Contents. 3. Teachers Guide Rocky Shore Survey 3.1 Pre-survey Training Shore Thing Survey Timed Species Search...

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2 Contents 1. Introduction 1.1 How to use the Shore Thing Teachers Pack Examination Links 2.1 AQA AS/A2 Level Biology, Environmental Science and General Studies and ICT Edexcel AS/A2 Biology, Geography and ICT OCR AS/A2 Biology, Geography, Science and ICT WJEC A/AS Biology, Geography and ICT SQA Intermediate Higher and Advanced Higher, Managing Environmental Resources and Biology Teachers Guide Rocky Shore Survey 3.1 Pre-survey Training Shore Thing Survey Timed Species Search Teachers Guide Background Material 4.1 Research...16 Rocky Shore Ecology...16 Marine Conservation...18 Climate Change Planning Fieldwork Data Handling Presentation Teachers Notes 5.1 Survey Protocol Shore Thing Survey Form Step by Step Guide to conducting a Shore Thing Survey Step by Step Guide to conducting a Timed Species Search Species Identification Key Rocky Shore Ecology Marine Life Topic Note 1 Marine Conservation in the UK Marine Life Topic Note 2 Climate Change and Marine Life around Britain and Ireland Survey Techniques Databases Student Worksheets A Pre-survey Training A1 Survey Protocol A2 Species Identification B Rocky Shore Ecology B1 Terminology B2 Rocky Shore profile C Marine Conservation i

3 Contents (contd) D E F G Climate Change Planning Fieldwork E1 Planning E2 Rocky Shore Survey E3 Health and Safety Data Handling F1 Terminology F2 Databases F3 Data Analysis Presentation Appendix Appendix 1 Executive Summary of MarClim Final Report Appendix 2 Rocky Shore Ecology Projects Acknowledgements ii

4 Introduction 1 1. INTRODUCTION Our seas are changing! Sea temperatures around Britain have already risen in the 20 th Century and scientists predict that the average seawater temperature could rise a further 2 o C by the 2050s. An increase in sea and also air temperature will have an impact on our rocky shore species: southern species will flourish further north and northern species could disappear from our shores. But how will we know? Scientists have already demonstrated a change in the distribution of selected rocky shore species by repeating surveys carried out in the 1950s at sites around Britain. The work was carried out by the MarClim (Marine Biodiversity and Climate Change Monitoring) project where scientists spent four years investigating the effects of climatic warming on marine biodiversity. A summary of the project results can be found in appendix 1 or you can download the entire report from The Shore Thing project was established to involve A Level/Higher students and voluntary groups in collecting valuable long-term data to support the work undertaken by MarClim. Our aims are: To generate records of marine wildlife by facilitating intertidal biological surveys at sites around the British Isles, and to make the results available to all on the Internet. In addition we aim to raise awareness of marine conservation amongst the participants and the wider community. The main component of the project is a rocky shore survey which includes a transect survey followed by an effort-based search for selected non-native and climate change indicators. Survey records are then uploaded on to our project website All data is then verified by scientists at the Marine Biological Association (MBA) before being passed on to the National Biodiversity Network (NBN), The NBN disseminates data from surveys undertaken by scientists, organizations and volunteers from all over the UK. Students participating in the Shore Thing Project will have a unique opportunity to be involved in REAL science. They will be working alongside scientists, plus other schools and voluntary groups from all around the British Isles to help increase our knowledge of the impacts that climate change may have on our rocky shore environment. Being such a unique project, we have produced this Teachers Pack to support your school s involvement. The Pack has been designed so that the minimum amount of preparation is required. Each section has a list of resources and useful websites that can be used by students to help them complete the survey and the accompanying worksheets. The project has many different aspects, from planning a survey to collecting accurate records and uploading data, making it an ideal way to teach many aspects of the A level/higher examination specifications. Recent changes to the English examination specifications (included in this pack) highlight the need to study the impacts of climate change on our environment. Section 2 demonstrates the links between each section of the pack and the particular examination requirements. 1.1 How to use the Shore Thing Teachers Pack The Pack has been divided into two main sections: Rocky Shore Surveys and Background Material. Ideally we would like students to complete the sections in the Background Material before carrying out a survey. However, this is not always feasible. A survey is the most crucial part of the project because we need long-term data, so all the information required for carrying

5 Introduction out a survey has been included in Section 3. Section 4 gives students the opportunity to study rocky shore ecology, marine conservation, climate change, fieldwork techniques and data handling in more depth. Figure 1 illustrates each component of this Pack. Figure 1. Components of the Shore Thing Teachers Pack Teachers Pack Rocky Shore Surveys Background Material Pre-survey training Rocky shore ecology Shore thing survey Marine conservation Timed species search Climate change Planning fieldwork Data handling Presentation The Teachers Guide sections for both the surveys and background material outline what is required for the students to complete the worksheets for each subject (see section 6). The Teachers Guide also includes the answers for each activity and all the necessary support material has been provided in the Teachers Notes. The following are the aims, learning objectives and outcomes of the pack: Aims To conduct a biological survey of the rocky shore and to make that data available to scientists and decision makers via the Shore Thing website To investigate the concepts of rocky shore ecology, marine conservation and climate change Learning Objectives 2 How to plan and conduct a biological survey The importance of collecting and disseminating accurate biological data Understand what factors affect the distribution and abundance of organisms on the rocky shore The principles behind marine conservation How climate change affects us and the marine environment

6 Introduction Learning Outcomes Students should be able to: Plan and conduct a biological survey Use an abundance scale Use appropriate terminology to describe the rocky shore Describe the factors that affect species survival on the shore Understand the consequences of climate change on the marine environment Appreciate the need to manage and conserve our marine ecosystem Enter survey records on to the Shore Thing database Present their work to teachers and peers There are also learning outcomes for each subject. Figure 2 illustrates the range of subjects covered by using this Pack, in conjunction with a survey of the rocky shore. However, we understand that time, money and staff availability can make it difficult to organise a visit to the shore. Project funding can help with transport costs to the shore and the Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN) team along with our partners throughout the UK will supply a rocky shore ecologist where possible. Data from surveys carried out by other groups around the country are available to download from our website ( This information can be used to carry out statistical analysis of biological data. The Shore Thing can also be used by students to fulfil the fieldwork component of the syllabus. Figure 2 Subjects covered during a survey, using the background material or conducting a survey and using the background material. Shore Thing Teachers Pack Surveys Only Background Material Only Surveys and Background Material Ecological terms Survey techniques Diversity index Biodiversity Validation and verification Ecosystem change Practical skills Wildlife conservation Management techniques Data and information Analytical skills Global climate change Reports Global climate change Monitoring populations Ecological terms Biodiversity Verification and validation Survey techniques Diversity index Practical skills Human impacts Wildlife conservation Management techniques Data and information 3

7 Examination Links 2 EXAMINATION LINKS 2.1 AQA AS/A2 Biology, Environmental Science, General Studies and ICT Survey Background Material Examination Board Module/Subject/Unit Pre-survey Training Transect Survey Species Search Research Planning Fieldwork Data Handling Presentation of Research Biology Unit 2 The variety of living organisms Unit 3 Investigative and practical skills in AS Biology Unit 4 Populations and environment Unit 6 Investigative and practical skills in A2 Biology Living organisms vary and this variation is influenced by genetic and environmental factors Biodiversity may be measured within a habitat Implementing involves the ability to work methodically and safely Raw data may require processing Limitations are inherent in the material and apparatus used The dynamic equilibrium of populations is affected by a number of factors Investigating biological problems involves changing a specific factor Implementing involves the ability to work methodically and safely. Investigating variation Causes of variation Species diversity Index of diversity Populations and ecosystems Investigating populations Variation in population size 4

8 Examination Links AQA AS/A2 Biology, Environmental Science, General Studies and ICT Survey Background Material Examination Board Module/Subject/Unit Pre-survey Training Transect Survey Species Search Research Planning Fieldwork Data Handling Presentation of Research Biology Unit 6 Investigative and practical skills in A2 Biology Environmental Studies Unit 1 The Living Environment Data should be analysed by means of an appropriate test Limitations are inherent in the apparatus used and procedures adopted Conditions for life on earth Wildlife conservation Life processes in the Biosphere How the presence of life on earth has brought about environmental change The rationale for wildlife conservation How humans threaten wildlife Conservation methods Conservation in the UK UK Habitats Adaptation to the environment Abiotic and biotic factors Grouping organisms Changes in ecosystems Populations Unit 2 The Physical Environment The Atmosphere Global climate change 5

9 Examination Links AQA A2/AS Level Biology, Environmental Science, General Studies and ICT Survey Background Material Examination Board Module/Subject/Unit Pre-survey Training Transect Survey Species Search Research Planning Fieldwork Data Handling Presentation of Research General Studies A Unit 2 Science and Society Unit 4 Science and Society Geography Unit 3 Contemporary Geographical Issues ICT Unit 2 Living in the digital world Understanding of scientific methods, principles, criteria and their application The nature of scientific objectivity and the question of progress Mathematical reasoning and its application Past and present relationships between technology, science and society Understanding of scientific methods, principles, criteria and their application The nature of scientific objectivity and the question of progress Weather and Climate and Associated Hazards Global climate change Ecosystems Change and Challenge Data and information 6

10 Examination Links 2.2 Edexcel A2/AS Level Biology, Geography and ICT GCE Survey Background Material Examination Board Module/Subject/Unit Pre-survey Training Transect Survey Species Search Research Planning Fieldwork Data Handling Presentation of Research Biology (context and concept led) Unit 4 The Natural Environment and Species Survival Unit 4 The Natural Environment and Species Survival Unit 3 Practical Biology and Research skills Unit 6 Practical biology and Investigative skills Geography (AS) Unit 1 Global Challenges ICT Unit 2 The Digital economy 3.3 On the wild side 7.3 On the wild side Part 1 Practical biology skills Part 3 Visit or issue report World at Risk 2.9 ICT Skills Individual investigation Organisation Preparation Experimentation The report 4. Climate change and its causes 5. The Impacts of global warming 6. Coping with climate change ICT tools & techniques Use database software to handle data Produce reports 7

11 Examination Links 2.3 OCR AS/A Level Biology, Geography, Science and ICT Survey Background Material Examination Board Module/Subject/Unit Pre-survey Training Transect Survey Species Search Research Planning Fieldwork Data Handling Presentation of Research Biology AS Unit F212: Molecules, Biodiversity, Food and Health AS Unit F213: Practical skills in Biology 1 A2 Unit F215 A2 Unit F216: Practical skills in Biology 2 Geography A2 Unit F763: Global Issues Science AS Unit 614: Remote Sensing and the Natural Environment AS Unit 615: Science and human activity ICT AS Unit G061: Information Systems and Application Module 3 Biodiversity and Evolution Maintaining Biodiversity Module 3 Ecosystems and Sustainability Section A Environmental Issues Module Stable and vulnerable environments Module Weather, climate and climate change Data, Information, Knowledge and Processing Biodiversity Ecosystems Populations and Sustainability Option A2 Ecosystems and Environments under threat Biodiversity and ecosystems Climate change 8

12 Examination Links 2.4 WJEC A/AS Level Biology, Geography and ICT Survey Background Material Examination Board Module/Subject/Unit Pre-survey Training Transect Survey Species Search Research Planning Fieldwork Data Handling Presentation of Research Biology BY5 Environment, Genetics and Evolution Geography Unit G1 Changing Physical Environments ICT 4.3 Unit IT 3 Use and impact of ICT 5.7 Energy and Ecosystems 5.8 Effects of Human activities and sustainability Theme 1 Investigating Climate Change Database systems Management Information Systems (a) The concept of ecosystems (b) Global warming and climate change affect distribution of species. 1.3 What are the cause of climate change Database 9

13 Examination Links 2.5 SQA Intermediate, Higher and Advanced Higher Managing Environmental Resources and Biology Survey Background Material Examination Board Module/Subject/Unit Pre-survey Training Transect Survey Species Search Research Planning Fieldwork Data Handling Presentation of Research Intermediate 2 Managing Environmental Resources Unit 1 Natural Resources Unit 2 Ecosystems 6. Environmental effects of different energy sources 1. Ecological concepts The effect on landscape, wildlife & biodiversity of using wind, wave and fossil fuels as energy sources e.g. Diversity, populations, ecosystem, habitat. 2. Food chains and food webs 6. Impact of human activities on ecosystems 7. Pollution & Conservation The effects of for example Greenhouses gases on ecosystems The roll of indicator species in relation to pollution. Higher Managing Environmental Resources Unit 2 Investigating Ecosystems 1. Ecosystems, habitats & communities Advanced Higher Managing Environmental Resources The concept of ecosystems. Methods of sampling organisms within ecosystems Unit: Managing the Natural Heritage Unit: Environmental Investigation Management techniques & their outcomes Human activities, their effects on ecosystems & strategies for improvement Coast/marine 10

14 Examination Links SQA Intermediate, Higher and Advanced Higher Managing Environmental Resources and Biology Survey Background Material Examination Board Module/Subject/Unit Pre-survey Training Transect Survey Species Search Research Planning Fieldwork Data Handling Presentation of Research Biology Intermediate 2 Unit 2: Environmental Biology and Genetics Biology Higher Unit 3: Control & regulation 1. Energy Flow 2. Factors affecting the variety of species in an ecosystem c) Population Dynamics Components of an ecosystem i) The importance of biodiversity at species level ii) Factors affecting biodiversity ii) Monitoring populations 11

