Water-Efficiency Technologies for Mechanical Contractors: New Business Opportunities

Transcription

1 Water-Efficiency Technologies for Mechanical Contractors: New Business Opportunities A Report on Research Conducted for the Mechanical Contracting Education & Research Foundation Mechanical Contracting Education & Research Foundation 1385 Piccard Drive, Rockville, MD or Fax

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3 Water Efficiency Technologies for Mechanical Contractors: New Business Opportunities A Report on Research Conducted for the Mechanical Contracting Education & Research Foundation Jerry Yudelson, PE, MBA, LEED AP Yudelson Associates, Tucson, Arizona Principal Investigator October 15, 2009

4 Acknowledgements In addition to help provided by MCERF and the Australian Trade Commission in the U.S., in the preparation of this report, we were ably assisted by an MBA summer intern, Todd Leber, from the University of Arizona Eller School of Management, who prepared some of the background research and a number of case studies. Our editorial associate, Gretel Hakanson, conducted and transcribed the interviews, while Heidi Ziegler-Voll prepared the illustrations. Heather Kincaide, ASLA, provided valuable input on current approaches to rainwater harvesting in commercial buildings. Laura Shenkar of The Artemis Project in San Francisco provided guidance to emerging water technologies. For information on rainwater harvesting in buildings, I am indebted to conversations with civil/mechanical engineer Guenther Hauber-Davidson, managing director of the Water Conservation Group, Sydney, Australia and Ché Wall, managing director of Lincolne Scott Engineers, also in Sydney. Architect Klaus König of Ueberlingen, Germany, is that country s leading expert on rainwater harvesting and provided insight into the German experience, as did Dietmar Sperfeld, executive director of the FBE, German Rainwater Utilization Association, in Darmstadt. A visit with engineer Jan Hertlein at the Hansgrohe company s factory in Offenburg, Germany, provided an introduction to their Pontos brand of gray-water reuse products. We are also thankful to everyone who provided interviews for this report and to Dennis Langley at MCERF for helping us select industry experts to interview.

5 Table of Contents Executive Summary Introduction The Current Market Situation Water Use in the U.S The Water Century The Importance of Water Conservation Water is the Next Big (Green) Thing Market Adoption of Water Conservation Driving Forces to Use Water-Efficient Products and Methods EPA s WaterSense Brand Building Code Changes Opportunities for Mechanical Contractors Water in Green Buildings Water Audits and Performance Contracting Some Plumbing Retrofits are Harder to Get Done Water Efficiency Technologies Rainwater Harvesting Gray Water Reuse High-Efficiency Toilets (HETs) Low-Water-Use and Waterfree Urinals Other Water-Saving Technologies Non-Conventional Systems...49 Appendix 1. List of Interviews...53 Appendix 2. Regulatory and Economic Incentives for Water Conservation...54 Appendix 3. Bibliography and Resources...57 Appendix 4. Costs for Rainwater Harvesting System, Installed, Phoenix,

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7 Executive Summary Studies of water, though free from aridity, are apt to produce a good deal of turbidity 1 Kenneth Boulding, 20 th Century economist Water issues are coming to the forefront of the green building movement, owing to a number of increasingly strong driving forces. Mechanical contractors stand to benefit the most from this trend, but must educate themselves about alternative technologies, costs and benefits, code and regulatory requirements, incentives and suppliers. This report details several technologies that are applicable now for projects in the commercial, industrial and institutional markets. None of these individually are earthshaking changes, but the movement toward water-efficient fixtures and more onsite water recovery and reuse does present technical and business challenges as well as opportunities. The conventional water-efficient technologies include low-flow urinals and toilets and low-flow showerheads and faucets, most of them well known to any contractor who s participated in the nearly 3,500 LEED-certified projects to date, a number expected to increase by at least 2,000 projects over the 12 months. The LEED system now requires a 20 percent water savings, as well as water use monitoring and reporting, on every certified project, so contractors can expect to see such technologies routinely specified. In other developed countries, particularly Australia, severe water shortages in the present decade have forced engineers, contractors, building managers and owners to adopt solutions that cut building water use by 30 percent to 60 percent. In the U.S., more adventurous owners, builders and engineers will begin specifying newer technologies including rainwater harvesting systems, gray water re-use systems, water re-use in cooling towers, and onsite blackwater treatment systems. Many of these systems will be new to mechanical contractors, plumbers, local suppliers and code officials, requiring more work to understand, procure, install and permit them. Nonetheless, the trend toward commercial buildings that use 30 to 40 percent less water on an annual basis is well established. This report shows contractors the way and offers them the opportunity to secure new business by being on the leading edge of a permanent trend in how we design, construct, operate and maintain water supply and sewage conveyance systems in the built environment. Now is the chance for mechanical and plumbing contractors to step up and take a leading role in the Water Century. Two issues exist that create urban water shortages: drought and infrastructure deficiencies. As discussed in this report, remedying infrastructure deficiencies 1 accessed August 16, 2009.

