions describe the physical, biological, and social environment for each potentially affected resource. The resource information provided in the Affected Environment narratives includes the effects of past actions that are now assessed as part of the existing condition of the landscape. For instance, if there were hypothetically a timber sale in 1980, which harvested 150 acres of forest and constructed two miles of new road, the effects of the harvest, road construction, vegetation re-growth, and roadbed stabilization occurring over the past 28 years would be accounted for in the resource assessments of the affected environment. For example: The change in forest structure within this harvest area to an early successional sapling stage of development would be reflected in the disclosure of the existing forest vegetation in the EA. This information on existing forest condition would also be used in the discussion of habitat conditions in the wildlife section. Stream channel surveys assessing stream conditions in the project area would reflect any remaining physical and biological effects of the past timber sale and road construction. The present contribution of sediment and increased stream flow from the two miles of road construction would also be accounted for in the calculation of existing watershed conditions, as road segments and their construction dates are entered into the water yield models. Field examinations and verification of current road conditions would provide a basis for proposed BMP projects for improved drainage, if needed. The two miles of open road would also be included in the open and total motorized route densities and reflected in the level of core security habitat presently provided for grizzly bears. Specific past actions considered in the Affected Environment analysis for each resource area are summarized in Table 3-1. The list of past actions is not necessarily exhaustive, as records may 3-1

2 Chapter 3 Introduction not exist for all past activities by project. The effects of all past actions are fully accounted for in the assessment of existing conditions as this assessment would automatically reflect the impact of past actions to the extent that they are still influencing the particular resource considered. Environmental Consequences This section details the environmental effects that would occur for each alternative. These discussions form the scientific and analytic basis for comparing the alternatives (40 CFR ). The effects of the No Action Alternative (Alternative 1) forms a baseline against which the Action Alternatives are evaluated. Each resource narrative begins with a brief explanation of how effects were analyzed, their association with issues or concerns as described in Chapter 2, and the methods or models used. Included at the end of each resource narrative is a description of the regulatory framework associated with the resource. Environmental laws such as the National Forest Management Act (NFMA), Endangered Species Act (ESA), Clean Water Act, and Clean Air Act provide the direction to the Forest Service for management of forest resources. These laws are interpreted and defined through the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Administrative Rules of Montana (ARM), Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP) direction, Forest Service Manual (FSM) direction, and Forest Service policy. The regulatory framework associated with each resource is helpful in relating national and Forest direction to resource analysis procedures. Environmental effects can be direct, indirect, or cumulative. They can be of long or short duration. Effects can be quantitative or qualitative, adverse or beneficial, actual or potential. It is important to consider timing and location of effects. Direct effects are caused by the action and they occur at the same time and place. Indirect effects are caused by the action and are later in time, or further removed in distance, but are still reasonable foreseeable (40 CFR ). In most cases, direct and indirect effects are discussed together. Cumulative effects are those that result from the incremental impact of the action when added to the other past, present, and reasonable foreseeable future actions (40 CFR ). Effects of past actions are already included in the disclosure of existing conditions for each resource area. The cumulative effects analysis builds upon this existing condition by considering the incremental addition of direct and indirect effects of the proposal. Therefore, the discussion of effects first considers the direct and indirect effects of each alternative and does not consider cumulative effects unless direct and indirect effects exist. The evaluation of direct, indirect, and cumulative effects for resource uses the best available and most recent science, as well as data related to past, present, and reasonably foreseeable events that have occurred or may occur in the individual analysis areas. Table 3-1 provides a summary of the actions considered in the cumulative effects analysis for the Soldier Addition II Project. Each action was evaluated by the resource specialist to determine whether it would have a cumulative impact on the resource or not. These determinations are documented on cumulative effect worksheets found in the project record. All actions that were determined to have a cumulative impact are disclosed in the discussions in this chapter under each resource area. 3-2

3 Chapter 3 Introduction Table 3-1. Past, Present, and Reasonably Foreseeable Activities in the Soldier Addition II Project Area. Activity Past Present (2011) Reasonably Foreseeable Noxious Weed Spraying Timber Harvest Hazard Tree Removal Tree Planting Precommercial (sapling) Thinning Prescribed Burning Forest Product Gathering Vegetation Management Weed spraying has been ongoing in the project area. The main Westside Reservoir Road, Eastside Reservoir Road, Gorge Creek Road, Bunker Creek Road, and the area campgrounds, trailheads, and administrative sites are all routinely sprayed. Spraying is expected to continue in these areas, and others as needed, in the foreseeable future. Harvest History = 41 acres = 331 acres = 2,909 acres = 4,232 acres = 1,570 acres = 314 acres Since 2000 = 574 acres Total = 10,041 acres (6,822 acres of clearcuts, seedtree, or shelterwood cuts; 3,219 acres of partial cuts) Most Recent Sales Kah Westside Spotted Bear Veg. & Fuels Project Spotted Beetle Ball Fire Salvage 2004 S. Fork Fuels & Hazard Tree 2006 Spotted Bear Vista 2010 At Meadow Creek Trailhead (2006 and previous years) Tree planting occurred on approximately 1800 acres in the Project Area from the years 1961 through Thinning of young trees has occurred on about 4,883 acres between 1968 and Spotted Beetle Decision: ~370 acres of underburning (2000s) Bunker Creek Area: ~180 acre prescribed burn to improve grizzly bear habitat (1987) Spotted Bear River Project The planning process for this project is not complete as of May A decision is expected in the next 2 months. Implementation could begin in Fall Based on the range of the alternatives the project could: Harvest between 1,129 and 1,285 acres. Thin approximately 660 acres of saplings Perform prescribed burns on 319 to 1,346 acres Extend the motorized season by 5 weeks on the Spotted Bear River Road (Road #568) and the Big Bill Road (Road 9856), which access Silvertip and Middle Big Bill trailheads, respectively Improve the parking and turn-around area at the Silvertip Trailhead. Personal use firewood cutting, Christmas tree harvesting, bough and cone collection, & huckleberry picking are all past, current and reasonable foreseeable activities in the project area.. 3-3