15 Teachers Guide Rocky Shore Survey

16 Teachers Guide 3.1 Pre-survey Training 3 ROCKY SHORE SURVEY The Shore Thing survey is divided into two sections: transect survey and a timed species search. Students should become familiar with the protocol and the recording form (Teachers Notes). We don t expect students to become rocky shore ecologists in a few hours. However, it is important to concentrate on some of the commonest species and practise using key features to help with identification, in particular the 22 non-native and climate change species used in the timed search. A poster has been provided to display in the classroom so students can become familiar with the species before going out in the field. Learning Outcomes An understanding of survey techniques used in a Shore Thing Survey A more detailed understanding of the community structure of the rocky shore in relation to the Shore Thing survey. Familiarity with the key features of common rocky shore species. Resources Teachers Notes o Shore Thing Protocol o Shore Thing Recording Form o Seashore Species Key Shore Thing Training DVD (included on CD) Shore Thing Presentation (included on CD) Species Photographs (included in pack) Student Activity Activity A1 Survey Protocol The Shore Thing Protocol could be discussed during a classroom session. If time permits you may also want to cover Planning Fieldwork (see section 4.2). Students should then answer the questions on worksheet A1. Answers 1. Why is it important for groups to use the same protocol? Records need to be collected in the same way so that the data from different parts of the country and from year to year can be compared. 2. Explain the importance of recording transect details? The location of the survey site needs to be recorded so that the same area can be surveyed once or twice a year. This will also help with comparing data and show any changes over time. 12

17 Teachers Guide 3. Records should be collected in how many quadrats at each station? Four quadrats at the upper, middle and lower stations. 4. Explain how the data is collected in each quadrat especially at the middle and lower stations? Species should be recorded within the bounds of the quadrat. All algae and attached animals such as barnacles or sponges should be recorded as percentage cover. Species that cover less than 10% of the quadrat are present denoted by a P. At the middle and lower stations algae cover is usually more prolific. Percentage cover of the canopy should be recorded first before carefully moving the canopy aside to reveal the undercover. Take care when moving the canopy as small animals may be hiding amongst the algae. 5. What should you do once you have completed the quadrats at the lower station? Take a bearing from your position at the lower station back to the start of the survey at the upper station. Activity A2 Species Identification The Shore Thing recording form has a list of generic species to be found on the upper, middle and lower shore. Students should be familiar with these species and understand the reason why they are found in these areas. If possible collect live specimens of eight species from the shore you will be surveying so you can return them when you go back to do the survey (species will vary from region to region). Select four of the species and highlight their key features. The students, either individually or in groups, should try to identify the correct species from the key features. This activity is part of the Shore Thing PowerPoint presentation. An activity sheet has been provided for the students. You may wish to adapt this if the species are not relevant to your area. If possible please include one or two of the indicator species. Photographs are available (see pack). These may be used if you can t collect live specimens, but the key features will be harder to identify. Answers Key Features 1. Osilinus lineatus 2. Sargassum muticum 3. Fucus vesiculosus 4. Gibbula umbilicalis 13

18 Teachers Guide 3.2 Shore Thing Survey Students should now have a good understanding of survey techniques and how these are used to carry out a Shore Thing survey. Learning Outcome Conduct a biological survey Resources Teachers notes o Step by Step guide to conducting a Shore Thing Survey o Shore Thing Protocol includes equipment list o Shore Thing Recording Form. All the information you require is in the survey protocol and on the recording form. If you are unfamiliar with rocky shore species then the Project Officer will arrange for an ecologist to accompany you. Divide the class into three equal groups with each doing one transect. If you have a large class say 30 you can divide them into 6 groups with 2 groups on each transect, surveying 2 quadrats for each group and then combine the results. When conducting a survey there are a few important points to remember: 1. Take accurate transect details so that the survey can be repeated by yourselves or other groups. 2. If you are repeating a survey, remember to take the transect details from the previous survey with you. 3. Not all shores have distinct upper, middle and lower zones. If the upper shore is covered by sand or boulders, make a note of it in the notes section on page 5 of the recording form. 4. Photographs are very valuable as they can be used to verify the data. If you are in doubt about the identification of a species then a photograph (with location and quadrat references) will help us to verify the record. 5. Once you have completed the quadrats at the lower station remember to take a bearing back to the upper station. This can be easily forgotten. 6. When the survey has been completed the ecologist or experienced teacher should sign the bottom of the recording form. 7. Completed forms must be returned to the Shore Thing Project Officer at the Marine Biological Association, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, PL1 2PB, for validation. 14

19 Teachers Guide 3.3 Timed Species Search The timed species search is a 20 minute effort-based search of the survey site recording the abundance of the 22 climate change indicator species. It is important that students try to avoid distractions and concentrate on the species they are searching for. Learning Objectives/Outcome Conduct a biological survey Use an abundance scale Resources Teachers notes o Step by step guide to conducting a Timed Species Search o Survey Protocol o Survey Recording Form (page 4) Poster (see Pack) Flash cards There are 22 indicator species to search for in 3 habitats: Rockpools, Boulders/Crevices/ Overhangs and Open Rock. Some species are found in more than one habitat so it s important for students to remember to record abundance in the habitat in which they are searching and nowhere else. The flash cards must be used during the search to help with identification. There are a total of 32 cards: 15 for Rockpools, 9 for Boulders/Crevices/Overhangs and 8 for Open Rock. On the reverse of each card are the key features, and also where that species is likely to be found i.e. upper, middle or lower shore. Each student should search for a maximum of 3 species. Once they have completed the search they should record the abundance on page 4 of the recording form. A good point to highlight is that Not Found is just as important as Abundant! If sea temperatures do rise, then species not recorded one year may start to colonise an area, but we have to know whether or not that species was present during initial surveys. The abundance scale used for this search is a simplified version of the SACFORN (see section 4.2) abundance scale used by scientists. A = Abundant F = Frequent R = Rare N = Not found (Definitely found at certain level on the shore) (Definitely found after a little searching) (Intensive search to find 1 or 2 individuals) 15

20 Teachers Guide Background Material

21 Teachers Guide 4 BACKGROUND MATERIAL 4.1 Research Rocky Shore Ecology Although not essential for undertaking a survey, having a basic understanding of rocky shore ecology will help students to appreciate the possible impacts of climate change on species. There are also several links to the A level/higher exam specifications e.g. habitats, biodiversity and terminology. Learning Outcome Have an understanding of rocky shore ecology i.e. terms, zonation, classification, factors affecting distribution etc. Resources Teachers Notes o Rocky Shore Ecology Hawkins, S.J. and Jones, H.D. (1992). Rocky Shores. Marine Field Course Guide 1. Marine Conservation Society. Immel Publishing, London Naylor, P. (2005) Great British Marine Animals, 2 nd edition, Sound Diving Publications Students Activity By searching the internet, using the library, or as part of a classroom session students should look at the terminology used to describe a rocky shore and zonation: what lives on different areas of the shore and why? They should then answer the questions on worksheets B1 and B2. Answers Activity B1 Terminology Explain the following terms: Biodiversity: The variety of plant and animal life in a particular habitat or even the world. Ecosystem: A unit of plants and animals within a given area functioning together with the physical environment. Niche: Describes the relational position of a species or habitat within an ecosystem. Community: The plants and animals living together in a given area. Competition: When one individual or species interacts with another individual or species and has an adverse effect. Exposure: The degree of wave action on the shore. Spring tides: Largest tide, greatest distance between high and low water. Neap tides: Smallest tide, least difference between high and low water. Turbidity: Cloudiness of the water that restricts the amount of light penetrating the water column. Desiccation: Occurs due to emersion at low tide: influences the upper and middle shore. Aerobic: With air. Anaerobic: Without air. 16

22 Teachers Guide Explain the difference between Abiotic and Biotic and how these factors affect the distribution of species on the rocky shore. Abiotic factors are non-living or physical conditions. These include: wave action, desiccation, light, temperature and substrate. Species ability to adapt to these physical conditions will determine where they will be found on the shore. Biotic are biological factors that will influence the community. For example, limpets graze on algae: their presence will prevent the establishment of a dense covering on the rocks. However, if they are removed say by oil pollution, a dense canopy of fucoids will become established. Activity B2 - Rocky shore profile 17

23 Teachers Guide Marine Conservation Involvement in the Shore Thing project provides an excellent opportunity to introduce students to the subject of marine conservation. The 1981 Wildlife and Countryside Act led to the creation of our first Marine Nature Reserve at Skomer Island, Pembrokeshire. Since that time organizations have struggled to provide the marine environment with equivalent terrestrial protection. It is hoped that the introduction of the Marine Bill will improve the present situation. Learning Outcome Appreciate the present level of protection in British waters and the need to protect our marine environment. Resources Teachers Notes o Marine Life Topic Note 1 Marine Conservation Student Activity Worksheet C asks students to choose one Marine Protected Area (MPA) and answer a number of questions. Below is the information required for a number of MPA s. Lundy (South Wales) Designated on the 21 st November 1986 under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 Managed by English Nature who provide funding for Warden employed by the Landmark Trust (who lease the island) in association with Devon Sea Fisheries Zoning scheme o No-take zone on east of island = no fishing or collection of sealife of any kind o Refuge zone around the east to north-west of the island = no fishing except potting or angling o 2 legally protected wrecks = no diving or fishing allowed o the rest of the reserve = general use zone where all recreational activities are allowed except spearfishing Home to a huge variety of marine life, including many rare and unusual species: o Pink sea fan, grey seals, sunset cup coral Skomer (Pembrokeshire) Designated in 1990 around Skomer Island and the Marloes Peninsula under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 Managed by the Countryside Council for Wales The island is at the junction in the ranges of many northern and southern species making it a particularly important site Two permanent marine conservation officers manage the site 18

24 Teachers Guide St Abbs & Eyemouth (Scottish Borders) Opened on 18 th August 1984 Covers 8 km of coastline Home to an unusual range of species including the wolf-fish which is generally found in Arctic waters and the Atlantic Devonshire cup coral species Lies within the Berwickshire and north Northumberland European Marine Site (EMS) Management Committee consists of representatives from local and national organizations with an interest in the marine environment. The reserve is a registered charity Run on voluntary basis, no legal powers but does have a code of practice A Marine ranger is employed under the management of the National Trust for Scotland Aims to conserve biodiversity of the coastal waters, to raise awareness of the marine environment through education and to promote responsible recreational use alongside a sustainable fishery to the mutual benefit of all. Wembury (Devon) Created in 1981 Four miles of coast from Gara Point to Fort Bovisand near Plymouth Warden employed by the Devon Wildlife Trust Cared for by the Wembury Advisory Group of representatives of local people and organizations with an interest in the marine environment Also designated as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC), Special Site of Scientific Interest (SSSI) and Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) Huge diversity of life, particularly in the rocky reefs, home to the protected fish, Allis Shad Subject to a lot of pressure from visitors, therefore the Voluntary Marine Conservation Area (VMCR) aims to raise awareness of marine issues Helford (Cornwall) Designated in 1987 Aims to encourage people to become more involved in the marine environment and work together to conserve it. Home to many different habitats in the tidal estuarine waters and some important and rare species o Maerl, Eelgrass, Fan mussel, Couch s goby Within the Fal and Helford SAC Advisory Group maintain the voluntary approach to conservation Berwickshire and North Northumberland Coast Proposed to the European Commission in 1996 as part of the Natura 2000 series Consists of a candidate SAC, Special Protected Area (SPA) and the Voluntary Marine Nature Reserve (VMNR) The SAC component safeguards four features = rocky reefs, sea caves, intertidal sand and mud flats, plus grey seals Run by a Management Group 19

25 Teachers Guide Plymouth Sound and Estuaries Adopted as a csac in 1996 Tamar Estuaries Consultative Forum (TECF) in partnership with the Port of Plymouth Marine Liaison Committee (PPMLC) and Wembury Voluntary Marine Conservation Area Advisory Group (WAG) which manages the site. Legal requirement for the management organizations to develop a management scheme Designated for following habitats and species: o Large shallow inlets and bays, estuaries, sandbanks, Atlantic salt meadows, reefs, Shore dock, Allis shad Cardigan Bay Put forward as an SAC in 1996 Mainly due to the high numbers of bottlenose dolphin. Other species of European importance include: o River lamprey, Sea lamprey, Atlantic grey seal Has a code of conduct and byelaws. 20

26 Teachers Guide Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created in 1988 to provide an objective source of information on climate change for policymakers. In their latest report (November 2007) the IPCC concluded that the Earth is warming and that human activity is very likely responsible for most of that warming. Although there appears to be overwhelming evidence that this is true there are people who feel that climate change is a natural process and not a consequence of human activities. Below are a few sceptical views of climate change, posted on the BBC website, Have Your Say : This global warming's just come at the right time for me, since I can no longer afford to travel abroad it means I can holiday in the sunny UK, that is until Gordon brings in his green taxes. All the climate changes in my lifetime could easily be explained by a multitude of causes, of which Global Warming is just the popular current thread. The fact is that it's obvious people have an effect on the environment, but nature makes bigger changes than we do when it wants to. I used to be able to count on snow from November through the end of February into some of March. Now, if I see a couple weeks of snow, that's normal. It still could be a mix of both human and natural causes though. The aim of this activity is to encourage students to look at the scientific evidence for climate change and the socio economic impacts. Learning Outcome Understand the concept of climate change and the potential impacts on the marine environment. Resources Teachers Notes o Marine Life Topic Note 2 Climate Change Climate Change role play cards (see pack) Student Activity Activity D asks students to research the effects of climate change and how it impinges on different people s lives. The research can be carried out as a homework exercise. Students can do this activity in pairs or individually. Give each student/s a card (see Pack) which states who they are and their opinion of climate change. This can be done prior to conducting their research. They should spend no more than five minutes putting their point of view across, to small groups or the whole class. Once all the students have acted out their role the class can have a general debate about climate change. Suggested questions to help generate a debate are: Do you agree with the opinion of your character? What do you feel about climate change, are we responsible? If we act, will we make a difference in our lifetimes or is it too late? There is scientific evidence for a rise in sea temperatures. What impact do you think this will have on the marine environment? 21