8 essentially involves piping systems. Though piping may be used for purposes that are perhaps new and different, it is still piping. MCAA-member contractors, and the union (UA) plumbers who work for them, are already prepared, skilled and experienced in piping systems. As such, the MCAA members are well positioned to serve this market as it emerges. The bottom line for MCAA contractors is the opportunity that exists now and in the not-too-distant future. Some of the contractors interviewed reported water-related markets that are already growing, especially in regions where water is scarce. As the U.S. population grows, the move toward green building continues, and our appetite for energy (and the water to provide it) waxes, demand for scarce urban water resources will drive this market throughout the country. Infrastructure upgrades provide the initial prime opportunity for MCAA member. Other related services opportunities also exist, such as water-efficiency audits. Many of the other opportunities related to gray-water treatment, rainwater harvesting, blackwater treatment and fixture upgrades are really infrastructure upgrades. In a way, the biggest call to action lies not on the business side of mechanical contracting, but on the training side. For example, the report cites the problems with drainline slope (fall) in applications with low flow toilets. Insufficient flow leaves solids behind, causing buildup in the pipe, which leads to clogs and possibly increased hydrogen sulfide concentrations. Plumbers need to ensure that fixture slopes are calibrated properly, and that drainline fall is workable. This will require training that addresses the specific requirements of new technologies. Contractors also need to be aware of the limitations of existing infrastructure. If they are called upon to install lowflow fixtures in areas with existing, low-slope drain and sewer pipes that will cause solids to remain behind, they will likely be blamed when the system fails. As with all change, contractors should be involved in the legislative and regulatory discussions relating to water conservation and water efficiency, as politics and the resulting policies may well be the drivers behind innovations and implementation of new infrastructures. Local and state codes and laws for new water technologies vary significantly, and contractors must be familiar with them. Success in business lies at the intersection of preparation and opportunity. This report should help the mechanical contractor recognize the opportunity and get prepared to take advantage of it. 4

9 1.0 Introduction This report on new water-efficiency technologies for mechanical contractors was prepared under a research grant to Yudelson Associates from the Mechanical Contractors Education and Research Foundation (MCERF). We acknowledge and thank the MCERF for its generous support and especially the Executive Director, Dennis Langley, for his support and guidance. The research objective was to identify emerging market opportunities for mechanical contractors in the new water efficiency marketplace. Droughts in 2009 throughout the southern tier of the United States, especially pronounced in the entire state of California, lend a special urgency to reducing water use in the built environment. We believe that mechanical contractors are well positioned to take advantage of emerging water-efficiency opportunities in both new and existing commercial, institutional and industrial (CII) buildings. This research project includes mention of responses to extreme and unprecedented drought conditions in Australia, which may become more relevant to conditions in the Southwest and Southeast in the coming years. In Australia, a mature economy has had to reduce water use by 50 percent or more in all major cities in a very short period of time. While the great bulk of water use still takes place in agriculture and industry, cities are facing the brunt of water shortages in many regions, for a combination of institutional, legal, political and economic reasons. In our research, we also examined water conditions in Western Europe and identified emerging technologies in gray water recycling and rainwater harvesting, both of which are well developed in the European context, especially in Germany. Jerry Yudelson attended OZ WATER 09, the Australian water industry s largest annual meeting, held this year in Melbourne and met with engineers and water industry leaders there. In June 2009, Jerry attended the annual meeting of the German Sustainable Building Council, Consense 09, in Stuttgart and met with water industry leaders and technology providers there. In March of 2009, Jerry attended the Water EC conference in Newport Beach, California, to look at domestic technology suppliers. In addition, Yudelson Associates sent a further call in the spring of 2009 for information to 15 commercial officers of European, Israeli and Australian governments, receiving varying degrees of information about water technology providers exporting products to the U.S. Finally, this research project interviewed 15 industry leaders suggested by MCERF and by our own investigation. Appendix 1 identifies the people interviewed for this project. 5