4 Chapter 3 Introduction Activity Past Present (2011) Reasonably Foreseeable Wildfire History Public Recreation Bruce Creek to Alpine 7 to Napa Point Motorized Trails Project Road Construction, Reconstruction, Decommissioning Road Maintenance Spotted Bear Airstrip Hungry Horse Dam Construction Fire/Fuels Fires in or near the project area: 1998 Sunburst Fire acres 1999 Boundary Fire acres 2000 Chipmunk Fire.. 3,132 acres 2001 Canyon/Trickle Fire. 1,794 acres 2003 Mid Fire... 11,214 acres 2003 Ball Fire. 7,613 acres 2007 Corporal Fire.. 16,106 acres Recreation Sightseeing, hiking, camping, boating (Hungry Horse Reservoir, South Fork Flathead River, Spotted Bear River, and other streams), hunting, biking, cross-country skiing, fishing, resort use, and dispersed recreational activities are all past, current, and reasonable foreseeable activities in the project area. Bruce Creek Road/Trail and associated trails on the Swan Lake Ranger District were closed to motorcycle use in a decision signed in April Roads Spotted Beetle Project (2002) Decommissioned ~49 miles (completed 2008) Miles of open road decreased by ~25 miles A gate will be installed on Road 2829 near its junction with Road 9536 at the same time an adequate turn-around for stock trailers is constructed; this will be the new trailhead for the Bunker High Country Trail #99 (completed October 2009). Kah Westside Timber Sale Project (1990) Constructed ~5 miles of new roads Reconstructed ~14 miles of roads Restricted access (gated/bermed) ~17 miles of roads Road maintenance is a past, current, and reasonably foreseeable activity in the project area. Other Activities Use of the Spotted Bear Airstrip is a past, current, and reasonable foreseeable activity in the project area. Construction of the Hungry Horse Dam, creating the Hungry Horse Reservoir and inundating the South Fork Flathead River, completed in

5 II. FOREST VEGETATION Introduction The following analysis documents the existing conditions and effects of the alternatives on the forest vegetation resource. The issues addressed in this section are: (1) the effects of the proposed activities on forest composition, structure, and age/size classes (including Old-growth, snags, and downed wood), both at the stand and landscape level; and (2) the effect of the proposed project activities on insect, disease, and other mortality factors. Effects to other aspects of the vegetation resource, specifically threatened, endangered and sensitive plants, and noxious weeds, are covered in other sections of this chapter. Information Sources Data for analysis of the vegetation condition at the landscape scale (Project Area) comes from the Spotted Bear Kah Ecosystem Analysis (SB Kah Analysis), which was a mid-scale watershedlevel assessment completed in The SB Kah Analysis Area covered about 184,820 acres, including nearly all of the Soldier Addition II Project Area, excluding only the Bunker Creek drainage at the far south end, as well as all of the Spotted Bear River drainage. The Soldier Addition II Project Area incorporates three out of the thirteen analysis units, or subwatersheds, that were evaluated in the SB Kah Analysis. These subwatersheds are Kah Tin, Addition, and Cedar Jungle. The SB Kah Analysis documented and compared the existing and historical range of variability of the forest conditions in the SB Kah Analysis Unit and how and why they have changed over time. This comparison allowed us to determine where current conditions might vary substantially from historical ranges of variability and thus may be cause for concern in terms of ecosystem health and sustainability. These areas of concern, combined with applicable management direction provided in the Forest Plan and other documents, provided the basis for development of a set of recommended actions within the Analysis Unit. The purpose and need for the Soldier Addition II Proposed Action is based upon these recommended actions. Vegetation data has been updated in the Soldier Addition II Project Area to reflect changes in forest structure and cover type due to recent harvesting and fire, as well as some additional field verification. Vegetation data for the portion of the Project Area in the Bunker Creek drainage (which was not part of the SB Kah Analysis area) has also been incorporated into the SB Kah vegetation data set. Refer to Map 1 in Appendix B of the Silvicultural Diagnosis Report (Section E, Project File) for location of the Project Area relative to the SB Kah Ecosystem Analysis Area and the subwatersheds that were evaluated. Vegetation data utilized at the site specific (stand) level includes information from field exams completed in the past 20 years, including those conducted specifically for this project by the District Silviculturist and others in Summaries and write-ups from these exams are found in the Silvicultural Diagnosis Report in Section E of the Soldier Addition II Project File (Project File). Additional information was acquired using aerial photo interpretation on flights that were conducted in 2004 and

