A Brief History of Water Management in the Everglades Agricultural Area 1

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1 Circular 815 A Brief History of Water Management in the Everglades Agricultural Area 1 F.T. Izuno 2 to understand and appreciate the past history of the area. The purpose of this publication is to give a brief accounting of how and why the present water management scheme in south Florida was developed. The purpose, herein, is not to present an exhaustive water history of the area, but rather to generate an appreciation for the complexity of the development of the area. For a more in-depth discussion of the EAA and water related topics, the reader is referred to Izuno and Bottcher (1987). General Background Information Introduction Recently, a great amount of attention has been focused on the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA) in south Florida. The attention stems from concern over the environmental health of Lake Okeechobee, the Water Conservation Areas (WCAs), and the Everglades National Park (ENP). The first step towards developing plans for the future management of the EAA, WCAs, ENP, and Lake Okeechobee, is The Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA) (Figure 1) is contained in one of the largest contiguous bodies of organic soil in the world (Jones, 1948). By different accounts, it has been reported to encompass a total area ranging in size from 650,000 acres (Snyder, 1987) to 770,000 acres (Knecht, 1986). The EAA is only a small portion of the area originally called the Everglades Region (4.8 million acres) that included Lake Okeechobee to the north and a major part of the Florida Peninsula to the south (Jones, 1948) (Figure 2). 1. This document is Circular 815, one of a series of the Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Original publication date June Visit the EDIS Web Site at 2. Forrest T. Izuno, Professor, Everglades REC--Belle Glade FL, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function with non-discrimination with respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A. & M. University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Larry Arrington, Dean

2 A Brief History of Water Management in the Everglades Agricultural Area 2 that in an average year, the EAA receives more water from rainfall than it needs to sustain agriculture. The problem lies within the fact that a large majority of that rain occurs in a concentrated 5-month period. The EAA is considered to be an efficient user of water since the basin is surrounded by water storage areas, does not leak, and is devoted almost entirely to agriculture (SFWMD, 1985a). Figure 1. Definition map of the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA) and its canals and drainage basins. Growers in the EAA have built a thriving agricultural industry with average annual cash receipts of about 500 million dollars (Snyder, 1987), due for the most part, to sugarcane and winter vegetables. The agricultural industry is responsible for generating over 1.2 billion dollars worth of economic activity annually (SFWMD, 1985b). To maintain this obvious productivity, water management is essential. During the wet season, adequate provisions for drainage are mandatory. Alternatively, during the dry season, irrigation water must be available in amounts sufficient for supplemental crop use. Without the provisions for both irrigation and drainage, at or near current levels, agriculture in the EAA could cease to be one of the major industries in south Florida. Historically, Lake Okeechobee has supplied the EAA with approximately 438,000 acre-feet of water annually (Florida Department of Administration, 1976). Returns to the Lake, through the process called backpumping (pumping against the flow direction that would occur naturally due to gravity), averaged over 480,000 acre-feet annually, prior to implementation of the Interim Action Plan (IAP) in This fact supports assertions, made by many, that the EAA is a net supplier of water to the Lake. Bear in mind that these figures are outdated since the IAP drastically changed South Florida Water Management District's (SFWMD) criteria for backpumping. Nonetheless, the figures do point out Figure 2. Location and extent of the Everglades Region. The natural flow of water through the EAA is from north to south, caused by an almost imperceptible land slope. To the north of the EAA is Lake Okeechobee, the second largest freshwater lake (second to Lake Michigan) wholly in the United States (Fedrico et al., 1981). The Lake serves as the primary source of water for the EAA and the urban communities of Okeechobee, Moore Haven, Clewiston, South Bay, Belle Glade, and Pahokee. It serves as a secondary source for the Lower East Coast (LEC) including Palm Beach, Broward, and Dade Counties, as well as Monroe County, the ENP, and the Fort Myers area (SFWMD, 1985a). Lake Okeechobee is considered to be the most efficient water storage area in south Florida in terms of minimizing losses to seepage and evaporation. The Lake has a capacity of 3,221,000 acre-feet (more than 1 trillion gallons) when operated according to the