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11 2.0 The Current Market Situation 2.1 Water Use in the U.S. The U.S. uses approximately 400 billion gallons of water per day (gpd), as follows: 2 48 percent thermoelectric power generation 34 percent agricultural irrigation 12 percent is water used in and around buildings, from both public water supplies and wells (about 47 billion gallons per day) 5 percent is used for industrial applications The remaining 1 percent is used for livestock, aquaculture, and mining. One note: most of the water use for power generation is withdrawals from streams and lakes; it s not consumptively used (evaporated), but water temperature increases in the power plant cooling process. In this report, the concern is primarily with the 47 billion gpd of building water use, about 12 percent of total U.S. building water withdrawals. In commercial buildings, Figure 1 shows how end-uses of water are distributed among many building types. To reinforce the connection between energy use and water demand, note that cooling towers tend to dominate water use in larger buildings such as hospitals and office buildings, while landscape water use is high in schools, hotels and Figure 1. Commercial Building End Uses of Water. Courtesy of Environmental Building News; Data from American Water Works Association

12 office buildings. As one would expect, kitchen water use is a high percentage of the total in restaurants and hotels The Water Century We interviewed 15 market participants for this report, some suggested by MCERF, some through referrals and others through Yudelson Associates contact network. This report provides a sampling of viewpoints by some of the leading players in the water efficiency space. Water is a renewable but finite resource, dependent on rainfall that is highly variable in most locations as to annual and seasonal occurrences. Groundwater is typically subject to overdrafts in most places in the U.S., and summer stream flows are less each year as warming winter and spring temperatures melt the snowpack earlier in the year, especially in the West. Add to that, a population expected to grow 36 percent in the U.S. by , environmental protection regulations to preserve water flows for endangered fish and wildlife, increasing consumptive use of water for electric power production and notoriously inefficient agricultural irrigation practices, and one begins to see why the 21 st century may very well become the water century, just as the 20 th century was really the oil century, in terms of the importance of the commodity to the economy and everyday life. Unlike oil, however, water use is subject to laws, customs, rules and regulations deriving from our agricultural past and is not really a fungible commodity in national and international commerce. Hence, the need for water conservation, water efficient technologies and new water sources as a way to extend supplies until the institutional context catches up The Importance of Water Conservation As in Coleridge s poem, the lament of the Ancient Mariner, Water, water, everywhere, nor any drop to drink, is echoed in many parts of the world but fortunately not yet in this country. However, looming water shortages in certain parts of the country, such as the Southwest and West, add urgency to the design of water conservation systems for buildings and developments. In addition, many are becoming aware of the water/energy nexus, the link between energy use and water use: in the West, about half the water use goes for the cooling needs of thermal (mostly coal) electric power plants. 6 In other words, as the West s population grows and electricity demand increases, water supplies come under accessed May 19, Population growth projection from 309 million in 2010 to 420 million in 2050 (a rate of 0.77 percent annually). Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Summary Table 1a, accessed August 16, Note to the reader: don t hold your breath! 6 Personal communication, Michael Hightower, Sandia National Laboratories, August 28, 2009.