27 Teachers Guide 4.2 Planning Fieldwork There are various factors to consider when planning a biological survey. During this activity students will learn about the techniques used, what to consider when planning a survey, and the health and safety issues. Learning Outcomes Gain an understanding of the practical techniques and procedures required for fieldwork Identify the environmental factors to consider when conducting a survey on the rocky shore Appreciate health and safety issues Resources Teachers Notes o Survey techniques Hawkins, S.J. and Jones, H.D. (1992). Rocky Shores. Marine Field Course Guide 1. Marine Conservation Society. Immel Publishing, London Raffaelli, D. and Hawkins, S. (1999). Intertidal Ecology. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Chapter 8 Student Activity There are a number of techniques that can be used on the rocky shore. The most appropriate method is dependent on the site and the species to be surveyed. For example in an area with a high species diversity, if you used a large 1 m 2 quadrat it would take you far longer to record the species present than one half that size. Students should be introduced to different techniques either in a classroom session or for homework so they can answer the questions in worksheets E. Answers: Activity E1 The four factors to consider when planning a survey are: Time of low water, suitability of the shore i.e. if it has good examples of zonation, reasonably level and access. Activity E2 The three components of a survey are: Transect, quadrats, and abundance scales. Activity E3 See Table 1 for completed risk assessment. 22

28 Teachers Guide Table 1 - Shore Thing Risk Assessment Location Activity Group Nature of Hazard Vehicle movement Slippery rocks and seaweed Tides Stings/bites from marine animals (anemones, jellyfish, weaver fish) Exposure (cold water/weather, sunburn / dehydration) Worst outcome Death Death Death (drowning) Anaphylactic shock due to allergic reaction. Hypothermia or heat exhaustion Group at risk All those walking through car park or crossing road. All those on the seashore. All those on the seashore, especially weak swimmers, young children and the elderly. All who visit the seashore, especially those with allergies Specifically the old and very young although all can suffer from hypothermia or heat exhaustion. Evaluation of risk Unlikely if care taken Death unlikely to occur however scrapes and bruises are possible. Unlikely as survey is timed around low tide. Possibility exists to lose track of time and become cut off by the tide. Most stings, bites, crab pinches are unlikely to occur if care taken and respect for the animal shown. Hypothermia is unlikely to occur if appropriate clothing is worn and time spent in the cold is kept to a minimum. Risk of sunburn particularly during the summer months. Preventative Measures and Precautions Be aware of car movements, don t run across roads or play in car parks. Heath and Safety talk prior to activity. Advising people to wear sensible footwear. Check tide times before you leave and be aware that the tide can start to come in very suddenly. Stay away from the waters edge if sea is not calm. Do not walk off alone, have a means of phone/radio communication with you and make sure somebody knows where you are and what time you are expected back if being cut-off is likely. Ensure that all are aware of this hazard prior to activity. Know the people you are with, check for allergies and other medical conditions. Carry first aid kit. Emphasise the need to treat animals with care and respect. Ensure that appropriate clothing is worn by all. This should be warm / waterproof or provide protection from sun. Wear hat and sunblock. Do not work with large areas of skin exposed. Keep a check on the health of those around you. Take enough drinking water. 23

29 Teachers Guide Table 1 - Shore Thing Risk Assessment (Contd) Nature of Hazard Worst outcome Group at risk Litter and beach debris Serious injury due to cuts and puncture wounds All who visit the seashore. Emergency Information Ensure group has First Aider Name: Take First Aid Kit Carry Mobile phone Location of nearest telephone Evaluation of risk Serious injury is unlikely. Although not common, cuts from broken glass/old cans may occur. Preventative Measures and Precautions Warn of hazard before activity. Keep away from objects/canisters you do not recognise. Carry first aid kit. 24

30 Teachers Guide 4.3 Data Handling The Shore Thing needs long term data sets to demonstrate any impacts that climate change may be having on the marine environment. No conclusions can be drawn after one or several surveys. However, until we have a few years of data the records can be used to carry out other tests and analysis. You may need to collect additional data to carry out these tests. Suggestions for further research are outlined in appendix 2. When the survey data is uploaded on to the project website it is stored in a MySQL database. It is important that students have an understanding of how databases work and how important they are when carrying out scientific studies. Students may have covered these topics whilst studying Information Technology. These activities give students the opportunity to put what they have learnt into a practical context. Learning Outcomes Explain the difference between data, information and knowledge Understand the importance of verification and validation Understand the importance of using databases for scientific research Resources Teachers Notes o Databases Student Activities Students should have a basic understanding of the terminology used when handling data and the processes required ensuring that the data is correct and meaningful. The latter is extremely important. This is why all the Shore Thing data undergoes a rigorous verification and validation process. Activity F1 Terminology Answers Data Information Knowledge Verification Validation Is raw information that can exist in any form usable or not. It is a product of research and discovery. Is data that has been given a meaning. Is what can be discovered from data and information. Can answer question why? Is used to check that data is entered correctly and that there are no transcription errors. Is making sure that the data entered is sensible and possible within reasonable bounds. 25

31 Teachers Guide Activity F2 Databases Answers 1. Structured Query Language 2. Rational Database Management System 3. i Reduced redundancy ii Improved data consistency iii Improved data integrity iv Better security Activity F3 Data Analysis The Shore Thing requires long term data in order to assess the impact of climate change on the marine environment. Surveys are being conducted by schools and voluntary groups all around the country to monitor change. Students can use this data to analyse the distribution and abundance of species in different areas of the country compared to their own. In this activity students can download data from the project website to answer the questions on worksheet F3. Answers will depend on what data they have used and what analysis they have chosen to undertake. 26

32 Teachers Guide 4.4 Presentation Encouraging students to do a presentation of their work at the end of the project is an excellent way of assessing their understanding of the project, why they are carrying out the research, and their ability to communicate their findings to a wider audience. By doing this final activity students gain an understanding of what it is like to be a real scientists by going through the whole research process; researching the subject, collecting the data in the field, analysing their records and presenting their results. Learning Outcomes Demonstrate an understanding of the Shore Thing Project and the principles behind it. Demonstrate an ability to present research data using scientific techniques Demonstrate good communication skills Resources Shore Thing data Student worksheets Microsoft PowerPoint Student Activity Students should follow the guidelines on worksheet G. Presentations can be conducted by individuals or in pairs. 27

33 Teachers Notes

34 Teachers Notes 5.1 The Shore Thing survey procedure and protocol The protocols below are based on those in MCS Marine Field Course Guide ROCKY SHORES, and on discussions with Nova Mieszkowska of MarClim. They have also been field tested by MarLIN. In order to make accurate and comparative observations The Shore Thing surveys must be done in accordance with the following protocols. Equipment List Ranging Poles GPS (if available) Compass Digital Camera (if available) Quadrats 0.5 m x 0.5 m Hand Lens Digital Camera Clipboards Survey Forms Pens and pencils Seashore Guide Waterproof notebook I metre ruler i) Arrival at shore The area to be surveyed should be photographed from a vantage point whose position is noted to allow the same scene to be captured on subsequent surveys. Find your position on an Ordnance Survey map and enter a six figure grid reference in the first section of the survey form or a GPS reading if available. Brief the group on shore work Health & Safety issues. Run through the survey protocol and ensure groups have survey equipment and recording pro-formas. ii) Transect (see figure 2) The variable under investigation is height above low water mark. The aim is to quantify the assemblage of plants and animals. The most suitable sites for transects are seaward-sloping bedrock although this will not always be available. The methodology is applicable on wave-cut platforms. Choose an area where transect lines cut across suitable areas of bedrock. Rockpools, fissures, overhangs, areas of boulders and so forth should be avoided because they represent microhabitats that introduce variability in the assemblage of plants and animals which will affect the results. Split the group into teams (ideally of 3) and assign each group to one of three transects (see below). There should be a minimum of three groups. For each transect 12 samples are required (see below) so divide the work up accordingly. All groups should get the chance to sample the lower station. Establish three transects. For each transect the shore should be sampled at three stations; upper, middle and lower shore. Four quadrats should be placed at each station. Ensure that sampling does not overlap from one transect to the next (see figure 2). If there is a severe lack of space, one transect can be run with 10 quadrats at each station. (For statistical usefulness, at least 30 quadrats are required). Each group should work for at least 1.5 hours on the transect. 28

35 Teachers Notes It does not matter if the transect line is not straight so long as the stations are similar in terms of wave exposure and not further than a few metres away from the straight line between upper and lower stations. Depending on the timing of high and low tide, students can start at the top of the shore and follow the ebbing tide, or start from low water level at the time of low water. Levelling the shore If working on an ebbing tide, establish the position of the middle station by starting from the upper station and finding the mid-point between high and low tide. For example, if the tidal range from chart datum is 5.4 m, a vertical drop of 2.7 m (5.4 m / 2) from the upper station will locate the middle station. The person at the upper station looks along their pole to the person with the second pole who should be walking Figure 1 towards the sea and then to the horizon. For a vertical drop of 2.7 m, if the person at the upper station looks along the pole at a height of 0.3 m then the horizon needs to be level with the 3.0 m mark on the pole (see figure 1) At the highest station (high water mark roughly indicated by upper limit of barnacles, previous high tide strand line and / or lower limit of lichen) record 3 compass bearings to distant landmarks. This will enable subsequent groups to replicate the same transect. Sampling At least thirty quadrats are required. The upper station should take less time to sample than the middle and lower stations. At each station: a) Randomly place a quadrat (0.5m x 0.5m) four times. See figure 2 for a diagrammatic representation. Quadrat placement can be offset from the transect station but ensure that the height above low water is the same, and that there is no overlap with adjacent transect. b) If a digital camera is available, at each station photograph along the shore (normal to the transect line). c) Under each quadrat record: i) Percentage of cover of larger plants (the canopy of algae (seaweed) > 15 cm in height). ii) Percentage of rock covered by animals that are attached or encrusting (barnacles, sponges, mussels etc.). iii) Percentage of rock covered by smaller plants (move large algae aside and look at the understorey of algae <15 cm in height, including encrusting algae, lichens). iv) Abundance of solitary animals such as limpets, top shells, periwinkles etc. (count number of individuals per area). v) All other species where positive identification is possible. 29

36 Teachers Notes See table 1 below for a summary of quantifying species. Table 1. Quantifying abundance of species A. Count individuals B. Estimate % coverage Non-colonial animals such as top Barnacle (exception is volcano shells, dogwhelks and limpets barnacle, tubeworms Volcano barnacle (Balanus Colonial animals such as sponges and perforatus) sea squirts Understorey cover by algae <15 cm in height and encrusting algae Canopy cover by larger seaweeds > 15 cm in height Lichens Notes: Percentages should be estimated down to 10%. Below 10% record P for present The upper station should be completed quickly as there are fewer species at the top of the shore. Figure 2 - Diagram to illustrate placement of quadrats at three transects with three stations on the shore (Not to scale). iii) Timed species search This part of the fieldwork is based on a list of target species that have been selected because they are easy to identify and are either non-native or indicators of climate change. The species in this list have been grouped as likely to occur in different habitats. The search will be carried out in different habitats for an appropriate group of target species. The number each individual searches for will be dependant on the size of the group. No one person should search for more 30

37 Teachers Notes than 3 species. The aim is to provide comparative results by standardizing the time spent searching. Each search is for four different target species on: 1 Open Rock. Search open rock from low to high tide mark 2 Crevice/boulders/overhangs. Search under weed and in nooks and crannies. 3 Rockpools. Search in and around shallow water (wellies essential). Each group of three students will do a search in one of the three habitats. Students should time themselves to spend 20 minutes, recording the abundance of their species at the end of the search. The search should take place as close as possible to low tide. Using the flash cards provided, students should record on their survey form (page 4) abundance as: A (Abundant), F (Frequent), R (Rare) or N (Not found) for each species (see Table 2). These categories correspond with the ACFOR scale used by MarClim 1. Students should look closely and carefully and investigate under seaweed and overhangs and try not to get distracted by interesting finds they can go back and look closely after the timed search. Table 2. Abundance of species in the species search Abundant Frequent Rare Not found Definitely found at certain level on the shore. Definitely found after a little searching. Intensive search to find 1 or 2 individuals Not found after searching. Correct identification of species and of the location in which they were seen (i.e. height on the shore, rock pool, exposed rock and so forth) is very important, so students should check with a teacher / specialist when unsure. It is recommended that students write their reasons for identification in the notes section at the back of the recording form to encourage systematic identification. Photographs should be taken if in doubt. Students should make a note of where and why the photograph was taken. It is vital that all species are searched for. If some are omitted then we cannot conclusively say that they were not found. iv) Results The results of the survey day should be collected and kept safe. Students will be expected to upload them to the MarLIN Web site Once the data has been uploaded the survey forms should be returned to MarLIN to help with validation. 1 1 The Common and Occasional categories are omitted from the Shore Thing data 31

38 Teachers Notes 5.2 Shore Thing Recording Form 32

39 Teachers Notes 33

40 Teachers Notes 34

41 Teachers Notes 35

42 Teachers Notes 36

43 Teachers Notes 5.3 Step by Step Guide to conducting a Shore Thing Survey This list should be used in conjunction with the Shore Thing Protocol. Equipment List Ranging Poles Clipboards GPS or OS map Survey Forms Compass Pens and pencils Seashore Guide Quadrats 0.25 m x 0.25 m Waterproof notebook Hand Lens 1 metre rule 1. Begin the transect survey at least 2 hours before low water 2. Divide the group into three, one for each transect. Ideally there should be four in each group. If you have more than four then the group can be divided into six with two groups on each transect with each group doing two quadrats at the upper, middle and lower stations. The two groups can then combine their results for their particular transect. 3. The transect should begin on the upper shore (if available) below the high water mark. Choose a line down the shore that has the minimum number of rockpools and crevices. 4. Record the position at the start of the transect. This can either be done using a GPS or taken from an Ordnance survey map. 5. If you only have a small area of upper shore take a position in the middle of that area and then start the three transects from that point. 6. Take three bearings to permanent landmarks. 7. Find the middle shore using the ranging poles. Instructions can be found in the survey protocol. 8. Record the species in four quadrats at each of the upper middle and the lower stations. 9. Keep an eye on the time and tide*. 10. When the lower station quadrats have been completed take a compass bearing back to where you started at the top of the shore. 11. Now do the 20 minute timed species search. *The timed species needs to be done at low water so if you are running short of time you could survey the upper station, go straight down to the lower station, then do the timed species search, before returning to do the middle station. 37