3 A Brief History of Water Management in the Everglades Agricultural Area 3 present regulation schedule (SFWMD, 1985a). The long term strategy for Lake management is to protect it environmentally, as well as to ensure that there will be adequate water for all south Florida interests. the area, south Florida remained wet. In 1821, Spain deeded the land to the United States for 5 million dollars. Florida gained statehood in At that time, Buckingham Smith was appointed to make the first inspection of the lower Florida Peninsula. He reported, in 1848, that the Everglades could be reclaimed by digging canals and deepening streams to the coasts. He also indicated that it was his belief that if the land were drained, a new agricultural industry would thrive. Hence, the drainage of the Everglades began. On September 28, 1850, the Federal Government of the United States passed the Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act which gave the State of Florida approximately 20 million acres of land (Jones,1948; Knecht, 1986). Included in this parcel of land were approximately 4.8 million acres which became known as the Everglades Region (Figure 2), including the 2.8 million acre parcel which is known today as the Everglades (Jones, 1948). Of the original Everglades, approximately 700,000 acres are included within the present day EAA. In January of 1851, the Florida Legislature passed an Act to secure the lands. Figure 3. Location of the three water conservation areas. To the south and east of the EAA lie the three Water Conservation Areas (WCAs) (Figure 3). These three areas encompass about 960,000 acres and were to be used, when created, for water conservation, water storage, and salt water intrusion control. Additionally, they were to be managed in such a way as to ensure the protection of wildlife within their boundaries (Florida Department of Administration, 1976). Development of the EAA Acquisition of the Land The history of the drainage system and development of south Florida must begin with Ponce de Leon's quest for the fountain of youth (Smith, 1980). It was his search that first brought the western man into the Everglades. The Spanish, for the most part, neglected the swampy interior except for some exploratory travel. During Spain's 300 year rule of Lake Okeechobee One of the primary features of the parcel of land was Lake Okeechobee. The lake was originally named Lake Mayaimi (Bloodworth, 1959) from the Caloosa Indian word for big water. The Lake's present name is a composite of the Seminole Indian words "oki" for water and "chubi" meaning big. At a stage of 15.5 feet msl, the Lake covers an area of about 725 square miles (464,000 acres) (Jones, 1948). Prior to artificial drainage attempts by man in south Florida, the Lake received drainage water from approximately 4,000 square miles (2,560,000 acres) of watershed area (Fedrico et al., 1981). Since the canal networks have been installed, approximately 600 square miles (384,000 acres) have been added to the lake watershed area. Prior to man induced drainage, the Lake stage stood between 18 and 20 feet msl (Jones, 1948). There was no well defined outlet and during high stage, water would overflow the southern rim and proceed slowly through the Everglades and nearby (swampland referred to as a "river of grass" by

4 A Brief History of Water Management in the Everglades Agricultural Area 4 Marjory Stoneman Douglas) as a result of a very slight north to south grade of about 2 to 3 inches per mile. What was not evaporated or used by native plants drained to the Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic Ocean. Land Drainage and Development On January 6, 1855, the State of Florida Legislature passed an Act to create the Internal Improvement Fund of the State of Florida (Jones, 1948; Smith, 1980; Knecht, 1986). Simultaneously, the Board of Trustees of the Internal Improvement Fund (TIIF) was created and given the responsibility of managing the land given to Florida under the Federal Swamp and Overflowed Lands Grant. The Board was made up of the Governor and his cabinet and remains as such to date (1987). The TIIF mission was to sell lands and use the generated revenue to reclaim and improve them. They were responsible for receiving and reviewing applicants for canal and railroad projects. If the TIIF determined that a project was desirable, the applicant received State assistance. In addition, companies received a 200 foot wide right of way through State lands, plus alternate sections of land, 6 miles deep, on both sides of the railroad track. A symbiotic relationship developed since railroad companies had to drain land to lay their tracks. It was envisioned that completed railroads and transportation companies would encourage settlers to enter the area. By 1877, the Internal Improvement Fund was bankrupt (Jones, 1948; Smith, 1980; Knecht, 1986). To save the Fund, the