6 Analysis Area The Soldier Addition II Project Area is the analysis area utilized for cumulative effects on forest vegetation (see Map 1-1 in Chapter 1 of this EA). This approximately 47,660 acre area encompasses several watersheds and provides a well-defined region over which meaningful evaluation of the condition and ecological function of the forest vegetation component can occur. The ecosystem processes that affect the vegetation resource, primarily fire in this region, often operate at large scales, with fires many thousands or tens of thousands of acres being common historically. Analysis of direct and indirect effects to vegetation occurs primarily at the forest stand level. A list of all proposed units and the specific stands associated with each unit is found in Appendix A of the Silvicultural Diagnosis Report (Section E, Project File). The temporal bounds of the analysis are designed to capture the direct, indirect, and cumulative effects of the alternatives to forest vegetation within the analysis area. The direct and indirect effects would occur during or shortly following project activities, while the cumulative effects analyses encompasses a period of many decades ( or more years) into the future and the past, as fitting to the long-lived nature of trees. Affected Environment/Existing Condition Existing Forest Composition, Size, Age, and Structure in the Project Area Current vegetative conditions in the Project Area reflect a complex interaction of factors over time and space; some of these are more easily understood and observed (e.g. fire events) and some are less easily observed (e.g. the role of soil microorganisms). Three main factors have the most obvious effects on the character of the existing vegetation in the Soldier Addition II Project Area, and these are: (1) physical factors of the site (e.g. landtypes/soils, habitat types); (2) the progressive development of individual plants and communities over time (i.e. succession); and (3) the occurrence of disturbances (e.g. fire, insect epidemics, timber harvesting) in time and space. This section includes discussion of these factors and their influence on existing forest conditions, such as forest cover type and structure. Physical Site Description-Landtypes, Soils and Habitat Types Glaciation has been the primary land-forming process that has shaped the Soldier Addition II Project Area. The last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago. Volcanic eruptions approximately 6,600 years ago set down a layer of volcanic ash across the area averaging seven inches thick and leaving a rich tree growing medium. Weathering, along with stream erosion and deposition, has carved the intricate network of streams and valleys across the landscape. Slopes are relatively steep (>40%) through most of the Project Area, except on the lower slopes and benches of the relatively wide, low gradient South Fork Flathead River valley. Elevation in the Project Area ranges from about 3,600 feet at the shore of Hungry Horse Reservoir, to about 7600 feet on the ridge at the head of Addition and Bruce Creek drainages. 3-6

7 Landtypes are mapping units that incorporate landforms, geomorphic processes, soils, and vegetation to help describe landscape and site conditions (Forest Service 1983). Glacial moraine landtypes are most common in the Project Area, dominating on the mid to lower elevation areas. Slopes range from nearly flat to very steep. Soils are primarily formed in glacial till deposits with a volcanic ash influence. These are generally highly productive, relatively moist sites, supporting abundant growth of trees and other vegetation. Steep glacial trough walls, breaklands and rocklands comprise the majority of landtypes in the upper elevations and basins of the Project Area. Slopes are often very steep (>60%); soils can be of both residual and glacial till origin, and from low to high productivity. These sites also support full tree cover, though on the poorer or shallow soils tree cover may be sparse. Refer to Appendix A and Map 4 in Appendix B of the Silviculture Diagnosis Report (Section E, Project File) for a map of landtypes and a list of each proposed treatment unit s landtype. Refer also to the Hydrology section of this EA for more detailed discussion on physical site conditions in the Project Area. Habitat types are a classification of a forest or grassland site based upon its potential natural vegetation (i.e. the end result of plant succession, or the climax condition). Each habitat type reflects the presence of certain site conditions, such as soil type and depth, aspect and precipitation, that influence the diversity, growth, and abundance of grass, forb, shrub and tree species. All land areas potentially capable of producing similar plant communities at climax are classified as the same habitat type (Daubenmire 1968). However, one habitat type may support a variety of plant communities, depending upon disturbance history and the particular stage of succession of the forest. Over 90% of the forested areas within the Project Area are classified in the subalpine fir climax series of habitat types (Pfister et al. 1977), which reflects the relatively cool to cold, moist conditions in this area. As the major climax species, subalpine fir, and often spruce, would become the dominant overstory tree on the site over the long term (centuries), barring any disturbance such as fire. However other tree species, particularly lodgepole pine, larch, and Douglas-fir, are very often dominant on these sites as well, especially in stands at early or mid successional stages of development. These species are especially well adapted to regenerate quickly after fire, grow more rapidly than subalpine fir or spruce, and, except for lodgepole pine, can live for several centuries. Subalpine fir/queencup beadlily (ABLA/CLUN) habitat type is the predominant habitat type in the Project Area within the subalpine fir series. Forests on these habitat types are dense and contain a diverse mix of tree species, including larch, lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, western white pine, subalpine fir and spruce, and abundant understory shrubs, forbs and grasses. The majority of the proposed Soldier Addition sapling thinning and timber harvest units are of this habitat type, with the remainder mostly in the subalpine fir/beargrass (ABLA/XETE) or subalpine fir/dwarf huckleberry (ABLA/VACA) habitat types. All these subalpine fir habitat types are of moderate to high timber productivity, meaning that the sites are capable of producing relatively high amounts of wood volume and growth rates (cubic feet/acre/year) over the course of a stand rotation. The highest elevation forests (>6000 feet) are primarily a subalpine fir/smooth woodrush (ABLA/LUHI) habitat type. These sites are moist, but cold conditions limit tree growth. 3-7