44 Teachers Notes 5.4 Step by Step Guide to conducting a Timed Species Search It is very important that all 32 cards are distributed amongst the groups. If any are omitted then we have no way of knowing whether they were present or not. Students should be made aware that Not Found is just as important as Abundant. Equipment list Identification cards Recording form (page 4) Stop watch 1. Students should remain in their groups. 2. Divide the 32 cards amongst the students. Ideally students should only search for one or two species. No individual should search for more than four. 3. Try and divide the cards so that each member of the group is searching in the same habitat. 4. Information about where on the shore each species can be found is on the reverse of the card. If students are searching for more than one species, try and ensure that they are all found in the same area of the shore. 5. Allow the students a few minutes to familiarise themselves with their chosen species and the abundance scale. 6. Start the clock. 7. At the end of the twenty minutes, gather the students together so they can fill in page 5 of the survey form. If you have more than three groups then allocate one group for each of the three habitats. 8. The habitat in which they have been searching should be written at the top of the table. 9. Once the transect survey and species search has been completed, the forms should be checked and signed by the ecologist. Once the data has been uploaded on to the project website, the forms should be sent to the Shore Thing Project Officer for validation. 38

45 Teachers Notes 5.5 Species Identification Key 39

46 Teachers Notes 40

47 Teachers Notes 41

48 Teachers Notes 42

49 Teachers Notes 43

50 Teachers Notes * Species Identification Key Courtesy of the Hallsannery Field Centre, Devon. 44

51 Teachers Notes 5.6 Rocky Shore Ecology For the majority of the population the marine world lies beneath metres of water, accessible only to SCUBA divers. Fortunately the rocky shore is not so difficult to access, giving people the opportunity to see at first hand life in the sea. The seashore is the boundary between the land and the sea. A very sharp change in environmental conditions occurs between the fully marine habitats below the low water mark and the fully terrestrial found above the influence of sea spray. Life between these areas is dependant on the ebb and flood of the tide and wave action. Tides Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun. The effect of the Moon is much greater than that of the Sun. If the Sun and the Moon are in line with the Earth, their gravitational pulls are added so we get a large tidal range (height between high and low water) these are referred to as spring tides. This is the best time to do rocky shore surveys as more of the shore is exposed. If however the Sun and Moon are at right angles to the Earth, their pulls are operating in different directions and so the tidal range is smaller, these are known as neap tides. There is a regular two-weekly cycle to neap to spring to neap tides. Due to the rotation of the earth the time of low water will get later by approximately one hour each day. There are two high and two low tides within 24 hours. The tide takes approximately 6 hours for the tide to ebb (fall) and another 6 hours for it to rise (flood) therefore some species on the shore can be exposed for as much as 12 hours. Before you visit the shore it is important that you look at the tide tables for your area. There is a plethora of websites that will give you the tide times for the next 6 to 7 days. Longer is usually required to plan a visit so annual tide tables or computer software are available at a cost. 45

52 Teachers Notes Factors affecting the distribution of species The distribution of species on the rocky shore is determined by organisms ability to adapt to environmental, biological and physical factors. The marine environment is remarkably stable for example salinity and temperature vary little in coastal waters however when the tide recedes and organisms are exposed to air they are subject to much greater stress and fluctuations in environmental conditions. Seasonal extremes are also much more pronounced - temperature fluctuations, combined with a drop in relative humidity and plants and animals are at risk of desiccation. There is no escape in the rockpools as on hot sunny days the water temperature will rise and evaporation can increase the salinity. Conditions don t get any easier on rainy days as even though the temperature may not rise, the salinity will decrease. Organisms on the upper shore are particularly susceptible to biological problems due to the length of time they are exposed to the air. This particularly applies to algae. Like terrestrial plants they need oxygen, water, carbon dioxide and other nutrients in order to respire, photosynthesise and grow but unlike terrestrial plants they don t have a root system so this has to be done through their fronds which need to be surrounded by water. Intertidal animals face similar problems. They respire more effectively in water than air due to their gill-like gas exchange structures; however they have adapted in several ways to be able to respire whilst exposed to the air at low tide. Limpets have modified gills which can extract air from a thin film of water trapped under their shell. When you first approach a limpet you can move it slightly before it clamps down hard on to the rock. This is because the animal lifts its shell slightly to obtain that all important air. Another adaptation is anaerobic respiration by for example mussels. They trap water within their bodies and respire anaerobically building up an oxygen debt which is paid-off by aerobic respiration on the next incoming tide. Feeding and predation are further issues that intertidal animals have to cope with as the tide drops. Many animals such as anemones, hydroids, mussels, barnacles and tubeworms can feed only when immersed as they rely on food being carried past them. Because of this many will be found in the middle and lower shore where there will only be a few hours when they won t be able to feed. Large predators such as fish and crabs move into the lower shore region so the threat will be greatest here. There is no escape higher up the shore as animals are subject to predation from birds. Different degrees of wave action also known as exposure will also affect the distribution of species on the shore. On exposed shores such as headlands increased wave action can cause problems of dislodgement and foraging for food by mobile animals may be hampered. Desiccation on the upper shore may be lessened due to sea spray so more animals may be found higher up the shore and filter feeders will have more food brought to them. Conversely on sheltered shores the deposition of silt can clog gills and smother plants and animals and diversity will be reduced on the upper shore due to drier conditions. The aspect and geology should also be taken into consideration. If a shore faces north and/or it has a large number of crevices and fissures then more species will be found higher up the shore as they will have more shade and can hide amongst the crevices preventing desiccation. The number of rockpools will also influence the distribution of species. 46

53 Teachers Notes Zonation The shore is divided into 3 zones, they have several different names but for the Shore Thing we will refer to them as: Upper, Middle and Lower shore. Due to the factors explained previously certain species will be found in certain areas of the shore and can be used to delineate the zones. However, species will vary around our coastline so the following information gives a generalised picture. The Upper Shore This zone can be exposed for as much as 10 to 12 hours or even longer during small neap tides. Also some shores may not have an area of upper shore as it may be concealed beneath sand and gravel. The upper shore has a distinctive band of lichen. Rock is covered by what looks like tar but is in fact the black tar lichen Verrucaria maura. A more tufted black lichen, Lichina pygmaea may also be present as well as the orange/yellow Xanthoria parietina. Seaweeds find it almost impossible to survive in this harsh environment. On exposed coasts where desiccation is mitigated by sea spray patches of channelled wrack, Pelvetia canaliculata may survive especially along the upper/middle shore fringe. Due to the lack of algal growth many animals cannot survive as they have no cover. However, if the rock has fissures and crevices then the small periwinkle, Melarhaphe neritoides and the rough periwinkle Littorina saxatilis may be found hiding in these damp areas. Small patches of barnacles may also be present. The Middle Shore As we move down the shore the diversity of species increases (especially on sheltered shores) as environmental conditions are more favourable. There is an increase in the number of seaweeds as they have longer to photosynthesise and absorb nutrients. On sheltered shores this middle shore is dominated by wracks (fucoids) such as bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus), serrated or toothed wrack (Fucus serratus). Knotted or egg wrack (Ascophyllum nodosum) is another species typical of the middle shore. This algae canopy provides shelter for yet more algae and also animals. Examples of the former are pepper dulse (Osmundea pinnatifida), encrusting red algae (Lithophyllum spp.) and coral weed (Corallina officinalis). Animals include: Limpets (Patella spp.), top shells, flat periwinkle (Littorina obtusata) and the edible periwinkle (Littorina littorea). On exposed shores wave action prevents the colonisation of all but the hardiest algae. The fucoids may appear in small clumps but generally the shore is dominated by barnacles and mussels. These filter feeders provide a food source for the predatory dog whelk (Nucella lapillus) that uses its drill-like mouthparts to penetrate the shells. Any seaweed that does survive could soon be eaten by limpets that can be found amongst the barnacle/mussel assemblage. 47

54 Teachers Notes The Lower Shore The species inhabiting this area of the shore are only exposed for short periods of time on a low spring tide. As a result abiotic (physical) factors become less of a problem. Environmental factors such as temperature, ph and salinity change little, resulting in high productivity and more competition between species. The most obvious seaweeds in this zone are the kelps: Laminaria digitata, Alaria esculenta and Laminaria hyperborea. Because they are large organisms with lots of drag they need large holdfasts to help them stay fastened to the rock. On exposed shores where wave action increases, thongweed (Himanthalia elongata) dominates as it is narrow with less surface area. Red algae are common on the lower shore and are adapted to absorb low levels of light. Species such as Corallina officinalis and Lithothamnion spp can be seen encrusting bedrock and boulders. More algae means an increase in the number of herbivores. The blue rayed limpet (Helcion pellucidum) can be seen on kelp fronds and the holdfasts provide a microhabitat for a number of species. A close inspection of the crevices in this zone can reveal edible crabs (Cancer pagurus), starfish, cowries and the painted top shell (Calliostoma zizyphinum). The variety of species found in the lower shore means that competition, predation and the interaction between organisms are the determining factor rather than physical conditions. 48

55 Teachers Notes 5.7 Marine Life Topic Note 1 MARINE CONSERVATION IN THE UK Prepared by: Jayne Evans Last updated: January 2008 Definition Conservation is the preservation or restoration of the natural environment and wildlife (Soanes & Hawker, 2005). The introduction to Nature Conservation in Great Britain describes conservation as the regulation of human use of the global ecosystem to sustain its diversity of content indefinitely (Nature Conservancy Council, 1984). Importance With some of the most heavily exploited seas in the world (WWF, 2006) and a major economic and ecological resource surrounding the UK, conservation of the marine environment has become an important issue. The UK Government has made various international commitments for marine conservation, including entering into a number of conventions and agreements which should shape future marine environmental policy (Defra, 2004). Defra has declared its vision as clean, healthy, safe, productive and biologically diverse oceans and seas (reviewed in Gubbay, 2006). With over 70 marine sites in the UK designated under at least one conservation designation it would appear that conservation in the marine environment is strengthening (MCS, 2006). Despite this, there is still inconsistency in the different approaches to conservation and, unlike conservation in the terrestrial environment, for marine conservation there is a lack of statutory legislation which covers multiple uses of our seas (Cole-King, 1995). This topic note will give a broad overview of the conservation measures and legislation in place, and the potential for the designation of a network of marine protected areas in the future. Current marine conservation designations 1. Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas (VMCAs) (or Voluntary Marine Nature Reserves (VMNRs)) VMCAs were created as one of the first steps towards the establishment of statutory protected areas. The first VMCA in the UK was the Lundy Voluntary Marine Nature Reserve established in 1973 (Hiscock et al., 1973). Since then there have been 12 other VMCAs established within the UK. These are: St. Abbs and Eyemouth; Wembury; St. Mary s Island; Looe; Polzeath; Purbeck; Seven Sisters; St. Agnes; Isles of Scilly; Fowey; Helford and North Devon (WWF-UK, 2005). Using Marine Reserve provisions in the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981, Lundy became the first statutory Marine Nature Reserve in 1986 (Figure 1.) (WWF-UK, 2005). The creation of such voluntary reserves with protection and management schemes in place can be used to aid the designation of statutory protected areas. 2. Marine Nature Reserves (MNRs) and No-Take Zones The creation of MNRs around Britain began as a result of the Wildlife & Countryside Act The creation of such sites was intended to fulfil the following purposes: conserve marine flora & fauna or geological or physiographical features of special interest in the area; and 49 provide (under suitable conditions and control) special opportunities for the study of and research into matters relating to marine flora and fauna and the physical conditions in

56 Teachers Notes which they live or for the study of geological and physiographical features of special interest in the area (WWF-UK, 2005). With the creation of the Wildlife & Countryside Act seven sites were initially selected as potential reserves in the Britain, only two reserves receiving MNR status, the islands of Lundy off North Devon and Skomer in West Wales (Gubbay, 1995; MCS 2006). In Northern Ireland, through the Nature Conservation & Amenity Lands (Northern Ireland) Order 1985, Strangford Lough is the only site to be designated a MNR (Gubbay, 1995; MCS 2006). There are no statutory marine nature reserves in Scotland. These reserves cover approximately 209km 2 an area less than 0.12% of the UK s territorial waters (MCS, 2006). Box 1. Lundy: A case-study of a MNR and no-take zone Lundy is located 12 miles off of the coast of North Devon, and is owned by the National Trust who lease it to the Landmark Trust (English Nature, 2003). The 15km long coastline is affected by the warm water of the North Atlantic Drift and is home to many species more commonly found closer to the Mediterranean (e.g. Eunicella verrucosa, the pink sea fan). In 1969 it was first suggested that Lundy should become a marine nature reserve and in 1973 it became Britain s first voluntary marine nature reserve (English Nature, 1994). In 1983 a draft management plan was produced and on the 21 st November 1986 the island became the UK s first statutory Marine Nature Reserve under the 1981 Wildlife & Countryside Act. Further measures were introduced in 1991 with a nofishing zone established on the eastern side of the island during the summer months (English Nature, 1994). In 1996 the island was nominated as a candidate Special Area of Conservation (SAC), gaining full designation in The first complete no-take zone within the UK was established, with a ban on the extraction of any living creature including lobsters, crabs, scallops and fish, within a 3.3km 2 area on the eastern side of the island (see map) (WWF, 2005). Within the first 19 months of the scheme, results showed the number and size of lobsters and crabs had increased significantly, not only within the zone but outside as well showing the positive impacts such zones can have for regions as a whole (WWF, 2005). Key Red Yellow Green Blue = no-take zone = refuge area; no fishing except potting or angling = recreational zone; same restrictions as yellow = boundaries of MNR; all activities allowed, except spear fishing There has been a renewed effort to increase the protection within such reserves, with a change in emphasis to consider Highly Protected Marine Reserves (HPMRs), or no-take zones, classified as Category II in the IUCN scale (MCS, 2006). No-take zones are an area which is temporarily or permanently closed to fishing or other extractive activities to protect the habitats or fish stocks within it (JNCC, 2006a). In 2003 the first no-take zone in the UK was established within the Lundy MNR (Box 1.). Despite the designation of this first no-take zone, the UK is still far behind other countries. For example, Australia has designated 344,000km 2 of HPMRs (MCS, 2006). No-take zones provide a refuge from extractive processes allowing the 50