13 double the pressure. Nationwide, freshwater use for power production amounts to about 200 billion gallons per day. The overall U.S. building stock will be 75 percent new or renovated in 2035, compared with 2005, with all of the implications that has for energy use. 7 By starting now, we can dramatically reduce overall water use for buildings, landscaping and neighborhoods by employing aggressive strategies to reduce consumption of potable water, following the mantra Reduce, reuse, recycle. Water conservation in buildings involves first reducing fixture demand, from conventional toilets using 1.6 gallons per flush (gpf) to low-flow toilets using 1.28 gpf (a 20 percent reduction), then to lower-flows at 1.12 gpf (a 30 percent reduction). We can reduce the use of water for flushing urinals dramatically by using waterfree or ultra-low-flow urinals. We can reuse gray water (wastewater from sinks and showers, for example) for flushing toilets, and we can use onsite wastewater treatment in buildings to provide recycled water for such uses as toilet flushing and cooling tower makeup water. We can use both gray water and municipally treated wastewater for landscape irrigation, as well as reducing water demand through xeriscaping strategies. The key is to manage the entire water cycle, starting with what s free (rainfall) and trying to get as many uses out of that water as possible. For example, if one could reuse 80 percent of all water used in flushing toilets, the same water could be used five times. Even in a low-rainfall climate, this measure could have a major impact on water use. Because rainfall varies in the U.S. from 8 to 12 inches per year in the desert regions to 36 inches in such places as Portland and Chicago, to nearly 50 inches in Orlando, it s important to look at each project s local water resources as a starting point for developing design strategies. The economics of water pricing in urban areas favors looking at the full system costs, including meter charges and connection fees. Reclaiming all the rainwater from a site, so that no storm-sewer connection is needed, can often result in savings that are greater than the cost of rainwater catchment and treatment. 8 The same holds for onsite sewage treatment, particularly if the treated wastewater can be used for toilet flushing, cooling-tower make-up water and irrigation without ever leaving the project site. Why not take a more detailed and expansive look at the opportunities for 40 percent, or better, water conservation (compared with building code minimums) in your next project? 2.4 Water is the Next Big (Green) Thing According to Andy Kruse of mechanical contractor LJ Kruse in Berkeley, CA, 9 7 Source: Architecture 2030, org. 8 Author s experience working in the engineering field in Portland, Oregon. 9 Interview with Andy Kruse, April

14 Probably the greatest growth [we see] is in the installation and/or replacement of fixtures with water-conserving fixtures such as low-flow toilets, low-flow urinals, and waterless urinals. We use them in all of our new construction work, especially if it s a LEED project. In the state of California, [the state building and energy code] Title 24 mandates those types of water-conserving fixtures, but we usually go an extra step and put in one-pint urinals, using the 1/8 th -gallon urinal by Zurn. Water Conservation vs. Water Efficiency John Koeller makes a good point about the need to distinguish between water conservation, which refers to total water use reductions and water-efficiency technologies such as lower-flow fixtures. Some water efficient fixtures won t necessary yield lower water use if people use them more; this is a behavioral phenomenon frequently observed: if you think you re driving a fuel-efficient vehicle, you might be tempted to drive more. If you have a solar water heater, you might take longer showers because you think the heating energy is free. Koeller says, 10 Using the term water conservation without also covering water efficiency is like only dealing with half the opportunities. The accepted thing in the field is that water efficiency (or energy efficiency) deals with products, systems and technologies that function using less of the resource whether it s energy or water. Conservation has to do with how people use that resource. In other words, you can buy a compact fluorescent light bulb that s energy efficient, but if you leave it on 24 hours a day, everyday, that s not practicing conservation [behavior] so [the results are] not energy conservation. The difference is one has to do with products, technologies, equipment and systems and the other has to do with how people use those systems. When people say water conservation, they re talking about people who maybe water their lawn less or run larger loads in the dishwasher or turn off the tap while they re brushing their teeth. It s got nothing to do at all with buying and using an efficient product. This is a good distinction to keep in mind as we review water-efficiency products, systems and technologies in this report. 2.5 Market Adoption of Water Conservation The relative importance of water conservation has increased as a topic among green Interview with John Koeller, Koeller & Co., May 2009.

15 building professionals. As energy efficiency measures become more widely adopted the green industry has begun shift its focus to water conservation issues. This is shown by an increased emphasis given to water in the U.S. Green Building Council s LEED 2009 rating systems; for example, in 2009, available water points increased from about 5 percent of total points to 14 percent in the LEED for Existing Buildings Operations & Maintenance (LEED-EBOM) system. A recent survey found that 85 percent of real estate professionals believe that water efficiency will be a very important aspect of green building in 2013, compared to 69 percent saying that it was in Early adopters of new water conservation technologies are building owners and occupants, with 42 percent of owners reporting that more than three-quarters of their projects have water-efficient practices in their design. This compares with only 28 percent of architecture and design firms and 20 percent of contractors. Explanation: Owner/occupiers have likely inflated the owners adoption figure due to the utility cost saving they have already been motivated to pursue. 2.6 Driving Forces to Use Water-Efficient Products and Methods We have said that water is becoming an increasing concern for the built environment. What are some of the driving forces? Table 1 shows some of them, in order of importance. Table 1. Driving Forces for Water Efficiency Driving Force 1. Water shortages/droughts in many states 2. Incentive programs for efficient fixtures 3. Green certification programs such as LEED 4. Rising cost of water supplies and sewage treatment 5. Stakeholder concern over water issues; political and regulatory changes Importance Very important for short-run conservation Important in cities that offer such programs Important for those project pursuing LEED certification, especially LEED- EBOM Economic gain is still the most effective motivator; higher water costs lead to fixture retrofits A weak motivator in most situations, except where regulations require new technology 11 McGraw-Hill Construction, 2009, Water Use in Buildings: Achieving Business Performance Benefits through Efficiency, accessed August 18,