8 Subalpine fir, spruce and sometimes whitebark pine and lodgepole pine, are the dominant tree species at all stages of stand development. Shrubs (e.g. menziesia, grouse whortleberry) and other ground vegetation (e.g. beargrass) are often abundant. This habitat type occurs in portions of the proposed high elevation prescribed burning units (Burn Units 1, 2, and 4). The remaining forests in the Project Area, covering about 9% of the forested area, are within the Douglas-fir climax series, which occur on the driest, warmest sites. These are typically the steeper southerly aspects at mid to low elevations. Douglas-fir/snowberry (PSME/SYAL), Douglas-fir/pinegrass (PSME/CARU) or Douglas-fir/huckleberry (PSME/VAGL) are most common. Understory shrubs, grasses and forbs are usually abundant, and tree cover may range from relatively dense to a semi-open condition on the most dry, harsh sites. Douglas-fir dominates at all stages of stand development, though lodgepole pine and larch are often common components. Ponderosa pine also is present in some of the stands. These sites are considered moderate in terms of timber productivity, capable of relatively good growth rates and wood production over the course of a stand s rotation. Portions of the proposed harvest Unit 28 is within this habitat type, as well as parts of the proposed Douglas-fir dominated prescribed burns (Burn Units 3, 6 and 7). About 10% of the Project Area is classified as a non-forest habitat type, dominated by grasses, forbs, shrubs or rock. Trees are usually present on the site, but density is low, typically less than 10% canopy cover. The majority of these sites are high elevation, barren or rocky areas, where cold, short growing seasons and poor soils limit tree growth. Refer to Map 5 and Table 1 in the Silvicultural Diagnosis Report (Section E, Project File) for identification of habitat types by unit and location across the Project Area. Forest Cover Types Forest cover types are delineated based on the most dominant tree species (e.g. the most trees per acre or basal area per acre) currently within the forest stand. The variation in forest cover types across a landscape reflects the numerous different successional pathways a stand may take through time. Differences in physical site characteristics (e.g. soil types); differences in fire patterns, timing, intensity, climate conditions at time of fire; and pre-fire forest characteristics all will influence the successful establishment, abundance and diversity of trees on a site. Table 3-2 displays the current distribution of forest cover types in the Soldier Addition II Project Area. Refer to Map 12 in Appendix B of the Silvicultural Diagnosis Report (Section E, Project File) for a map showing the cover types across the Project Area. 3-8

9 Table 3-2. Acres and Percent of Forest Cover Types in the Project Area Forest Cover Type Total Acres Percent of Project Area Non-forest: Grass, Forb, Shrub, Rock, Barren, Water %¹ Douglas-fir % Lodgepole Pine % Larch % Subalpine fir/spruce 28,096 59%¹ Whitebark Pine 601 1% Total 47,660 ¹ Habitat type maps place a greater amount (about 10% total) of the project in a non-forest cover type as compared to forest cover type maps. This is due to the use of different classification criteria applied related to amount of tree cover. In the habitat type mapping, about 3350 acres of the subalpine fir/spruce forest cover type in the table above is mapped as a non-forest habitat type, due to low density of trees. Subalpine fir/spruce: This cover type is by far the most common, reflecting again the predominance of the cool/cold, moist subalpine fir habitat types in the area. Most of this cover type (about 70%) lies in the upper mid and high elevations, above 5000 feet in elevation, where the colder site conditions give subalpine fir and spruce some competitive advantage. In many stands below about 6000 feet, larch, lodgepole pine, and on some sites Douglas-fir, are very common in the overstory tree layer. Only a small portion (12%, or about 150 acres) of the Soldier Addition proposed timber harvest units occur in this subalpine fir/spruce forest type. These are stands where subalpine fir is a major component in the mid and understory tree layers, but lodgepole pine and larch are common in the 75+ year old overstory layer. About half, or over 400 acres, of the proposed sapling thinning units occur within this forest type. These are stands where subalpine fir and spruce often form a relatively dense understory tree layer beneath an overstory that contains young, sapling larch, lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir and western white pine. Lodgepole pine and larch: These cover types occur mostly at the mid to low elevations in the Project Area, with 85 to 90% of this type below 5000 feet in elevation. These cover types occupy about 51% of the land area in this elevation zone. Most of the proposed timber harvest units in the Soldier Addition II Project (75%) occur within the lodgepole pine and larch forest cover types. Douglas-fir: This species occurs as a component within many stands across the Project Area; however it is a dominant species and identified as the forest cover type on a relatively small amount of area. These are mostly the drier and steeper southerly aspects. About a quarter of the area identified in this cover type (970 acres) is within Soldier Addition proposed prescribed burning or timber harvest units. Whitebark pine: This is a major species that grows in high elevation forests all across the northern Rocky Mountains, where its cold tolerance, superior hardiness on the harsh microsites that may exist after a fire, unique method of seed dispersal, and resistance to lower intensity fires allow it to compete successfully in the upper subalpine zone. Its long life (many centuries is not 3-9