57 Teachers Notes habitats and species within to recover. However, due to the migratory nature of many species they are still at threat from continuing extraction outside the zone. Many researchers have highlighted the need to couple no-take zone designation with an overall reduction in fishing effort to allow the full potential of such a zone to be achieved (JNCC, 2006a). Figure 1. Map indicating UK SACs with marine components (JNCC, 2007a). 51

58 Teachers Notes 3. Natura Special Protected Areas (SPAs) and Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) SPAs have been established in response to the EC Council Directive 70/409/EEC On the conservation of wild birds (known as the Birds Directive) and SACs have been established in response to the EC Council Directive 92/43/EEC On the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (known as the Habitats Directive) (JNCC, 2006b; JNCC, 2006c). The Habitats Directive aims to promote the maintenance of biodiversity by maintaining or restoring habitats or species, and to introduce strong protection for habitats and species of European importance (JNCC, 2006c). Together the two Directives will make up the series of sites termed Natura 2000, which the UK is committed to designating as a Member State of the EU under the Convention of Biological Diversity. As of October 2007 there were 76 SACs designated in UK waters which contained marine components (JNCC, 2007b) (Figure 1.). As yet none have been designated in the offshore environment (JNCC, 2006d). There is currently an identification process for the selection of offshore SACs, with JNCC estimating that at least eight and up to 15 SACs are likely to be identified within the offshore area (JNCC, 2007c). Drafts for seven possible offshore sites have been produced but are yet to be formally approved by the Government for submission to the European Commission (JNCC, 2006d). There are 8 marine habitats and 9 marine species listed under the Habitats Directive, and 16 marine priority species and 40 regularly occurring migratory species listed within the Annexes of the Birds Directive, which occur within UK waters (WWF-UK, 2005). 4. Biodiversity Action Plans (BAP) The UN Convention on Biological Diversity of 1992 led to the establishment by the UK Government of the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) in These plans outline a set of objectives and actions which aim to target biodiversity conservation and monitor change. Eighty priority species and 18 priority habitats have been identified in the UK marine environment. For more information on BAP habitats and species please refer to the Marine Life Topic Note on Biodiversity ( 5. Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) (Areas of Special Scientific Interest (ASSIs) in Northern Ireland) The designation of SSSIs/ASSIs has developed since 1949 with the creation of the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act They are now controlled under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (Nature Conservation and Amenity Lands (Northern Ireland) Order 1985), with improved provisions under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (Nature Conservation (Scotland) 2004 or Environment (Northern Ireland) Order 2002) (JNCC, 2007d). The following bodies are responsible for their establishment: Natural England, Countryside Council for Wales, Scottish Natural Heritage, or the Environment and Heritage Service (Northern Ireland) (JNCC, 2007d). They are designated for containing land of special interest for its flora, fauna, geological or physiographic features (Hiscock & Breckels, 2006). Once established the land owner is legally required to manage the site and notify the relevant body of any planned changes. SSSI designation can extend to Mean Low Water in England and Wales and to Mean Low Water of Spring Tides in Scotland (Hiscock & Breckels, 2006). Since their creation over 4,000 sites have been designated (Natural England, 2007; JNCC, 2007d). However, until 1994 few intertidal areas were designated as SSSIs based on their marine biological features. Only 83 of the 744 sites containing intertidal land mentioned such interests in the citation (Hiscock & Breckels, 2006). With the introduction of the Habitats Directive containing a provision that any SAC designated should also be classified as an SSSI the number of intertidal SSSIs designated on the basis of their marine features has increased (Natural England, 2007). Yet, without such a provision marine SSSI designation would still be deficient. 52

59 Teachers Notes 6. Heritage Coasts The first Heritage Coast was designated in 1973 at Beachy Head in Sussex. Since then, 32 areas making up 1057km (33%) of coastline in England have been designated (Figure 3.) (Land Use Consultants, 2006; Natural England, 2006). They are non-statutory designations which aim to conserve the natural beauty of an area and improve accessibility for visitors, each with their own management plan to allow them to achieve this (Natural England, 2006). Figure 3. Heritage Coasts in England (Natural England, 2006). Other protection measures There are a number of newer protection measures which will add to the plethora of guidelines in this field. One such measure is a product of the National Parks (Scotland) Act, 2000 which allows Scotland to designate Coastal and Marine National Parks, with a commitment to establishing the first by 2008 (MCS, 2006). The only truly coastal park in existence at present is that of the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park in Wales; however this does not extend below low water (MCS, 2006). Successes and failures of marine conservation measures Marine SACs now cover a large area of UK waters, with increased SPA designation as more consideration is given to marine based seabird communities (WWF-UK, 2005). The MNRs which have been designated have shown success in reaching their objectives, with the no-take zone around Lundy showing some positive results for the habitats and populations over the first two years. Despite this success, the inability to utilise the Wildlife & Countryside Act, 1981 (Conservation & Amenity Lands (Northern Ireland) Order 1985) to produce a significant number of MNRs is an obvious failure. The failure led to the creation of the Review of Marine Nature Conservation in 1999, with the aim of evaluating the success of previous statutory and voluntary conservation measures (WWF-UK, 2005). This review identified various recommendations for the Government regarding marine conservation. Some of the main recommendations are shown below: 53

60 Teachers Notes identify areas important for marine biodiversity, and those which require conservation action, establishing management measures; identify priority marine features, and those which require conservation action, establishing management measures; establish conservation objectives at each level of the conservation framework; trial marine spatial planning; identify and establish an ecological coherent and representative network of MPAs; introduce measures including policy and legislation to support marine conservation; and develop indicators and procedures to monitor marine biodiversity and the impacts of human activities. There has also been a significant lack of areas being designated in offshore regions. Coastal areas are seen to be under greater threat from human activity. This coupled with the greater knowledge of coastal wildlife and environment and perceived impracticability to offshore management, has led to a huge discrepancy in the number of regions designated (WWF-UK, 2005). The designation of the first offshore site may occur in the near future, with drafts in the pipeline for submission to the European Commission for offshore SACs. There have been other issues raised, such as the displacement of human activities away from protected areas. This can lead to increasing pressures on other regions, counteracting the benefits of protection (Gubbay, 2006). Displacement of activity has been particularly highlighted in regard to fishing activities and no-take zones. As areas are cordoned off to prevent extraction, fishing activities could be diverted to other areas. Therefore it has been suggested that buffer zones be provided and that an overall reduction in fishing is needed for protection to have significant impacts (MCS, 2006). In 2001 a Private Member s Bill was introduced which included measures for a network of Marine Protected Areas to be developed. However it failed within the House of Lords (WWF-UK, 2005). FUTURE LEGISLATION AND THE MARINE BILL With the publication of the Marine Stewardship report in 2002 and the UK Government response to the Seas of Change in 2003, the Government launched a five-year plan to develop a Marine Bill which will increase protection and simplify the regulation for the marine environment (Defra, 2006). The 2005 Government manifesto stated that: through a Marine Act, we will introduce a new framework for the seas, based on marine spatial planning, that balances conservation, energy and resource needs. To obtain best value from different uses of our valuable marine resources, we must maintain and protect the ecosystems on which they depend (Defra, 2006). Since then, a series of forums and consultations have been undertaken, with a summary of the 1233 responses to the draft Marine Bill published on the 18 th October 2006 (Defra, 2006). A further Marine Bill White Paper was produced in March 2007, with the summary of responses to the consultation phase being published on the 17 th October 2007 (Defra, 2007). With the consultation phase complete and the mention of a draft bill in the November 2007 Queen s speech, it is anticipated that a draft bill could be produced in early PLANNING MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAS) FOR THE FUTURE MPAs are defined by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as Any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment (Gubbay, 2004) 54

61 Teachers Notes As a contracting party to OSPAR (the Oslo & Paris Commission for the protection of the marine environment of the North East Atlantic) the UK is committed to designate a network of MPAs by The aim is for the legal designation of such MPAs to be included within the proposed Marine Bill. Within the UK, the schemes which would be included under the banner of MPAs are, SACs, SPAs, MNRs, VMCAs and some SSSIs (Gubbay, 2006). The IUCN defines various categories of protection within the remit of MPAs depending on the objectives of the scheme in place (Table 1.). Within these objectives there are a wide variety of potential benefits which have been identified, these include: ensuring the long-term genetic viability and maintaining the genetic diversity of a marine or estuarine system; protection of depleted, threatened or rare species, populations or habitats; restoration of depleted, threatened or rare species, populations or habitats; protection or management of the life cycles of economically important species; preservation and management of sites of historical, cultural and aesthetic value; facilitating interpretation of marine or estuarine systems for education, tourism and conservation; promotion of scientific understanding; and controlling and accommodating a range of human activities within a marine or estuarine system. (WWF-UK, 2005; FSBI 2001) Table 1. Levels of MPA Protection as defined by the IUCN (MCS, 2006; Gubbay, 2006). Category Objective UK Designation Category I Protected area managed mainly for Marine Nature Reserve (MNR) science or wilderness protection Category II Protected area managed mainly for *Objective not held by UK MPAs ecosystem protection and recreation Category III Protected area managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features Special Area of Conservation (SAC), Special Protection Area (SPA), MNR, Category IV Category V Category VI Protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention Protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation Protected area managed for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems Site of Specific Scientific Interest (SSSI) SAC, SPA, MNR, SSSI Coastal and Marine National Park (Scotland), Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) SAC, SPA, MNR The emphasis on creating networks of MPAs has also been identified by the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development where marine and coastal protected areas were adopted as a response to the 1992 UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (WWF-UK, 2005). However care has to be taken when defining networks of MPAs. The CBD defines them as a collection of individual sites that are connected in some way by ecological or other processes for example, migration routes (Gubbay, 2006). There is often confusion with SACs and SPAs being referred to as networks. However using the above definition they would more accurately be described as a series of sites, due to the lack of ecological connection (Gubbay, 2006). The creation of a true network of MPAs under the above conventions holds important ecological benefits over individual unconnected sites, for example; 55

62 Teachers Notes providing long range protection for species with open water dispersal phases; protecting a wider range of marine biodiversity; limiting the edge effects of protected areas which leave species vulnerable to interference, by providing buffer zones; reducing the possibility of a protected area becoming an island which could create a lack of genetic diversity within an area; and providing reservoirs of recruitment and re-colonisation for surrounding unprotected areas (Gubbay, 2006). Before any network of MPAs can be created there needs to be legislation in place to allow for effective creation and management of protected areas, and to provide a framework for a cohesive network of sites. Such legislation could come from the Marine Bill with the creation of Marine Conservation Zones. The Marine Bill White Paper states that by 2020 the UK should have a complete network of conservation sites comprising Marine Conservation Zones and European Marine Sites (Defra, 2007). CONCLUSION The successful passage of a Marine Bill that provides cohesive legislation for marine conservation in UK waters, and the establishment of a network of MPAs, will allow the Government to compensate for some of the weaknesses of previous legislation, and fulfil some of the recommendations set out in the RMNC. Progress is being made with the designation of an increasing number of marine SACs and SPAs, yet these measures are still unable to provide the overall ecological benefits that a cohesive network of Marine Protected Areas, including Highly Protected Marine Reserves would be able to ensure. Furthermore, despite the ecological benefits, such protection would provide, they should not be stand-alone measures but as part of a universal promotion for the stewardship of our seas. REFERENCES Cole-King, A., Marine protected areas in Britain: a conceptual problem? Ocean & Coastal Management. 27, Defra, Review of Marine Nature Conservation. Working Group Report to Government. July Defra, The Marine Bill: How did we get here? [cited 17/11/06] Available from: Defra, A Sea Change: A Marine Bill White Paper. A report to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Environment Food and Rural Affairs. [28/08/2007] Available from: Defra, Summary of responses to the consultation on: A Sea Change A Marine Bill White Paper. [cited 08/01/08] Available from: English Nature, Managing Lundy s Wildlife: a management plan for the Marine Nature Reserve and Site of Special Scientific Interest. Peterborough. English Nature. English Nature, Protection for Lundy Island's sea life boosted: The First No Take Zone in UK confirmed by Government. Press release: 27 th January [cited 20/11/06] Available from: Natural England, Sites of Special Scientific Interest. [cited 8/02/07] Available from: FSBI, Marine protected areas in the North Sea. Briefing Paper 1, Fisheries Society of the British Isles, Granta Information Systems. Cambridge. 56

63 Teachers Notes Gubbay, S., Marine Protected Areas past, present, and future in: Gubbay, S. (ed). Marine Protected Areas. Principles and techniques for management. Chapman and Hall. Gubbay, S., Marine Protected Areas in the context of Marine Spatial Planning discussing the links. A report for WWF-UK. [cited 01/11/06] Available from: Gubbay, S., Marine Protected Areas. A review of their use for delivering marine biodiversity benefits. English Nature Research Reports, No 688. [cited 21/11/06] Available from: Halpern, B.S., The impact of marine reserves: Do reserves work and does reserve size matter? Ecological Applications. 13, 1, Supplement Hiscock, K., Grainger, I.G., Lamerton, J.F., Dawkins, H.C. & Langham, A.F., Lundy Marine Nature Reserve. A policy for the management of the shore and seabed around Lundy. Lundy Field Society, 23, Hiscock, K. & Breckels, M., Marine Biodiversity Hotspots in the UK: their identification and protection. Godalming: WWF-UK. [cited 07/06/07] Available from: [ JNCC, 2006a. No-Take Zones page. [cited 25/10/06] Available from: JNCC, 2006b. Special Protection Areas page. [cited 10/11/06] Available from: JNCC, 2006c. Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) page. [cited 25/10/06] Available from: JNCC, 2006d. SACs in UK offshore waters page. [cited 20/11/06] Available from: JNCC, 2006e. Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora page. [cited 02/11/06] Available from: JNCC, 2007a. Map of UK SACs with marine components. [cited 08/01/08] Available from: JNCC, 2007b. SACs with marine components. [cited 08/01/08] Available from: JNCC, 2007c. Identification and selection of offshore SACs for Annex I habitats. [cited 08/01/08] Available from: JNCC, 2007d. Protected sites designations directory. [cited 8/02/07] Available from: Land Use Consultants Review and Evaluation of Heritage Coasts in England. Report to The Countryside Agency. [cited 08/02/07] Avialable from: _tcm pdf Marine Conservation Society (MCS), Marine Protected Areas Position Statement. (Draft). [cited 01/11/06] Available from: pdf Natural England Heritage Coasts. [cited 08/02/07] Available from: Nature Conservancy Council Nature Conservation in Great Britain. Peterborough, Nature Conservancy Council. Soanes, C. & Hawker, S., Compact Oxford English Dictionary of Current English: Third Edition. Oxford University Press: Oxford. WWF, Lundy lobsters bounce back in UK s first no-take zone. WWF news page. [cited 21/11/06] Available from: WWF, WWF s Draft Marine Bill. A summary of WWF s vision for UK seas. [cited 25/10/06] Available from: 57