Trustees had to find an immediate buyer for a large parcel of land. A search led them to Hamilton Disston of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Together, they negotiated two large land deals which became the foundation for all future drainage efforts. In 1881, after lengthy negotiations, Disston officially contracted to drain land in return for one-half the acreage that he could reclaim. The deal, however, fell through. Subsequently, Governor William Bloxham persuaded Disston to purchase 4 million acres at 25 cents per acre. The first canal, between Lake Okeechobee and the Caloosahatchee River, was dug in Disston's was the first attempt to drain a large land area as a single unit. With his new lands, Disston developed a sizable sugar industry. The TIIF had depended heavily on the railroad company interests to raise money for reclaiming the Everglades in the late 19th century. Wealthy businessmen such as Disston, Plant, and Flagler had virtual control of drainage projects because of the TIIF dependence on their money. Development was on-going, but in a haphazard, uncoordinated manner, subject to the whims of the developers (Smith, 1980). In 1899, the United States Army Corps of Engineers (COE) began a survey of the Kissimmee-Okeechobee-Caloosahatchee water system and the effects of Disston's drainage project on the area (Smith, 1980). The Corps of Engineers (COE) recommended to the United States Congress that navigational improvements be made. The result of this was the renewed involvement of governmental agencies in the development of south Florida. This involvement acknowledged that private developers were not likely to lead the efforts towards a balanced, well developed territory. Government and public interests had now been drawn into the water management process. Under Governor Jennings, in office from 1901 to 1905, the present drainage program began (Jones, 1948). Extensive land surveys were made to re-evaluate the feasibility of reclaiming the Everglades from an overall standpoint. Data on topography, rainfall, watersheds, and soils were collected. Governor Napoleon Bonaparte Broward, Florida's 19th Governor, actively brought government and public agencies into water management and land development (Smith, 1980) in response to his beliefs that the railroad industry was too dominant. In 1905, the Board of Drainage Commissioners was created to oversee the State-wide development of land and the necessary water management. The United States Supreme Court, however, decided that such a Board was not authorized by the State constitution. In 1907, an amendment was attached to the Act that was to establish the Board of Drainage

5 A Brief History of Water Management in the Everglades Agricultural Area 5 Commissioners. The amendment created an agency responsible solely for the Everglades and the Act was passed. Its passage in May of 1907, created the Everglades Drainage District (EDD) and allowed the EDD to levy a 5 cents per acre tax. With the coordinated and active drainage plan in effect, land ownership in the Everglades rose from 12 in 1909 to 15,000 in 1911 (Jones, 1948). Between 1909 and 1910, land prices jumped from $2 to $15 per acre. The State Legislature enacted laws levying acreage taxes on benefits, and authorized the EDD to issue bonds. By 1912, it became apparent that the existing canals, and those in the planning stages, would not be sufficient to control Lake Okeechobee and drain the lands. The Everglades Engineering Commission was employed to undertake further detailed studies. They concluded: "The existing works and conditions of land ownership and settlement seem now to be such as necessitates an earnest effort to reclaim in one continuous project and with the greatest possible expedition, all lands south and southeast of Lake Okeechobee between the Miami Canal, the proposed West Palm Beach Canal, and the eastern boundary of the Drainage District" (as quoted in Jones, 1948). The commission recommended the excavation of the St. Lucie Canal and arteries. In 1913, the Florida Legislature passed the General Drainage Act, included as Chapter 298 of the Florida Statutes. The Act allowed individual landowners to join together to form private drainage districts with the power to issue bonds, levy taxes, and develop water management systems within the EDD boundaries (Knecht, 1986). The EDD began work in 1906 and by 1928 had constructed 6 major canals with a total length of over 400 miles. Included in these efforts were the excavation of the West Palm Beach, Hillsboro, North New River, and Miami Canals (Knecht, 1986) (Figure 1). The 18-year period between 1913 and 1931 saw the completion of 440 miles of canals, adding the Bolles and Cross Canals, construction of 47 miles of levees, 16 locks and dams, and costing approximately 18 million dollars (Jones, 1948). The Okeechobee Flood Control District was created by the Florida Legislature in The district was responsible for providing or obtaining works and improvements necessary for flood