10 unusual) allows it to be a very persistent species in the upper subalpine forests. Whitebark pine is an important ecological component of these higher elevation forest communities, providing a valuable food source and shelter to squirrels, bears and other animals (its cones contain large, highly desirable seeds), aiding in the protection of soil and water quality in the sensitive high basins where it grows, acting as a nurse tree for the establishment of other conifers around it, and undoubtedly filling a host of other roles in these harsh, cold environments (Tomback et al, 2001). Whitebark pine has very large seeds and regenerates primarily by means of seed caching (storing) in soil by Clark's nutcrackers, with squirrels and other animal caching playing a very minor role. Clark's nutcrackers are jay-like birds that have a specially adapted bill for extracting seeds from cones and a special pouch in its throat used for seed transport. Most seed is cached within a few miles, but they may carry seeds up to 14 miles (Lorenz 2008). They will cache on just about any site, though they seem to be more attracted to drier, south facing slopes; and open sites, even if they are several miles from the seed source. This method of seed dispersal allows whitebark pine to regenerate quickly in areas where seed source of other species may be largely absent, such as the larger openings created by fire. These open areas also are beneficial for optimum growth of whitebark pine, which is relatively intolerant of shaded conditions. Though high severity fires will easily kill whitebark pine trees of all ages, mature trees are somewhat resistant to low intensity ground fires, especially compared to associated species of spruce and subalpine fir. This tolerance to low intensity fire has allowed whitebark pine to remain a dominant component in some stands for centuries, particularly on the drier, more exposed sites where light vegetation and fuel conditions limit fire intensities. Whitebark pine is a species of special concern because of the dramatic population decline it has been experiencing throughout its range in the western US over the past few decades, due primarily to white pine blister rust (refer to discussion under Insect and Diseases later in this chapter). Fire exclusion and suppression have also contributed to the decline of whitebark pine in some ecosystems, primarily by allowing the spruce and subalpine fir to increase in dominance and gain competitive advantage on whitebark pine sites (Tomback 2001). In some landscapes, the lack of fire may have also reduced the availability of suitable open sites where whitebark pine can successfully establish and maintain sufficient growth rate to outcompete associated species. Mountain pine beetle epidemics spreading upslope from lodgepole stands in lower elevations have also periodically caused high mortality in some stands of whitebark pine. Warming climatic trends exacerbate this situation. In summary, whitebark pine is in a rapid, downward spiral across its range and without active management, the future for whitebark pine over the next several centuries is one of continuing decline, functional extinction and local extirpation (Tomback 2001). The numbers of whitebark pine will become so low that it will no longer be influential at the population, community or landscape scales. As a result of the loss of whitebark pine, the forest composition has changed dramatically in many upper subalpine regions, including those in the Soldier Addition II Project Area. In the Project Area, habitats that are capable of supporting notable numbers of whitebark pine typically occur above 6000 feet in elevation. There are about 10,400 acres of lands above this elevation within the Project Area. As seen in Table 3-1, only about 1% of these lands, located at the head end of the Cedar Creek drainage, is identified as currently dominated by whitebark pine; 3-10