16 According to the survey report cited above, for some users concern over future climate changes and the possibility of future governmental regulations will drive adoption of new water technologies. Many building owners and facility managers are becoming aware that the built environment, both residential and nonresidential, is a significant contributor to climate changes, with buildings contributing 38 percent of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions each year. 12 Rising water scarcity in some regions is leading engineers and architects to design new buildings with reduced water demands. A larger concern among building owners might be risk management and risk mitigation, especially prevalent with concern over energy use in buildings. In the survey cited above, 87 percent said that energy use reduction was a motivator for water conservation (even though there s not a direct correlation between the two except for cooling towers), 84 percent cited operating cost reduction, while 79 percent cited directly their motivation to reduce water use. Higher costs for water and energy were the primary trigger for water conservation, especially the adoption of conservation pricing (increasing block rates) by municipal water providers. Water rates are increasing in many metropolitan areas because of inflation, drought and growing demands on a finite infrastructure. Some water agencies are raising rates to compensate for reduced demand during the present Great Recession. For example, the city of Tucson, Arizona increased rates by 10 percent in June of In light of the pressure for developing new onsite water sources, there is growing concern about public health implications of rainwater and gray water reuse, even in toilet flushing, as well as problems that might crop up with reduced water flows in commercial fixtures. In the plumbing trade, the latter is referred to as the drainline transport problem. 14 In announcing a research effort to study the impact of lower flows on solids removal, the industry said: 15 Recently, the need to find additional efficiencies on water consuming plumbing fixtures has resulted in the creation of voluntary specifications that eliminate another 20 percent from the flush discharge volume of water closets, bringing consumption down to a maximum average of 1.28 gpf. These toilets are known as High Efficiency Toilets (HETs). Some water closet manufacturers are now voluntarily offering models that flush at 1.0 gpf. This activity has rightfully raised the debate of drainline carry efficacy anew. Many plumbing experts are concerned that we are at or approaching a tipping point where a significant U.S. DOE, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2002, October accessed August 18, See for example, the new Plumbing Efficiency Research Coalition announcement, org/newsroom/prdetail.cfm?itemnumber=6940&navitemnumber=534, accessed August 18, Plumbing Industry Research Coalition, press release, February 18, 2009, org/newsroom/prdetail.cfm?itemnumber=6940&navitemnumber=534, accessed October 13, 2009.

17 number of sanitary waste systems will be affected by drainline transport problems, especially in larger commercial systems that have long horizontal runs to the sewer. Recently, drainline transport problems in Europe and Australia have been reported, further raising concerns. Looking forward, newer technologies, such as non-water consuming and High Efficiency Urinals (HEUs), lower-flow-rate faucets and increasingly efficient water consuming appliances will further reduce the amount of water discharged into sanitary waste systems. Here we see at work the well known Law of Unintended Consequences, which leads to one of my favorite adages: you can t change a system without putting another system in its place. In this case, it s clear that a single-minded focus on reducing water use in buildings and homes could have significant repercussions on health and sewage flows. It s also clear that those focusing on reducing water use haven t yet thought through some of the other implications. For example, most sewer pipes are sloped below ground just enough to be self-scouring on their way to the sewage treatment plant and require a certain minimum flow for solids transport. If there s not enough flow, the solids will build up, and one can get hydrogen sulfide concentrations that are smelly and dangerous. For example, in 2008, the City of Tucson, Arizona, suspended its program of retrofitting low-flow toilets in older neighborhoods because of these concerns. 16 If there s one place you d think saving water would be a no-brainer, it would be the desert Southwest, but think again! Politics may wind up as the major driver, rather than the marketplace, particularly in drought-stricken areas and in jurisdictions with strong environmental constituencies. In the survey cited above, respondents ranked government regulations on wastewater runoff (69 percent) and mandates and incentives for water efficiency (67 percent) as key drivers over the next five years for saving water in buildings. Appendix 2 shows a representative range of such public agency programs, for selected cities in the U.S. Ike Casey of the Plumbing Heating Cooling Contractors national association agrees that politics is likely to be the driver and that the industry needs to be aware of potential problems, lest the plumbing contractor be left holding the bag for future problems: 17 I think low-flow toilets are going to be the big driver. The water efficiencies in toilets and urinals are going to be a big issue in our industry coming down 16 Low-flow toilets might be too effective, accessed August 18, Interview with Ike Casey, PHCC, April