control and navigation in Lake Okeechobee, the Caloosahatchee River, and the Everglades (Jones, 1948). In 1931, the Internal Improvement Fund, derived from land sales, again went bankrupt and defaulted on payments on mature bonds (Jones, 1948). This new financial dilemma was intensified by the collapse of the land boom of 1925, the 1926 and 1928 hurricanes, and the generally poor national economic situation. Consequently, all construction work stopped and maintenance was deferred. In 1936, Federal Government policies changed (Smith, 1980) as a result of the adoption of the Flood Control Act of The Act maintained that the Federal Government should improve, or participate in the improvement of, waters for flood control purposes if the populations in the surrounding areas would suffer should the improvements not be made. The Army Corps of Engineers (COE) proceeded under United States Congressional approval, to improve the Caloosahatchee River and St. Lucie Canal in order to better control floods along Lake Okeechobee (Jones, 1948) and to provide a channel from Ft. Myers to Stuart. Maintenance of Lake Okeechobee stage and associated works were under the control of the COE as they are today. In 1947, Everglades National Park (ENP) was officially created (Florida Department of Administration, 1976), placing yet another supply demand on Lake Okeechobee. The creation of the ENP probably helped to raise the consciousness of the public to the need for preserving natural Florida Habitats in spite of the push for economic development. Creation of the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control District On May 6, 1948, the 80th United States Congress passed House Document 643 (Knecht, 1986). Passage of the document officially adopted a comprehensive plan for flood control in south Florida.

6 A Brief History of Water Management in the Everglades Agricultural Area 6 The document launched the Southern Florida Flood Control Project. In Response to federal actions, in 1949 the Florida Legislature passed Chapter 378 of the Florida Statutes creating the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control District (FCD) (Knecht, 1986) to be the local sponsor of the project. The FCD's duties included the responsibility for all rights of way, operating and maintaining all project works, accepting all potential liability for damages that could occur under the plan, and contributing 15% of the construction costs. The purposes of the project, and hence the goals of the FCD were to provide flood protection, ensure adequate water supply, prevent salt water intrusion along the Lower East Coast (LEC), enhance the region's fish, wildlife, and other environmental resources, and to provide water supply to the ENP (SFWMD, 1985c). These goals were admittedly "lofty and ambitious" (Smith, 1980) and were in response to a need for change brought on by population growth, urbanization of inland areas, and increased environmental awareness. However, the primary goal of the FCD remained flood control. Navigational improvements that had once dominated the need for canalization and development of the everglades, stemming from the dependence on businessmen and transportation companies for funding, receded as needs for flood control came to the forefront. The Central and Southern Flood Control District ushered in the modern era of Everglades water management with its stated goals. The primary additions to the system under the tenure of the FCD were the Water Conservation Areas (WCAs). It was also under the FCD that the EAA was officially defined. During the tenure of the FCD, the EAA was completely canalized and diked. Three WCAs, designated WCA 1, WCA 2, and WCA 3, were developed and their use incorporated in the overall water management plan (Florida Department of Administration, 1976). These three areas are situated south and east of the EAA and encompass about 960,000 acres (1,500 square miles) (Figure 3). The plan called for conservation and storage of surplus water in the WCAs. Water in the WCAs would then be used for supply recharge to the LEC and the ENP, as well as a source of water to prevent salt water intrusion in the well fields along the LEC. Regulation of WCA 1, WCA 2, and WCA 3 began in 1961, 1962, and 1963, respectively. Water Conservation Area 1 was leased by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service for 50 years under the condition that they would manage the wildlife within. The Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission agreed to manage wildlife within WCAs 2 and 3. With an emphasis placed on wildlife preservation to accompany the use of the WCAs for water management, it was necessary to prevent both over-draining and over-flooding of the WCAs. Obviously, the environmental considerations greatly constrained the use of the WCAs for water management. Rather than serving as buffer zones for the management of the EAA water system, the WCAs became entities which required their own specific environmental and stage management criteria. In