11 however photo interpretation indicates that this may be inaccurate and spruce and subalpine fir are more likely the dominant species on this site. Subalpine fir and spruce are also well able to successfully regenerate and survive above 6000 feet elevation and are the indicated climax species in these upper elevation subalpine fir habitat types. The more moist and more productive high elevation habitats, such as on north slopes and in basins at the head of streams, actually favor subalpine fir and spruce regeneration and development when in competition with whitebark pine, which prefers well-drained soils (Weaver 2001). On these type of sites, whitebark pine can establish and grow very well, but may occur as only a minor or incidental species in the stand, as it is often out-competed by spruce and subalpine fir. Whitebark pine competes most successfully and more easily becomes the dominant species on drier sites, exposed ridges and well drained limestone soils, where their method of seed dispersal, tolerance of wind swept droughty conditions, and long lives provide a competitive advantage (Weaver 2001). In addition, these high elevation cold and dry sites seem to discourage survival and spread of the blister rust fungus, further enhancing probability of whitebark pine survival in these areas. Refer to additional discussion of this disease under the Insect and Disease section of this chapter. Pockets of whitebark pine survive across the Soldier Addition II Project Area, both as young seedling/saplings and older mature trees. These surviving trees are often on the ridgetops and more exposed sites. Presence of dead standing and fallen whitebark pine across much of the spruce/subalpine fir-dominated higher elevation forests in the Project Area indicates that this species has successfully established and survived across even broader areas in the past than where it currently exists. The Soldier Addition II Project proposes about 371 acres of prescribed fire in these upper elevation forests now dominated by subalpine fir and spruce, but capable of supporting whitebark pine. The objective of the burning is to create conditions that would be suitable for whitebark pine re-establishment and growth. These burn units range from 5400 to 6700 feet in elevation, and are mostly northerly to easterly aspects, where whitebark pine has occurred historically but has died in recent decades. Western white pine: Western white pine is at the eastern limits of its range in the Soldier Addition II Project Area. Though there are few to no stands in the Project Area where this species is dominant, it is common or a minor component within many stands. It is largely limited to stands below 4200 feet in elevation and is most common in the north half of the Project Area, particularly on the moist, gently sloped, productive soils in Elam and Clark Creek areas. Under favorable conditions western white pine has one of the fastest early growth rates compared to other species, becoming some of the straightest, tallest, largest diameter trees on the site, capable of living for several centuries. These stands can provide high quality foraging, nesting and shelter for many wildlife species, both as living trees and as large, though short-lived snags. They have high aesthetic values to people as well, and are highly valued as a commercial product. Western white pine is a species of concern because it has been severely impacted by white pine blister rust, like its cousin the whitebark pine, and has experienced dramatic declines in population across its range in the western U.S. (refer to discussion under Insects and Disease later in this chapter). Most of the older overstory trees in the Project Area have either died or 3-11

12 were infected and removed in salvage harvest efforts over the past 40 years or so. Most of the western white pine in the Project Area currently exists as seedling and sapling sized trees in early successional stands, originating from past timber harvest activities, and mixed with larch, Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine and spruce. Some of these young trees originate from rust-resistant seedlings planted in the past 25 years; many are naturally regenerated from seed of surviving old trees that are still scattered throughout adjacent stands. About 688 acres of sapling stands, where western white pine comprises from 6% to 30% of the composition, are proposed for thinning and/or pruning in the Soldier Addition Proposed Action. These treatments are designed to both improve growing conditions for western white pine, and to reduce future mortality of the white pine to blister rust by removing infected branches. Refer to the Insect and Disease section of this chapter for more detailed discussion on this disease and treatments. Ponderosa pine: In the Soldier Addition II Project Area, ponderosa pine is largely limited to stands on the drier aspects at mid to lower elevations, the more southerly slopes within the steep, deeply incised drainages that are characteristic of this area. Its drought and heat tolerance give it a competitive advantage over its associates on these sites. It is a minor or common component within most of the 3700 acres of forest identified as a Douglas-fir forest cover type. It can live for many centuries and grow into very large diameter trees. Though relatively rare on this landscape, the stands where these large ponderosa pine exist (often associated with large, old larch and Douglas-fir as well) provide high quality foraging, nesting and shelter for many wildlife species, both as live trees and as large, long-lasting snags. Their large size and the naturally open nature of the stands are visually and aesthetically pleasing to people. Fire historically has played a major role in the maintenance of ponderosa pine and the characteristically open forest structure. Historically, the drier sites where ponderosa pine grows were visited frequently by fire, which was usually of low or moderate severity because of the lower fuel loadings typical on these sites. Ponderosa pine is highly fire resistant and will usually survive these types of fires, whereas competing tree species, and in particular Douglas-fir, are considerably less fire resistant and would experience higher mortality during a fire. Ponderosa pine, therefore, is able to maintain its position as a common or dominant species on large areas of low to mid elevation forests in the West. More so than the cool, moist forest communities, the actions of humans on the landscape have had a pronounced detrimental effect on ponderosa pine forest communities across their range. Fire suppression, combined with logging, grazing, agriculture and housing developments, have greatly reduced the amount of ponderosa pine forest cover types or dramatically changed the character of these forests across much of the West. In the Soldier Addition II Project Area it is primarily fire suppression and the actions of insects and disease that have caused progressive changes in the character of the forest on these drier sites over the past 80 to 120 years years. These changes in turn have altered the pattern, intensity and role certain ecological processes, such as succession and fire, have played in these stands. Lack of fire has allowed dense understories and more continuous canopy cover of Douglas-fir (and sometimes larch and lodgepole pine) to develop, where more frequent, low intensity fire would have tended to keep tree density relatively low, tree sizes and ages more diverse, and forest canopy more broken and patchy across the landscape. Mortality of Douglas fir, particularly the 3-12