18 the road because some states are already requiring it. California requires it. Washington made it a requirement [in April 2009]. Texas has a bill that pending to require high-efficiency toilets. This is a political issue for us because [HETs] don t work all the time. When your toilet doesn t work, you don t look on [the label] and call the manufacturer. You call the plumber. The plumber is the one that s left in the middle. We re concerned not about the toilet and the technology but the drainline because if that gets stopped up you re going to be upset at the cause of that, which is the high-efficiency toilet not having the proper water flow. That s going to be the biggest issue with the installation and requirements of highefficiency toilets and urinals across the country and the effect that those things are going have on efficient water flow through the drain lines. It s a potential problem. There are a lot of installations where it works fine and it works fine in the laboratory. If a two-story building, for example, calls for high-efficiency toilets but has an old existing drainline, there s a lot of potential for problems. When you put in a drainline a lot of times you have elbows and bends, so it s really a paper problem more than anything else. IAPMO s Russ Chaney echoes similar concerns, saying: 18 The other primary concern and it s a very vital concern, one that really hasn t been studied to a great extent, with what we call low-flow plumbing fixtures or high-efficiency plumbing fixtures, where drainage lines on what we call the sanitary side of the systems have all been designed to date to handle a certain flow rate. In other words, when you introduce low-flow urinals or low-flow toilets, they flush with a much lower flow rate than has traditionally been used. As a consequence, we ve not yet experienced a higher rate of stoppages or other circumstances that result from the introduction of a much lower flow rate. So we re now coming to terms that we have to deal with the fact that we re introducing lower flow volumes into the sanitary side of our systems and we re just now undertaking some studies to understand the long-term impact that it has on the sanitation side. We call that potential dry drains. It doesn t always mean dry drains but it means that we re putting less water into the system and as a consequence, if the pipe isn t sloped properly, you ll end up having conditions where the solids from the use of toilets will clog the drain lines because you re not getting that flow of water that washes them away Interview with Russ Chaney, IAPMO, April 2009.

19 2.7 EPA s WaterSense Brand Launched in 2006, WaterSense is a voluntary partnership program launched by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to designate product and services that conserve water and perform as intended. WaterSense is a registered trade/service mark of the EPA. The WaterSense label is used on toilets and faucets that are certified by an independent testing laboratory testing to meet rigorous criteria for both performance and efficiency. From its inception, EPA has encouraged industry manufacturers and practitioners to partner with the EPA to ensure the ongoing efficiency, performance, credibility of WaterSense certified products. 19 WaterSense current rates the following product categories: 20 Bathroom sink faucets Flushing urinals (must use less than 0.5 gpf) High-efficiency toilets -HETs (must use 20 percent less water than current code) Pre-rinse spray valves (for commercial kitchens) 2.8 Building Code Changes Building codes are primarily designed to protect public health and safety, not to pursue environmental objectives. There is quite a movement among code authorities to broaden the reach of codes to include reuse of onsite water. Here are two examples, from leading code authorities in this field, the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) and the International Code Council (ICC). IAPMO is producing a Green Code Supplement which will be out toward the end of 2009 or the early part of 2010 that will include greatly enhanced requirements for water efficiency including gray water recycling, high-efficiency plumbing fixtures not just toilets but lavatories, sinks, showers, bathtubs, urinals. 21 ICC is working with the American Institute of Architects and ASTM to develop an International Green Construction Code (IGCC) first draft by sometime in The ICC code will be a model code, adaptable by local jurisdictions. It will apply to traditional commercial and high-performance buildings and be consistent and coordinated with the ICC family of codes and standards, including the International Plumbing Code. The IGCC will be applicable to the construction of buildings, structures and systems, including alterations and additions and will be designed with the leading rating systems in mind. The IGCC will address residential construction by reference to the ICC 700 National Green Building Standard for Residential Construction For a list of EPA WaterSense partners, see accessed August 18, accessed August 18, Interview with Russ Chaney, Executive Director, International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials, April accessed August 18,