addition to the formation of the WCAs to aid in flood control, the water storage capacity of Lake Okeechobee was increased. Runoff or drainage from the EAA was to be routed to the Lake according to the process described today as backpumping. In 1971, the Governor's Conference on Water Management in South Florida assembled leading experts on resource management to examine the south Florida situation (Florida Department of Administration, 1976). The conference affirmed and emphasized the importance of both conserving water and protecting its quality. A project to study the issues of Lake Okeechobee eutrophication and water supply in south Florida began in The project title was "The Special Project to Prevent the Eutrophication of Lake Okeechobee". Major findings of the project were: 1. The conservation and wise use of water is the single most important priority in south Florida; 2. Rain should be retained as storage in wetlands and the shallow aquifer to protect the quality of the regional supply; 3. Wetlands should be reflooded and maintained at higher stages;

7 A Brief History of Water Management in the Everglades Agricultural Area 7 4. Publicly owned lands in the EAA should be flooded in the near future; 5. Improved farming and ranching techniques should be employed to assist in water conservation and its wise use; 6. The cessation of backpumping to Lake Okeechobee would greatly reduce the present eutrophic stress on the lake; and duty to review, rescind, or modify any of the District's policies, excepting only those policies which dealt entirely with internal management. In addition, the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation (FDER) assumed the State-wide responsibility of supervising the Districts. 7. the recycling of drainage water within the EAA would be an effective way to increase the water supply in South Florida. The Conference emphasized that one of the two primary goals governing inputs to the lake should be to ensure that only high quality water is backpumped. Creation of the South Florida Water Management District In 1972, the Florida Legislature passed the Florida Water Resources Act, stating that it is to the benefit of the public that water and water related resources be conserved and protected (Tilley, Lynne, and Boggess, 1985). The Act listed a diverse and comprehensive set of goals. Among those goals were: 1) To provide for water and related land management; 2) To promote the conservation, development, and proper use of both surface and ground waters; 3) To develop and regulate works to provide water storage for beneficial use; 4) To provide for the prevention of damage from floods, soil erosion, and over-drainage; 5) To provide for the preservation of natural resources, fish, and wildlife; 6) To promote development of recreational facilities; and 7) To promote health, safety, and the general welfare of the people of Florida. The Florida Water Resources Act was responsible for the division of the State of Florida into 5 Water Management Districts whose boundaries were based on historical watershed areas (Figure 4). One of those Districts created was the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD), which was a reworked version of the Central and Southern Flood Control District. Under the Act, the Land and Water Adjudicatory Commission, consisting of the Governor and his Cabinet, was given the power and Figure 4. The five water management districts of Florida. The SFWMD consists of a governing board made up of 9 gubernatorial appointees who must undergo Florida State Senate confirmation. Next in the hierarchy is an Executive Director who operates with a staff of over 900 employees (Knecht, 1986). The SFWMD is authorized to: 1) Sue or be sued; 2) Appoint or remove agents or employees; 3) Issue orders to implement and enforce the Water Resources Act and regulations; 4) Survey and investigate water resources within its boundaries; 5) Issue permits allowing people to make use of SFWMD facilities; 6) Clean, straighten or redirect the course of any waterway; 7) Provide works which the Governing Board deems appropriate to fulfill the SFWMD's charge; 8) Condemn land needed for rights of way; 9) Sell or lease land; 10) Replenish ground water; 11) Impose restrictions on one or more water uses; 12) Limit, apportion, or rotate uses if necessary; 13) Declare water shortages; and 14) Establish permit fees (Tilley, Lynne, and Boggess, 1985). The SFWMD mission, as stated on the covers of their public informational fact sheets (SFWMD, 1985b) is "to manage water and related resources for the benefit of the public and in keeping with the needs of the region". Listed as key elements of the mission are protection and enhancement of the environment, ensuring adequate water supply, providing flood protection, and ensuring water