64 Teachers Notes WWF-UK, An Overview of Marine Protected Areas in the UK: A Briefing Paper. [cited 01/11/06] Available from: Links Centre for Fisheries and Aquaculture Science Crown Estate Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) Marine Conservation Society (MCS) Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN) Natural England UK National Biodiversity Network WWF CITATION Evans, J Marine Life Topic Note. Marine Conservation. Marine Life Information Network [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available from: < Funded by Countdown

65 Teachers Notes 5.8 Marine Life Topic Note 2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND MARINE LIFE AROUND BRITAIN AND IRELAND Prepared by: Keith Hiscock, Guy Baker, Andrea Crump & Rebecca Jefferson Last updated: August 2005 INTRODUCTION Climate change is already affecting marine life around Britain and Ireland especially by causing shifts in the geographical distribution of species. Climate change will or may affect our marine environment in the following ways: 1. Warming seawater temperatures. 2. Warming air temperatures (important for intertidal marine life). 3. Increased and stronger stratification of waters. 4. Increasing acidity of seawater. 5. Rising sea level causing coastal squeeze. 6. Increased storminess. 7. Slowing or switching-off of the North Atlantic thermo-haline circulation (the Gulf Stream ). This MarLIN Topic Note explains some of the changes to our marine life that have already occurred, some that will or might occur, and whether there is anything that we can do to reduce harmful impacts of climate change on marine life in Britain and Ireland. Climate perspective Climate change is a well-documented part of the history of earth. The British Isles has been subject to both warmer and colder conditions in the geologically recent past but, since the last glacial period, which ended about 12,000 years ago, we have been in a relatively mild period (see Figure 1). The climate on earth varies on a number of cycles: 100,000 years. The Earth's orbit around the sun varies over a cycle of 96,600 years (cycle of eccentricity). Glaciation events (ice ages) have occurred about every 100,000 years, and may be linked to this. 41,000 years. The tilt of the Earth's axis changes (cycle of obliquity). 21,000 years. The Earth 'wobbles' on its axis years. The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) is most likely driven by varying strength in the thermo-haline North Atlantic circulation. Evidence for the oscillation is based on variations in drought frequency and rainfall and the AMO Index (Figure 2) on sea surface temperatures. 59

66 Teachers Notes Figure 1. Palaeoclimatic changes in the northeast Atlantic depicting inferred surface currents and ecologic water masses (after Ruddiman & McIntyre, 1976). Figure 2. Average of annual mean sea surface temperature over the region 0 N to 60 N, 75 W to 7.5 W from 1871 to 2003 illustrating multidecadal fluctuations. Re-drawn from Sutton & Hodson (2005) years. Sunspots are magnetic disturbances on the sun s surface that indicate that the sun is emitting more energy. 10 years (decadal). The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) is a North - South shift in the track of storms across the North Atlantic. The NAO index is based on the difference in

67 Teachers Notes winter pressure (and therefore strength of winds) between a station in Iceland and one in either Gibraltar, Lisbon or the Azores. A recurring pattern is for the storm track to have a northeasterly trajectory with many depressions passing over northwest Europe (positive NAO index winter), or a weaker more westerly trajectory with depressions passing over Mediterranean Europe (negative NAO index winter). In addition to high annual variability, the NAO shows an upward trend from around 1960 to the early 1990s (see Figure 3). Understanding the existence and effects of the AMO (see Sutton & Hodson, 2005) and the NAO (see Climatic Research Unit, 2000) may be particularly important in separating noise from signal, since short term fluctuations and their effects may be mistaken for long-term trends. Figure 3. The variation in the North Atlantic Oscillation index from the mid 1800s to the winter of 2002 illustrating short to medium (yearly to decadal) fluctuations (Hurrell, 2005). Marine life perspective Britain and Ireland lie at a significant biogeographical transition, with warm ( Mediterranean- Atlantic or Lusitanean ) species present in the south west and cold (Boreo-Arctic) species in the north and east. Our coasts are also the most varied in northern Europe, with habitats ranging from the wave-lashed rocky coasts of the Western Isles through deep fjordic sea lochs to sheltered muddy estuaries and lagoons. Biogeography and landscape together create a high diversity of habitats and species, with almost 10,000 species (excluding bacteria, viruses and protists) identified from Britain and Ireland (see Howson & Picton, 1997). An early effect of climate change will be changes in the geographical distribution of species. The first description of the distributional limits of certain species, including a delineation of the General limit of Southern types, was prepared by Edward Forbes nearly 150 years ago. His map (Figure 4) of distribution of marine life was published posthumously in Johnstone s Atlas (Forbes, 1858) and many of the details remain correct today. Finding records of the marine life occurring around the coasts of Britain and Ireland longer ago than 150 years is very difficult, although Tittley et al. (1999) refer to an account of the algal flora at Margate in The report recorded species now known as Fucus serratus, Fucus vesiculosus, Halidrys siliquosa, Laminaria digitata, Laminaria saccharina, Corallina officinalis, Palmaria palmata, and Ulva lactuca: species that form the principal vegetational features of those shores today. 61

68 Teachers Notes Figure 4. Map of the geographical boundaries of some marine species around Britain and Ireland in 1858 by Edward Forbes. It was published posthumously in Johnstone s Atlas. Consequences of warming air and seawater temperatures The coastal waters surrounding Britain and Ireland became warmer during the 20 th Century and, according to the UK Climate Impact Programme 2002 scenarios of change, average annual seawater temperatures may rise a further 2 C by the 2050s. The impacts of this are far more complex than just an increase in temperature. Listed below is an overview of some of the effects that are predicted to occur around the shores of the UK. Warming sea and air temperatures are already affecting species distributions and ranges, which may be having consequent effects on trophic interactions including mismatches between plankton availability and critical stages in the life cycles of species with planktonic larvae. Changes have been most noticeable in species that live in the water column including plankton and fish. The work undertaken by Beaugrand et al. (2002) demonstrated how there has been a northward shift of 10 of latitude in the distribution of southern species of copepod in the eastern Atlantic (Figure 5). Such a shift might suggest that species of fish that feed on particular plankton should simply move north. However, there is now a mismatch in plankton availability and time of year food is needed (see Edwards & Richardson, 2004). Historically, a species of cold water copepod bloomed early in the spring just when larval cod required food of that size. However, since 1980, the cold water copepod has disappeared from the North Sea and been replaced by a warmer water copepod which blooms later in the summer. Unfortunately, by this time of year, the young cod require larger food. 62

69 Teachers Notes Warm-water assemblages Cold-water assemblages Figure 5. Shifts in the distribution of plankton in the North Atlantic (courtesy of the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science) (see Beaugrand et al., 2002). Fish have responded rapidly to warming seas. For instance, Beare et al. (2003) report that. the northern North Sea is currently experiencing waves of immigration by exotic, southern species (e.g. red mullet, anchovy & pilchard) which are unprecedented in the context of the 79 year history of our [the fisheries laboratory in Aberdeen] extensive databases. Perry et al. (2005) have most recently reported significant northwards shifts in distributions of fish in the North Sea. Species attached to the shore and seabed have not shown the dramatic changes that have been seen in plankton and fish but the Marine Biodiversity and Climate Change (MarClim) programme ( has identified range extensions of several southern species northwards and eastwards along the British coast. Figure 6 illustrates some of those changes. Hiscock et al (2004) identified the following likely effects of warming on seashore and seabed marine life in Britain and Ireland. o As temperature increases, northern species of fish and crustaceans such as the northern stone crab Lithodes maia are likely to retreat northwards from their current southern limits. Long-lived northern species that are already established in an area may live in the area for some time even if new individuals are not being established e.g. the deeplet sea anemone Bolocera tuediae. Short-lived species that are not recruiting new individuals will disappear more quickly e.g. the northern sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis and the common tortoiseshell limpet Tectura testudinalis. 63

70 Teachers Notes Patella depressa Southampton Key: Not found Rare Occasional Frequent Common Abundant Patella ulyssiponensis (P. aspera) Southampton 40 km N Gibbula umbilicalis Osilinus lineatus Southampton Southampton Melaraphe neritoides Balanus perforatus Southampton Southampton Species distribution (1950s, 1980s) Range extension ( ) Range limit Figure 6. Changes in the range of some rocky shore species identified during the MarClim programme. From: Miezkowska et al. (in prep.). o A sea water temperature increase is likely to increase the abundance and extent of southern species. For instance, the snakelocks anemone Anemonia viridis is susceptible to low temperatures (Crisp, 1964), and it may survive better in warmer climates. It will be able to extend its range northwards, and be able to exist higher up the shore (Figure 7). o At the northern limits of their distribution, the algae Cystoseira tamariscifolia and Bifurcaria bifurcata live in pools, not on the open shore. A warming would see their range extend initially in pools and then possibly onto open rocks. Some species are already being recorded as winners or losers (Figure 8). Winners include the strawberry anemone Actinia fragacea and the topshell Gibbula umbilicalis which have both been recorded further north and east in recent years. Dabberlocks seaweed Alaria esculenta and the common tortoiseshell limpet Tectura testudinalis are both losers as their ranges are contracting. More can be found out about rocky shore survey work at There are other changes likely to occur to the biology of species. For instance: o o Some species that currently reproduce asexually may be able to spread their range faster by reproducing sexually e.g. the peacock s tail algae, Padina pavonica. Phenological (phenology is the study of life cycle events that occur annually) changes could occur because of rising temperatures possibly leading to changes in biological events. Edwards & Richardson (2004) recorded changes in the seasonal abundances of marine plankton species, showing how quickly phenological variation can occur in response to temperature change and how mismatches between food availability and the species that need that food may occur. 64

71 Teachers Notes Current distribution Distribution after seawater temperature increase of about 2ºC. Figure 7. The snakelocks anemone, Anemonia viridis will most likely spread around Scotland as a result of seawater warming but, because of limited larval dispersal, will not make the jump to Shetland. o A temperature increase can create conditions that are more favourable for species that are already living in an ecosystem in small numbers, facilitating an increase in abundance. An example of this is the Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas), a non-native species that is farmed around the UK. Escapees from commercial farms have led to the formation of a number of populations around the UK. Warm temperatures are required for spawning and larval development and, therefore, rising sea temperatures around the UK could lead to a significant increase in the abundance of this invasive species. o o The structure of a habitat may be drastically altered by an organism s response to changing temperature. For instance, if a structural organism becomes extinct at a site, this may cause other species, which can withstand the temperature change, to become extinct due to the change in the habitat complexity. An example of this is the horse mussel Modiolus modiolus that forms large beds providing a complex habitat with a diverse associated fauna. The horse mussel is currently found at its southern most temperature limit on the shores of the UK. If the horse mussel population is lost, other species will also be lost. Trophic mismatches may occur. Beaugrand et al. (2002) found that the survival of larval cod in the North Sea is significantly linked to changes in plankton populations. Historically a species of cold water copepod bloomed early in the spring just when larval cod require food of that size. However, since 1980 this species has disappeared from the North Sea and been replaced by a warmer water copepod that blooms later in the summer. Unfortunately, by this time of year the baby cod require larger food (see also Edwards & Richardson, 2004). 65

72 Teachers Notes "Winners" (southern and western species whose range may increase northwards) Snakelocks anemone Anemonia viridis "Losers" (northern and eastern species whose range may retreat northwards) The deeplet anemone Bolocera tuediae Strawberry anemone Actinia fragacea Northern stone crab Lithodes maia Rainbow wrack Cystoseira tamariscifolia Dabberlocks Alaria esculenta A brown seaweed Bifurcaria bifurcata Northern sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis Flat topshell Gibbula umbilicalis Common tortoiseshell limpet Tectura testudinalis John Dory Zeus faber Cod Gadus morhua Figure 8. Likely winners and losers due to climate change (Hiscock et al., 2004). Images: Keith Hiscock, Sue Scott, Nova Mieszkowska, Judith Oakley, Stefan Kraan and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee. Consequences of rising sea level and increased storminess Sea level is rising by about 1 mm a year in the north-east Atlantic at present but by the end of the 21 st century is forecast to be as much as 88 cm higher than in 1990 (McCarthy et al., 2001). 66

73 Teachers Notes Rising sea level and possibly increased storminess are likely to result in calls for more hard coastal defences. There are two stark choices: do it, or let the sea break through. Both options can be used to enhance biodiversity. Concrete defences reduce the extent of intertidal areas especially with rising sea levels on one side and concrete on the other ( coastal squeeze ). These coastal defences, together with offshore structures such as wind farms and wave-break reefs, can act as stepping stones for the spread of species. Design of coastal defences could take account of providing a variety of habitats for species including commercial or recreational species of crustaceans and fish (see If the sea is allowed to breach existing defences and create new habitats, the design of sluices and culverts could create lagoons with a biota that is valued as unusual. Consequences of increased and stronger stratification of waters When surface waters warm, the temperature discontinuity between shallow and deep water is sufficient to keep them separate. It has been suggested that reductions in upwelling of nutrients due to stronger stratification of waters off California have resulted in a reduction in productivity and therefore food availability for organisms (Roemmich & McGowan, 1995). In enclosed water bodies, stronger stratification and therefore isolation of deeper waters is likely to result in de-oxygenation of deeper layers and hence the death of seabed organisms (Hiscock et al., 2004) (see Figure 9). Figure 9. Increased warming may strengthen stratification of enclosed water bodies resulting in de-oxygenation, death of organisms and replacement with bacterial mats during summer. Photograph shows a mat of the filamentous bacterium Beggiatoa spp. Image: Keith Hiscock. Consequences of increased acidification The acidity of the oceans is increasing and, although there would have to be a rapid and significant rise for that acidity to affect organisms (especially marine life with calcium carbonate skeletons or structures), some predictions suggest that it might happen (see Royal Society, 2005). Very many marine organisms have calcium carbonate skeletons and, if those skeletons cannot be maintained, the impact on marine ecosystems will be catastrophic. PREDICTING FUTURE CHANGE The changes in geographical distribution of species that have been reported above may seem easy to predict just shift the distributional limits in concert with the change in temperature. However, prediction is far from simple for seashore and seabed species as such factors as larval life-span, the presence of geographical boundaries to dispersal and longevity of species that might be expected to demise have to be taken into account. In addition, not all species are 67