20 Jonathan Gray is a plumbing engineer and engineering firm principal who has led the charge in Oregon for adapting codes for onsite water recovery and reuse. He is also Vice Chair at present of the Oregon State Plumbing Board. He relates: Here in Oregon, we ve changed the gray water reuse code and methods. You can drink your rainwater in Oregon in your private house. I m vice-chair of the state plumbing board, and we ve worked really hard to change a lot of these things to make it easier. You can harvest gray water on a commercial project, treat it and use it to flush toilets. There s no appeal necessary all you have to do is follow the requirements for the alternate method. In doing so, it s really a different perspective for people in America to not have potable water hooked up to their toilets. A lot of people say, My cat drinks from the toilet. It s one of those things where I feel that we just need to change our perception. 23 Changing codes to promote onsite water recovery and reuse systems can be a long-term effort, according to Gray. In Oregon, it took about five years to get everyone on board. East Coast architects will tell you that every city and county has their own regulations or own interpretation of the state regs. They asked me, How did you get this done? You have to start at the state level. You have to get the movement from the state to where you have conformity [of approach], and everybody conforms to those interpretations and [so that you can] keep all of the horses in the same corral. That s hard to do. That s what helped Oregon move ahead so fast. Five years is actually quite a long time, but what we ve done over the past five years as far as the codes and the last two years with the gray water and rainwater reclaimed system has been leaps and bounds [ahead of everyone else.] It s a pretty big ship to try to turn around Interview with Jonathan Gray, CPD, Interface Engineering, May 2009.

21 3.0 Opportunities for Mechanical Contractors Mechanical contractors need to have a place at the table and a strong orientation in favor of water conserving fixtures and onsite water recovery systems. It s important to stay ahead or on pace with the design, construction and ownership community and contribute to the initial projects that define a new paradigm for water conservation design and implementation. With respect to benchmarks and standards, contractors need to engage in the process of how water efficiency standards will be set, implemented and achieved, much as Jon Gray did in Oregon. In the McGraw-Hill survey cited above, 91 percent of industry experts surveyed expect that the pace of adoption of water-efficient products and practices will be steady or rapid, with 34 percent expecting growth to be rapid. Early industry adopters are likely to be office and government buildings with 68 percent of industry practitioners who own or work on office buildings expecting to see rapid adoption and 50 percent of industry practitioners who own or work on government buildings expecting rapid adoption. 3.1 Water in Green Buildings Beginning in 2009, the U.S. Green Building Council s LEED rating system now requires a 20 percent reduction in water use as a prerequisite for project certification, in all rating systems. The fastest growing LEED rating system is now LEED for Existing Buildings Operations & Maintenance (LEED-EBOM), with growth of more than 40 percent in the number of projects registering for LEED-EBOM certification (1000 new projects), just from March through July of Since all of these projects need to meet the more stringent water use goals of LEED, mechanical contractors should have a ready market for their services in LEED registered projects. 25 Water Efficiency in LEED-EBOM LEED-EBOM awards up to 14 points for water efficiency attainments, and a project can also attain additional bonus points for exemplary performance and for meeting regionally significant water-use reduction targets. Water is emerging as the next big environmental concern for two reasons: one is the relative scarcity of freshwater resources around the world, especially in the context of global warming and increasing world population. The second reason is that the process of capturing, storing, transporting, distributing, and treating water is a large net consumer of significant amounts of electric power. 26 While the majority of water use is still in agriculture 24 USGBC staff data, compiled monthly, supplied to the author. 25 All LEED registered projects are in a searchable database. See accessed August 16, accessed July 10,