8 A Brief History of Water Management in the Everglades Agricultural Area 8 quality. The SFWMD continues to say that the mission is accomplished through "the combined efforts of planning and research, operations and maintenance, community and government relations, land management, regulation, and construction". It is obvious from the above, that the old Flood Control District, whose primary responsibility was flood control in spite of a long list of charges, had evolved into the well rounded SFWMD with wide ranging and balanced goals. The EAA lies entirely within the SFWMD boundaries, and is therefore subject to all regulations imposed by the District. Each individual farm, landowner, or drainage district must have both a surface water permit and a consumptive use permit to operate legally. Growers in the EAA depend on the SFWMD's judicial use of their broad powers and on their careful examination of all possible effects prior to their implementing management strategies. The Current Dilemma Recently, environmental interests in south Florida focused attention on the eutrophic state of Lake Okeechobee and the changing environments in the WCAs. In response, on August 26, 1985, Governor Graham wrote to the Secretary of the FDER, Victoria J. Tschinkel, requesting a study of the conditions that could be affecting the water conservation, water quality, and biological characteristics of Lake Okeechobee (Knecht, 1986). Secretary Tschinkel responded on October 1, 1985, agreeing to review and implement all feasible options to reduce nutrient levels entering the Lake. A part of the study objectives was directed at evaluating the water quality and quantity of irrigation and drainage water in the EAA. Secretary Tschinkel agreed that the procedures being followed by the SFWMD at the time were insufficient to meet the established goals for reducing nutrient levels entering the Lake from the EAA in backpumped waters. Secretary Tschinkel appointed the Lake Okeechobee Technical Advisory Committee (LOTAC), comprised of growers, State university researchers, private and State engineering and environmental group representatives, the COE, and SFWMD personnel. The Committee was charged with providing recommendations for short- and long-term solutions to the Lake water quality and quantity problems. The findings of the committee appear to be the pervasive mechanisms that are controlling the actions and thinking of water managers and researchers in the EAA today. Summary The physical development of the EAA was discussed from an historical point of view. The evolution of the area-wide water management goals were also briefly outlined. The information included in the discussion is directed towards helping to establish an appreciation for the magnitude of efforts that went into the development of the present day system. Additionally, an understanding of the evolution of the water management system structures and goals in the EAA will place present day problems in perspective. References Bloodworth, B.E Florida place names. Ph. D. Thesis. University of Florida, Gainesville. pp 259. Douglas, M.S The Everglades: River of Grass. Mockingbird Books, Inc., St. Simons Island, Georgia, pp 308. Fedrico, A.C., K.G. Dickson, C.R. Kratzer, and F.E. Davis Lake Okeechobee water quality studies and eutrophication assessment. South Florida Water Management District Technical Publication No West Palm Beach, Florida. pp 270. May. Florida Department of Administration Final report on the special project to prevent eutrophication of Lake Okeechobee. pp 341. November. Izuno, F.T. and A.B. Bottcher, eds Components of the EAA agricultural system that relate to water quality in south Florida. Part 2 of Phase II Final Report submitted to the South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach. pp 390. November. Jones, L.A Soils, geology, and water control in the Everglades Region. Agricultural

9 A Brief History of Water Management in the Everglades Agricultural Area 9 Experiment Station Bulletin No University of Florida, Gainesville. pp 168. March. Knecht, C.W Elements of sugarcane production: Water management. Notes from a short course presented by the Everglades Research and Education Center and the Palm Beach County Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Belle Glade. pp 9. May. Smith, L The challenge of water management. South Florida Water Management District In Depth Report, Vol. 5(1). West Palm Beach, Florida. pp 8. March. Snyder, G.H., ed Agricultural flooding of organic soils. Bulletin No Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville. South Florida Water Management District. 1985a. Lake Okeechobee water supply management plan. West Palm Beach, Florida. pp 80. July. South Florida Water Management District. 1985b. A closer look: Lake Okeechobee backpumping. West Palm Beach, Florida. pp8. October. South Florida Water Management District. 1985c. A closer look: Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project. West Palm Beach, Florida. pp 12. November. Tilley, M., G.D. Lynne, and W.G. Boggess Florida water management district rules and regulations: Consumptive use permits. Circular No. S-317. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville. pp 22. March.