74 Teachers Notes distributed according to temperature. For example, with the exception of the St Kilda population, the brown seaweed Fucus distichus ssp. distichus does not occur south of the summer 13 C sea surface isotherm in Britain (see Figure 10). A simplistic extrapolation from the present distributional range would suggest that following a 2 C rise in summer sea temperature, the 13 C isotherm would have moved north of Britain and Fucus distichus ssp. distichus would therefore become locally extinct. However, a critical factor is probably daylength; short daylengths stimulate the onset of receptacle formation and this will not change with global warming (Bird & McLachlan, 1976) so that the seaweed will most likely survive warming temperatures. A decision-tree and key to identify how rapidly, if at all, the distribution of a seabed species might change because of warming is given in Hiscock et al. (2004). Figure 10. The brown seaweed Fucus distichus ssp. distichus will most likely survive warming as its reproduction is determined by daylength, not temperature. Image: Ian Tittley. Does change matter? Changes will impact upon humans if commercial species are lost or displaced or if there are increases in toxic algae (because of increased temperature and nutrients). If the seas become more strongly stratified and the supply of nutrients from deep water is blocked, overall productivity in shallow seas will decline with likely reductions in fish stocks. Changes in abundance of species that are of marine natural heritage importance whether increases or decreases - may have implications for the status of sites designated for their protection. There may be less obvious effects on ecosystem functioning. For example, the balance between brown fucoid algae and barnacles along the gradient of wave exposure on rocky shores changes with latitude and fucoids become more restricted to shelter in southern Europe. In a warmer world, fucoid cover would be expected to lessen on shores in Britain and Ireland with implications for primary production and associated epiphytic species. Thus, whilst the faunistic and floristic composition may not change much, there may be implications for the functioning of coastal ecosystems. In Britain and Ireland, localised warming, perhaps in combination with increased levels of nutrients resulting from human activities, may cause some severe adverse effects similar to the mortalities of seabed species observed in the north-eastern Mediterranean in 1999 (Laubier, 2001). Since Britain straddles the biogeographic boundaries of many marine species, the net effect of climate change in the UK is expected to be a shift in distributions. Overall, more seashore and seabed species are likely to be gained than lost (Hiscock et al., 2004). 68

75 Teachers Notes CAN WE PREVENT OR REDUCE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MARINE LIFE? Marine life has a high capacity to adapt to change but human activities put enormous and unnatural pressures on many habitats and species. Taking action to reduce those pressures may help marine life to cope with change and, with a little thought, there may be benefits for marine life in the north-east Atlantic. MITIGATING OTHER PRESSURES The impact of fishing on fish stocks and on the environment generally is well documented (Kaiser & de Groot, 2000). Some stocks are close to commercial extinction and, with a bit more of a push, will go over the edge (as did the cod stocks on the Grand Banks). Some species have declined markedly as a result of damaging fishing practices and, if they are near to their southern limits of distribution, may not come back because of too warm temperatures (possibly the horse mussel reefs in Strangford Lough, decimated by scallop dredging). Clearly, not all fishing is bad but if fish stocks are to be maintained in the face of adverse climatic conditions, those stocks need to be identified and more effective conservation measures taken. Non-native species include many (if not the majority) that have been brought into Europe and further spread around Europe as a result of mariculture. Our biosecurity is virtually non-existent and is breached by irresponsible introductions and movements of stocks. Some of those species (the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas has already taken-over native mussel beds in some areas) will reproduce and survive more effectively in warmer climes. So, measures need to be adopted now to stop new and potentially damaging introductions. Increased nutrification of inshore waters (the result of sewage discharge and agricultural runoff) together with warming seas could result in eutrophication effects including increased likelihood of toxic algal blooms and/or bacterial infections of organisms (see Figure 11). Perhaps the death of many large sessile invertebrates along the coasts of Provence (France) and Ligury (Italy) in 1999 was the result of such a mixture of warming and nutrients (see Laubier, 2001). Therefore, measures to reduce nutrification are required to remove pressure on marine life. Figure 11. Increased warming together with increased nutrification of waters (agricultural runoff, sewage) may result in increased bacterial infections of organisms (Laubier, 2001). Photograph shows pink sea fans at Lundy in Image: Keith Hiscock. 69

76 Teachers Notes Make the best of it Human activities are influencing the marine environment and changing ecology not always for the best. Concrete defences reduce the extent of intertidal areas especially with rising sea levels on one side and concrete on the other (coastal squeeze ). These coastal defences together with offshore structures such as wind farms and wave-break reefs can act as stepping stones for the spread of species. Rising sea level and possibly increased storminess are likely to result in calls for more hard coastal defences. There are two stark choices: do it, or let the sea break through. Both options can be used to enhance biodiversity. Design of coastal defences could take account of providing a variety of habitats for species including commercial or recreational species of crustaceans and fish. If the sea is allowed to breach existing defences and create new habitats, the design of sluices and culverts could create lagoons with a biota that is valued as unusual. Let it happen naturally! Well, naturally is probably not the right word when referring to change brought about by global increase in carbon dioxide emissions. But, if species are going to migrate from one part of Europe to a different part, let them do it themselves. Just because the ormer Haliotus tuberculata, previously trapped as far north as the Channel Isles by the significant barrier of the English Channel, can now survive in the Isles of Scilly or north Cornwall is no reason to introduce it there! How can you help? Surveys are required to establish baselines of current distributions of species so that changes in distribution can be tracked. MarLIN is working to engage divers, boat users and anyone who uses the coast as volunteer recorders to assist in this task. MarLIN has produced Identification Guides for intertidal and subtidal species that have been selected for their ease of recognition, their importance as species that are likely to be affected by global warming, as ones which play a key role in maintaining particular communities, or that are non-native. These guides are intended to support existing recording schemes and encourage new volunteers to submit records. Records of marine wildlife can be submitted via the MarLIN web site, by phone or post. To find out how to obtain copies of the guides, see Publications and products on the MarLIN Web site. Join in with marine survey schemes. On the shore - The Shore Thing project aims to generate records of marine wildlife by facilitating intertidal biological surveys at sites around the British Isles, and to make the results available to all on the Internet. In addition, we aim to raise awareness of marine conservation amongst the participants and the wider community. Scientists need information now on the distribution of certain marine species, from as many locations as possible. In collaboration with the Dove Marine Laboratory at the University of Newcastle, MarLIN will engage schools and other groups to undertake surveys at rocky shore sites around the British Isles. The project is designed to collect records of species that are indicators of climate change and that are non-native. Participants are trained to carry out intertidal surveys through preparatory lessons, which include a specially made training DVD and practical species identification exercises. In addition, teachers receive training and support packs that contain background information on shore ecology and on the Shore Thing project. The surveys themselves are overseen by shore ecology experts. The resulting data will be validated and verified and passed to the National 70

77 Teachers Notes Biodiversity Network for display on the NB Gateway ( The expanding Shore Thing dataset will contribute to baselines against which future change will be measured, and can be used as the basis for further work. The Shore Thing Web site is under construction. See For divers - the Seasearch Programme ( provides opportunities to contribute to recording schemes. REFERENCES Beare, D.J., Burns, F., Jones, E.G., Peach, K., & Reid, D.G., Observations on long-term changes in prevalence of fish species with southern biogeographic affinities in the northern North Sea. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Paper CM 2003/Q:24. Beaugrand, G., Reid, P.C., Ibañez, F., Lindley, J. A., & Edwards, M., Reorganization of North Atlantic marine copepod biodiversity and climate. Science 296: Bird, N.L. & McLachlan, J., Control of the formation of receptacles in Fucus distichus L. ssp. Distichus (Phaeophyceae: Fucales). Phycologia, 15, Crisp, D.J. (ed.), The effects of the severe winter of on marine life in Britain. Journal of Animal Ecology, 33, Edwards, M. & Richardson, A.J., Impact of climate change on marine pelagic phenology and trophic mismatch. Nature, 439, Forbes, E., The Distribution of Marine Life, Illustrated Chiefly by Fishes and Molluscs and Radiata. In A.K. Johnston's Physical Atlas, pp , Edinburgh. Hiscock, K., Southward, A.J., Tittley, I. & Hawkins, S.J.A., Effect of changing temperature on benthic marine life in Britain and Ireland. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 14, Howson, C. M., & Picton, B. E., The species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the British Isles and surrounding seas. Ulster Museum and The Marine Conservation Society: Belfast and Ross-on-Wye. Hurrell, J., Climate Indices. Colorado: USA: Climate & Global Dynamics Division, National Centre for Atmospheric Research. Available from < Kaiser, M.J. & de Groot, S.J., The Effects of Fishing on Non-target Species and Habitats: Biological, conservation and socio-economic issues. Oxford: Blackwell Science. Laubier, L., Climatic trends and marine invertebrates: a need for relevant observing networks and experimental ecophysiology. Atti Associazone Italiana Oceanologia Limnologia, 14, McCarthy, J.J., Canziani, O.F., Leary, N.A., Dokken, D.J. & White, K S., Climate change 2001: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the International Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press for the IPCC. Mieskowska, N., Leaper, R., Kendall, M.A., Burrows, M.T., Moore, P., Lear, D., Poloczanska, E., Hiscock, K., Thompson, R.C., Herbert, R.J., Baxter, J., Southward, A.J. & Hawkins, S.J. In prep. Assessing and predicting the influence of climate change using intertidal rocky shore biota. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. Perry, A.L., Low, P.J., Ellis, J.R., & Reynolds, J.D Climate change and distribution shifts in marine fishes. Science, 308, [Available from: 71

78 Teachers Notes Roemmich, D. & McGowan, J., Climate warming and the decline of zooplankton in the California Current. Science, 67, The Royal Society Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. London: The Royal Society <Available from: Ruddiman, W.F. & McIntyre, A., Northeast Atlantic paleoclimatic changes over the past 600,000 years. Memoirs of the Geological Society of America, 145, Sutton, R.T. & Hodson, D.L., Atlantic Ocean forcing of North American and European summer climate. Science, 309, Southward, A.J., Langmead, O., Hardman-Mountford, N.J., Aiken, J., Boalch, G.T., Genner, M.J., Joint, I., Kendall, M., Halliday, N.C., Harris, R.P., Leaper, R., Mieszkowska, N., Pingree, R.D., Richardson, A.J., Sims, D.W., Smith, T., Walne, A.W., & Hawkins, S.J., Long-term oceanographic and ecological research in the western English Channel. Advances in Marine Biology, 47, Tittley I., Gilliland P., Pound D., The marine flora of the Thanet coast marine SAC: A conservation management perspective. In Changes in the Marine Flora of the North Sea. Scott G. W., Tittley I. (eds) Centre for Environmental Research into Coastal Issues: Scarborough, pp LINKS Sealife Survey marine life recording scheme Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN) US Environment Protection Agency. Natural Environment Research Council. UK Government Department of environment, food and rural affairs. Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science (Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey). The website for the Global Climate Change Student Information Guide. Woods Hole Research Center. The Warming of the Earth. MarClim - Marine Biodiversity and Climate Change. Springwatch. Phenology Network UK CITATION Hiscock, K., Baker, G., Crump, A. & Jefferson, R., Marine Life Topic Note. Climate change and marine life around Britain and Ireland. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available from: < Funded by the Environmental Action Fund of Defra 72

79 Teachers Notes 5.9 Survey Techniques Transects The first task when arriving at the shore is to select the transect position. Transects should preferably be positioned along gently sloping unbroken shores, avoiding sandy areas. There are two main methods used for performing transects of the rocky shore: 1) Subdividing the shore into vertical stations - performing random quadrats at set heights and recording the drop in height between each quadrat. 2) Levelling the shore performing random quadrats at the upper, middle and lower shore using the lowest astronomical tide as a reference. Depending on the results that are required, each technique has its own benefits. Subdividing the shore into stations at certain distances allows a detailed zonation and profile of the shore. Levelling to record at upper, middle and lower areas gives a broad indication of zonation down the shore and is often a simpler technique for inexperienced groups. Quadrats Quadrat size is very dependent on the species that you intend to survey. Recommendations by Hawkins & Jones (1992) suggest sizes from 0.02m for barnacles to 1.0m for the larger seaweeds. For a general survey such as the Shore Thing, a 0.5m quadrat is most suitable with four repeats in each zone. This size of quadrat allows sensible measurements of all species either as counts or percentage cover and avoids using multiple pieces of equipment on the shore. Quadrat position is another variable to be considered. Quadrats should be placed randomly at each station, to ensure unbiased results. This can either be done by throwing the quadrat (gently!) over your shoulder (could be dangerous and is quite haphazard) or by using random number tables, or another form of random number generation to determine distance from the transect line. Abundance measurements There are three main methods for recording abundance 1) Counts 2) Percentage 3) Presence/absence scales The use of each depends on what is being recorded, and what is required from the survey. In transect surveys percentages and counts are most commonly used. Seaweeds, colonial organisms and small species which would be impractical to count, (i.e. barnacles) are generally recorded as percentage cover. Where there is a canopy of larger seaweeds it is best to record the canopy and the undercover (i.e. barnacles, sponges, smaller seaweeds) separately. Counts can easily be used for larger species such as molluscs and crustaceans. There are a variety of presence/absence scales which can be employed. The SACFORN scale is a commonly used standardised scale utilising the following categories: 73 S = Superabundant A = Abundant C = Common