13 older overstory trees, due to root disease and Douglas-fir beetle has been high in portions of these stands for many years, undoubtedly exacerbated by the increased tree stress from crowding and drought conditions. Both the increased number of trees in the over and understory layers, and the increased amount of dead and down wood have raised the probability that any future fire in these stands would be higher intensity than historically would have occurred, and kill even the largest, oldest ponderosa pine, larch and Douglas-fir. About 966 acres of this drier Douglas-fir cover type, where ponderosa pine is a minor component in the current forest, is proposed for prescribed burning in the Soldier Addition Proposed Action. Another 93 acres is proposed for tree harvest followed by underburning. The objective is to begin to restore forest conditions more similar to what would occur under natural disturbance regimes, creating stand conditions less vulnerable to high intensity future fire, and improve the probability of long-term survival of ponderosa pine, as well as the large overstory Douglas-fir and larch. Forest Succession and Existing Forest Structural Stages Succession is the basic ecological process of change in the composition, structure, and function of plant communities over time. The early stages of succession usually follow a disturbance (e.g. fire), which kills all or a portion of the existing plants while leaving the physical environment intact. In the simplified model, the plant community then grows and develops through stages, which are typically named after the size class of the dominant life form (in this case, trees). Forest structural stages in this area were evaluated in the SB Kah Ecosystem Analysis, completed in 2000, and updated for this project. These structural stages are considered analogous to successional stages and are used to assess the condition and diversity of forest successional stages across the Soldier Addition II Project Area. For the purposes of this discussion, the development patterns of vegetation following a disturbance are divided into the three forest structural/successional stages - early, mid and late successional - as described below. These are simplified categories developed to help explain a complex and diverse set of processes and conditions. Also, this section of the chapter describes the Old-growth forest condition (a part of the late successional stage), as well as the condition of dead standing and down woody material in the project area. Refer to Map 11 in Appendix B of the Silvicultural Diagnosis Report (Project File Section E) for location of these stages across the Project Area. Early Successional Stage (Stand Initiation; Seedling/Sapling) This stage is roughly the first 30 years after a disturbance, such as a fire or harvest activity, when new plants appear or re-sprout and occupy the growing space left vacant by the removal or death of the previous plants. Grasses, forbs and shrubs are typically abundant and diverse. In forest types, trees are in the seedling and sapling size classes, from a few inches up to 30 or 40 feet tall. Trees are usually growing in an open-grown condition, especially when in the seedling or sapling size classes, with full sunlight reaching their crowns. An estimated 32% of the Soldier Addition II Project Area (about 15,130 acres) is categorized in the early successional stage of forest development. About 5900 acres of this (or 12% of the total 3-13

14 Project Area) originates from regeneration harvests over the past 50 years; about 1000 acres is due to the recent fire activity (Ball Fire in 2003). Both these activities returned mature stands to an early seedling stage of development. The remaining 8230 acres are naturally open areas, in upper elevations or harsher, south aspects, classified as early successional primarily because of the dominance of grasses, forbs, and shrubs, and the scarcity of trees. They reflect sites where reforestation after a fire is more prolonged and growing conditions for trees more harsh. Thus trees that are present are typically of all ages, from younger seedlings to older mature trees, and naturally sparse. In the low to mid elevation zone below 5000 feet elevation (where over 90% of the proposed harvest and thinning activities occur), about 23% of the forest area is in an early successional stage of development, nearly all due to timber harvest activities over the past 50 years. Mid-Successional Stage (Stem exclusion/young forest/understory re-initiation) The mid-successional stage occurs in the decades following the early successional stage, from roughly 50 to perhaps 150 years old. All the growth space is occupied, and few or no new individual plant species appear. Existing plants with a competitive advantage are able to expand into growing space occupied by other plants, with success depending upon their advantages. Forest conditions in this stage of development are highly variable. Depending upon the site conditions, the forest canopy may be broken, with trees more widely spaced; or it may be closed, with tree crowns intertwining. In the more densely forested stands, grasses, forbs and shrubs often decrease in abundance or diversity, due to the decreased sunlight on the forest floor, and shade-tolerant species are more dominant. There may be multiple tree layers or only a single layer of trees. Depending on tree density and site potential, average tree sizes may be quite small (3-6 dbh) or large (20+ dbh). In the Soldier Addition II Project Area, most trees in forests at this stage would range from 6 to 16 dbh or more and 40 to 120 feet tall. An estimated 65% (about 31,200 acres) of the Soldier Addition II Project Area is in the mid successional stage of development, by far the most abundant forest successional condition. This is largely due to the dominance of fire as a disturbance and the temperate habitats which support rapid and dense tree growth. As described in the next section under Disturbances, large, stand replacing fires are not uncommon historically, and large portions of the Project Area burned in the 1800s and into the early part of the 1900s. These forests are now 80 to 130 or more years old and exhibit characteristics of a forest in the mid-successional stage. Late-Successional Stage (Old forest; Old-growth) Also referred to as old forest, the late successional stage is comprised of the oldest plant communities, usually where at least 150 years have passed since the last major disturbance. As in the mid-successional stage, forest conditions can be quite diverse. Commonly, the mortality of individuals and groups of overstory trees in these older stands has resulted in increased sunlight reaching the forest floor, allowing some trees in the lower canopy layers to grow into the overstory layers. Multiple layers of tree canopies and tree sizes result. Understory shrubs and forbs may also respond to increased light, becoming more vigorous and abundant. Depending on site and stand conditions, this stage may be characterized by a substantial number of larger trees 3-14