80 Teachers Notes F = Frequent O = Occasional R = Rare N = Not found However, it is a fairly complex system with the definitions of each of the categories changing depending on the organisms being recorded. For example: Limpets Small & rough periwinkles S per m -2 >3.5 per cm -2 A >50 per m -2 > 1 per cm -2 C per m per cm -2 F 1 10 per m -2 < 0.1 per cm -2 O <1 per m -2 A few individuals in deep crevices R Few found in 30 minute search 1 or 2 found in 30 minute search N Not found Not found The Shore Thing survey utilises a more straightforward system suitable for use by volunteers and students without detailed understanding. The scale used is shown below, with the same definitions used for each species: A = Abundant (Definitely found at certain level on the shore) F = Frequent (Definitely found after a little searching) R = Rare (Intensive search to find 1 or 2 individuals) N = Not found References Hawkins, S.J. and Jones, H.D. (1992). Rocky Shores. Marine Field Course Guide 1. Marine Conservation Society. Immel Publishing, London. 74

81 Teachers Notes 5.10 Databases There are two kinds of database, the flat file system and a Rational Database Management System (RDMS). The flat file or card-index databases contain just one file. The records can only be accessed in a limited number of ways, and the number of fields in a record will be limited. These can quickly become unwieldy. An RDMS is more suitable for handling large amounts of data such as that generated during Shore Thing surveys. The database used by the project is a SQL (Sequence Query Language) database. This database has several advantages; as well as being an RDMS, it can be downloaded free (Open-Source), has a good workable structure and can be easily linked to websites, enabling project data to be uploaded onto the Shore Thing website. Using an RDMS database allows us to separate each section of the survey form into a table and then link those tables to produce the required information for analysis. The diagram below demonstrates the structure of the project database and the links between common fields. Diagram 1 Relationship between tables within the Shore Thing database. Survey surveyid date location surveyors school transectnumber tupperbearing1 tupperbearingto1 tupperbearing2 tupperbearingto2 tupperbearing3 tupperbearingto3 tgps verified Species speciesid scientificname commonname validated Notes noteid surveyid notetopic notestext Photos photoid surveyid surveysection filename notes Transect Results transectresultsid surveyid speciesid quadratnumber result percentageflag* searchtype station Timed Search Results timedsearchresultsid surveyid speciesid result habitat 75

82 Teachers Notes Diagram 1 demonstrates that the surveyid and speciesid are used in several areas of the database but the information only has to be entered once, unlike in a flat file system where it would have to be entered for each section of the database. Below is an example of how records appear on the Shore Thing database. The columns represent the following: timedsearch surveyid speciesid result habitat Each individual record is given a unique number. The number in this column refers back to the Survey table that contains all the location, bearings and surveyors details (page 1 of the recording form). Each species recorded during a survey is given a unique number. Sixty of the commonest species were entered at the start of the project including the 22 climate change indicators. Their unique numbers are 2, 24, 28 and 30 to 48. Refers to the abundance scale. Refers to the three habitats where the search takes place. 76

83 Teachers Notes A whole list of data isn t particularly useful for doing any analysis. By using queries we can call up particular pieces of information. Using the timed species search data we can write a query that will replace the numbers (surveyid and speciesid) with the location and names of the species found during those surveys. Above is the Query language used to call up the following results: Once the data has been ordered, it can be exported into an Excel spreadsheet for analysis. The above demonstrates how the MySQL (RDMS) database prevents repetition by allocating numbers to certain aspects of the data such as survey details, and by using the Query Language we can easily extract certain records. More information on MySQL and a free download can be found at 77

84 Student Worksheets

85 Worksheets A - Pre-survey Training The Shore Thing is a national project with groups conducting surveys all around the British coast. The results of the MarClim project demonstrated a change in the distribution of species over time. We now need to continue that monitoring to establish whether these changes are still occurring. Before conducting a survey, it is important that you are familiar with the Shore Thing Protocol and understand why we have to follow set procedures. Spending some time familiarising yourself with common rocky shore species will save time during the survey. Resources Shore Thing Protocol Species Identification Key Hayward, P., Nelson-Smith, T. and Shields, (1996) Collins Pocket Guide Sea Shore of Britain and Ireland. Harper Collins Publishing. Activity A1 Survey Protocol Read through the Shore Thing protocol and the answer the following questions: 1. Why is it important for groups to use the same protocol? 2. Explain the importance of recording transect details. 3. Records should be collected in how many quadrats at each station? 4. Explain how the data is collected in each quadrat, especially at the middle and lower stations. 5. What should you do once you have completed the quadrats at the lower station?

86 Activity A2 Species Identification Examine closely the live specimens/photographs. Choose which species exhibit the key features listed below. Species 1 Key Features: Cone shaped shell, up to 2.5 cm high Tooth on inside of mouth opening Shell grey-green, and Shiny mother of pearl inside shell opening. This species is? Species 2 Key Features: Bushy brown seaweed Covered in what looks like small leaves and tiny round floats Very dense, feels coarse and wiry, and May form long lengths (like a washing line). This species is? Species 3 Key Features: Prominent midrib Pairs of almost spherical gas bladders Dark olive brown, and Up to 1 metre long. This species is? Species 4 Key Features: Large round hole on underside of the shell Dull greenish in colour with reddish-purple broad diagonal stripes, and Small shell 1.6 cm high. 2.2 cm across. This species is?

87 Worksheet B The Rocky Shore The Seashore is the boundary between the land and sea. This boundary can consist of sandy beaches, gravel or shingle or rocky outcrops. The latter is the area we are studying to access the impacts of climate change on the marine environment. The main influence on the plants and animals that live on our shores is the tides. Organisms have to adapt to differing environmental conditions depending on which zone they occupy on the shore. Scientists spend years studying species and their interactions with abiotic and biotic factors on the shore. The following activities will help you gain a basic understanding of rocky shore ecology. Resources Wikipedia, Hawkins, S.J. and Jones, H.D. (1992). Rocky Shores. Marine Field Course Guide 1. Marine Conservation Society. Immel Publishing, London Task Using books and by searching the internet familiarise yourself with the main features of the rocky shore and then answer the questions for each activity. Activity B1 Terminology Explain the following terms:- Biodiversity Ecosystem Niche Community Competition Exposure Spring tides Neap tides

88 Turbidity Desiccation Aerobic Anaerobic Explain the difference between Abiotic and Biotic and how these factors affect the distribution of species on the rocky shore Activity B2 Rocky Shore Profile Draw the profile of a rocky shore, highlighting the three zones: Upper, middle and lower.

89 Worksheet C - Marine Conservation Marine Protected Areas are defined by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as: Any area of intertidal or sub tidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora and fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment (Gubbay 2004). Resources and Task Choose one of the following Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Marine Nature Reserves Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas European Marine Sites (Marine Special Areas of Conservation) Lundy or Skomer St. Abbs & Eyemouth, Wembury or Helford Berwickshire & North Northumberland Coast, Plymouth Sound and Estuaries or Cardigan Bay Write a report, no longer than 500 words answering the following questions about your chosen site: When was the site designated? Why the site was designated (special features)? What protection does the site have? How is the site managed?

90 Worksheet D - Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created in 1988 to provide an objective source of information on climate change for policymakers. In their latest report (November 2007) the IPCC concluded that the Earth is warming and that human activity is very likely responsible for most of that warming. Although there appears to be overwhelming evidence that this is true there are people who feel that climate change is a natural process and not a consequence of human activities. Below are a few sceptical views of climate change, posted on the BBC website, Have Your Say : All the climate changes in my lifetime could easily be explained by a multitude of causes, of which Global Warming is just the popular current thread. The fact is that it's obvious people have an effect on the environment, but nature makes bigger changes than we do when it wants to. I used to be able to count on snow from November through the end of February into some of March. Now, if I see a couple weeks of snow, that's normal. It still could be a mix of both human and natural causes though. Yes, 'climate change' has affected me. First Ken charged me to drive into London to work, then Gordon upped the tax on my car, then the council bugged my wheelie-bin. It's affecting us all... by providing the powers that be with an excuse to extend the surveillance, nanny state. This activity asks you to look at the different ideas and theories about climate change. See what you think. Resources and Henson. R The Rough Guide to Climate Change Rough Guides, Task Search the internet for evidence of climate change and the differing opinions about how severe the changes are and what we should do about it, if anything? Your teacher will give you a card that has the role that you have to act out. For example you may be an insurance broker or a sun worshipper. Either in small groups or to the whole class state your case for how you see climate change affecting your character. Once everyone has put their point of view across have a general debate about climate change and how it will affect different people. Also, try and relate the changes in the climate to the marine environment and try and come to a conclusion about whether we need to or should change our behaviour to mitigate its effects.

91 Worksheets E - Planning Fieldwork By completing worksheets A and B you should now have a better understanding of the Shore Thing Protocol and rocky shore ecology. We now need to apply those principles to other surveys so you can plan your own surveys in the future. Resources Task Shore Thing Protocol Shore Thing Recording Form Hawkins, S.J. and Jones, H.D. (1992). Rocky Shores. Marine Field Course Guide 1. Marine Conservation Society. Immel Publishing, London Tide tables. By using the resources listed above answer the following questions: E1 Planning When planning a trip to the rocky shore one of the first things you should decide on is a date. What four factors should you consider when choosing a date and location for the survey? E2 Rocky Shore Survey Name the three components of a rocky shore survey and briefly explain what is involved?

92 Activity E3 Risk Assessment When going on the rocky shore you should be aware of the risks and take steps to avoid those risks. All teachers and group leaders must complete a risk assessment before they take a group out of the school. Table 1 shows a general risk assessment for a Shore Thing survey. It lists the risks that should be considered when going to the shore, how high that risk is and ways in which those risks can be avoided or reduced. By using the other examples in the table complete the shaded boxes. As a class or group discuss the risks that have been listed and fill in the blanks.

93 Table 1 Risk Assessment Location Activity Group Nature of Hazard Vehicle movement Slippery rocks and seaweed Tides Stings/bites from marine animals (anemones, jellyfish, weaver fish) Exposure (Cold water/weather, sunburn / dehydration) Worst outcome Death Death Death (drowning) Anaphylactic shock due to an allergic reaction. Hypothermia or heat exhaustion Group at risk All those walking through car park or crossing road. All those on the seashore, especially weak swimmers, young children and the elderly. All who visit the seashore, especially those with allergies Specifically the old and very young although all can suffer from hypothermia or heat exhaustion. Evaluation of risk Unlikely if care taken Death unlikely to occur, however scrapes and bruises are possible. Unlikely as survey is timed around low tide. Possibility exists to lose track of time and become cut off by the tide. Hypothermia is unlikely to occur if appropriate clothing is worn and time spent in the cold is kept to a minimum. Sunburn is a real risk in the summer. Preventative Measures and Precautions Heath and Safety talk prior to activity. Advising people to wear sensible footwear. Check tide times before you leave and be aware that the tide can start to come in very suddenly. Stay away from the waters edge if sea is not calm. Do not walk off alone, have a means of phone/radio communication with you and make sure somebody knows where you are and what time you are expected back if being cut-off is likely. Ensure that all are aware of this hazard prior to activity. Know the people you are with, check for allergies and other medical conditions. Carry first aid kit. Emphasise the need to treat animals with care and respect. Ensure that appropriate clothing is worn by all. This should be warm / waterproof or provide protection from sun. Wear hat and sunblock. Do not work with large areas of skin exposed. Keep a check on the health of those around you. Take enough drinking water.

94 Nature of Hazard Worst outcome Litter and Beach debris Emergency Information Ensure group has First Aider Name: Take First Aid Kit Carry Mobile phone Location of nearest telephone Group at risk All who visit the seashore. Evaluation of risk Serious injury is unlikely. Although not common, cuts from broken glass/old cans do occur. Preventative Measures and Precautions Warn of hazard before activity. Keep away from objects/canisters you do not recognise. Carry first aid kit.

95 Worksheets F - Data Handling The data that you collected during the Shore Thing survey and uploaded on to the project website is stored in a MySQL database. It is important to understand some of the terminology used when processing data, and what we can do with your records to help us assess the impact of climate change on the marine environment. Resources or The resources listed above will help you answer the questions for activities F1 and F2. You will need to download data from the project website (see above) to complete F3 Data analysis. Activity F1 Terminology What is meant by the terms: Data Information Knowledge Verification Validation Activity F2 Databases 1. Shore Thing Data is stored on a MySQL database. What does SQL stand for? 2. MySQL is a RDBMS database. What does RDBMS stand for? 3. Name three advantages of a RDBMS database compared to a flat file system. i ii iii

96 Activity F3 Data analysis The Shore Thing requires long-term data to assess the impacts of climate change on the marine environment. Scientists predict that sea temperatures could rise by 1 or 2 degrees by the year Surveys will have to be conducted at the same sites for several years to monitor any change, if any. In the meantime, comparisons can be made between your survey data and those from other areas around the country or with historical data. Task Download survey data from another part of the country. Use the Google map ( to select a site and then click on Download results from this site. All the records from the site will be downloaded into Excel. Choose a particular species found in both areas. Using tables and charts demonstrate any differences in the distribution and abundance of that species. This can be done using the transect and timed species search data.

97 Worksheet G - Presentation An important part of conducting scientific research is presenting your findings to your peers. A presentation is also an excellent way of developing your communication skills and demonstrating your knowledge and understanding of the work you have undertaken. Resources Shore Thing data Student worksheets Microsoft PowerPoint Task Write a presentation no longer than 15 minutes about the Shore Thing project and present it to your peers. Below are a few ideas about what you could include: 1. An introduction what are the key components of the project? 2. Explanation of the fieldwork e.g. survey protocol. 3. Where and when the fieldwork was carried out. 4. Any problems encountered? 5. What happens to the data once it has been collected? 6. Conclusions. Where possible use as many photographs and graphs to illustrate your talk. Good luck!

98 Appendix