15 (20 + dbh and 100+ feet tall on the best growing sites) and more abundant snag and dead wood components. Old-growth forest is a subset of the late-successional stage. Though all stands age through time, not all stands have the capability of developing into what we would define as Old-growth. Specific characteristics of Old-growth include sufficient overall tree density; specific numbers of large, old, live trees; presence of large, standing dead trees and large rotting downed logs; multiple tree canopy layers; and diverse plant species. Many factors influence development of these characteristics, such as site conditions, density of trees, growth rates, insect or disease activity, and frequency of fires. The Old-growth definition at the project, or stand, level currently in use across western Montana and the Flathead National Forest is outlined in the document Old Growth Forest Types of the Northern Region (USDA Forest Service, 1992), found in Section E of the Project File. Table 3-3 below displays some of the characteristics necessary to be defined as Old-growth for the habitat types affected by the proposed treatment areas. Table 3-3. Western Montana Zone Old Growth Type Characteristics Within Habitat Types Found In The Proposed Treatment Areas Old Growth Type 4 Subalpine Fir, Douglas- Fir, Larch 5 Subalpine Fir, Douglas- Fir, Larch 6 Subalpine Fir, Whitebark Pine 8 Subalpine Fir, Whitebark Habitat Type Group ⁴ Cool/moist & wet (AF/Clun; AF/Mefe; AF/Libo; AF/Luhi-Mefe) Mod. cool/moist & Cool/mod. dry (DF/Libo; AF/Xete; AF/Vaca) Cold/ mod. dry (AF/Vasc; AF- WBP/Vasc; AF/Luhi; Cold (AF-WBP types) Min. Age Of Large Trees Number TPA/ DBH > > > > 13 DBH Variation ² % Dead/ Broken Top ¹ H 9 / 0-19 M 9 / 1-18 M 11 / 2-31 M 12 / Probability Of Down Wood ² H 2-43 % Decay ¹ (range) 9 (0-19) H 6 (0-12) M 10 (2-17) M 5 (0-8) # Canopy Layer ³ Snags/ Acre ¹ (range) Mult. 15 (2-43) Mult. 12 (3-36) Mult. 25 (5-38) Single 37 Pine ¹ These values are not minimum criteria. They are the range of means across plots within forests, forest types or habitat type groups. ² These are not minimum criteria. They are Low, Moderate, and High probabilities of abundant large down woody material or variation in diameters based on stand condition expected to occur most frequently. ³ Number of canopy layers can vary within an old growth type with age, relative abundance of different species and successional stages. ⁴ Habitat Groups: refer to Section E in the Project File (33-44) 3-15

16 Determining the amount of forest in a late successional or old forest and particularly Oldgrowth - condition is more difficult to determine across a large landscape than an early successional or even mid-successional forest. This is because tree ages, tree sizes and characteristics such as number or size of snags and dead/down/decayed wood is very difficult or impossible to tell from photo interpretation or remote sensing data. The analysis of old forest for the landscape affected by the Soldier Addition II Project utilized a combination of vegetation data from the SB Kah Ecosystem Analysis (photo interpretation); additional fine-scale photo interpretation conducted specifically for the Soldier Addition Project; field surveys and reconnaissance conducted in the past and specifically for this project; data compiled for the Flathead Forest Plan Amendment 21 analysis ( Management Direction Related to Old Growth Forests, 1999); and fire history or timber harvest records that helped confirm the year of origin of the stand. This assessment determined that there is an estimated 6530 acres (14%) of forest in the Soldier Addition II Project Area that might have the large tree/multiple canopy/older aged forest conditions to qualify as late successional or old forest. Some of this may meet Old-growth definitions (Table 3-3) as well. This possible old forest is scattered throughout the Project Area, and represent stands in areas that probably have not experienced a fire for nearly 180 years or more as well as stands that either burned lightly or not at all within the boundaries of the fires of 1889, 1910, 1919 and Refer to Map 13 in Appendix B of the Silvicultural Diagnosis Report (Project File Section E) for location of these possible old forest areas across the Project Area. Final, accurate verification of old forest or Old growth conditions can only be accomplished through field surveys, which were or will be completed for all possible old forest stands that are proposed for treatments in the Soldier Addition Project. All harvest units have been field verified; some of the prescribed burn units remain to be fully field verified, but this will be completed before proposed activities occur. Based on field surveys, portions of Burn Units 3, 6 and 7 and harvest Unit 28 are known to contain components of forest in a late successional condition. All are primarily composed of trees <100 years old, but contain scattered and groups of old, large overstory trees. Douglas-fir dominates in these relatively drier forest types, with western larch, lodgepole pine and ponderosa pine also present in varying amounts. Stands are a mix of ages and structures, from dense single storied trees to small openings to patches of multi-canopy forest. Mortality of Douglas-fir of all ages is high in some areas, due primarily to root disease. These units do not meet the definition of Old growth forest, primarily due to the inadequate number of old, large overstory trees (they average <8 large, old trees per acre), and the young age of most of the tree component. However, they do have characteristics, and thus the associated values, of late successional forests, namely some old overstory trees and multi-storied condition, and moderate amounts of snags and dead/down large woody material. However they are at high risk of losing these values to future wildfire, due to their current condition (see page 3-13). Refer to Tables 3-5 and 3-7 in this Chapter for further description of the stand conditions within these treatment units. Dead Standing (Snags) and Down Wood 3-16