22 and industry, urban water resources are often constrained by aging infrastructure, population growth, and fast-rising costs. For example, wholesale water prices in southern California are projected to double between 2008 and LEED-EBOM Water Efficiency Prerequisite LEED-EBOM contains one Water Efficiency category prerequisite: a project must reduce water use 20 percent below the LEED baseline. What does that mean? The baseline is a calculated number that assumes that all building fixtures meet the 2006 editions of the Uniform or International Plumbing Codes. 28 The baseline is adjusted upward 20 percent from the code limits for buildings completed in 1993 or later and 60 percent for older buildings. For example, assume that one owns a building opened in 1990, with 100 water closets flushing at 3.5 gallons per flush (gpf). The current code is 1.6 gallons per flush, and the baseline would be the equivalent of 2.56 gpf (1.6 gpf times 1.6 baseline adjustment). So you d have to reduce water use by about 27 percent to meet the prerequisite. That means you d have to change out roughly 50 percent of the toilets with fixtures that met the new codes (94 gallons required savings divided by 1.9 gallons per fixture savings). Typically, at today s water rates in most cities, one would make money doing this, since future water savings would more than pay for the costs of the upgrade. Table 2. LEED-EBOM Water Efficiency Credits and Points Credit Points 1. Water Performance Measurement Whole Building or Sub-Metering 1 to 2 2. Indoor Plumbing Fixture and Fitting Efficiency 1 (at least 10% below baseline) to 5 (30% below baseline) 3. Water-Efficient Landscaping 1 (50% below calculated baseline) to 5 (100% below baseline) 4. Cooling Tower Water Management 1 (chemical management via conductivity) and 1 (>50% nonpotable makeup water) Total Available Points Up to 14 (plus additional credits for exemplary performance in category 2) LEED-EBOM Credit Requirements Table 2 shows how LEED-EBOM allocates points among various water issues. There are 4 credits and 14 total available points in this section. Most projects should be able to get accessed July 10, uan9523 3, accessed July 10, 2009.

23 five to seven of these points with minimal cost addition. Metering and Sub-metering For this LEED credit especially, one might say, what gets metered, gets managed. If a building isn t metered for water use, there s little hope of justifying water use reductions. Of course, for most commercial and institutional buildings (except perhaps in campus settings), there is at least a whole building meter. If one additionally provides sub-meters for at least 80 percent of the total water use of one major water-using subsystem such as irrigation, indoor fixtures, domestic hot water, or process loads (dishwashers, clothes washers, pools, etc.), then the project can earn two points in this section. 29 If cooling towers, a major water user, are to be sub-metered to earn this point, then LEED requires all of the towers to be metered. Depending on the nature of the building, the management team might decide to measure one or more of the subsystems. If there is gray water recovery and treatment or rainwater harvesting and reuse, then those subsystems can be monitored instead of others. Monitoring two or more subsystems can earn another point for exemplary performance. What are the costs and benefits of sub-metering? Costs include installing meters that may cost between $400 and $1,100, according to the Los Angeles Bureau of Sanitation. 30 There are also personnel costs for data logging, tracking, and meter maintenance. Whether you gain a net water savings depends a great deal on how the local water utility charges for sewage treatment. For instance, in its billing practices, the Los Angeles Bureau of Sanitation assumes that 90 percent of delivered water to a commercial customer is discharged to the sewer. The Bureau recommends that commercial customers should determine the percentage of discharge to the sewer if it is higher than 90 percent of their delivered water their total utility bill may even go up with sub-metering. 31 Benefits might include savings on water utility costs, leak detection (see what you re using vs. what you re paying for) and reducing overall use through direct billing. From Australia comes an interesting approach to sub-metering that might work for larger users, such as industrial plants. Andrew Forster-Knight of Melbourne s South East Water public utility reports: Utility Services (a division of South East Water in Melbourne) have developed the Hydroshare web-based monitoring system for large industrial users. We have currently got this system installed at over 500 sites across Australia 29 LEED Reference Guide, p accessed August 19, Ibid. 19

24 monitoring water meters and sending the trends directly to the web to help customers visualize their water usage at a level never before seen and also allow them to better manage their consumption. The system has no geographical barriers as the technology it uses can tap into the Internet from any country and send the data back to our hosting servers. We have the units running in Europe (Austria) as well as New Zealand. The units we install on a user s water meter are designed and manufactured in Melbourne and have a 5- to 10-year battery life. They require no external power and can plug into any existing water meter (as long as it has a pulse output, which 95 percent of old ones do). We think this would be a great solution to help conserve water for companies in the U.S., just as it has helped saved millions of liters of water here in Australia. 32 Water Use for Irrigation The tie-in between sustainable site management and reducing potable water use for irrigation should be clear. By planting native and/or adapted vegetation, a project should be able to reduce potable water use for landscaping maintenance as well as reduce pesticide/herbicide use and increase natural habitat. By calculating a baseline use for irrigation using regional averages, a project can demonstrate its level of wateruse reduction. Of course, if the native plantings are well established already, it may be possible to reduce use by 87.5 percent (achieving 4 LEED-EBOM points) or even 100 percent (5 points). Notice that LEED requirements address only potable water use (including well water), so if a building is capturing and treating gray water or rainwater from the building, the owner can work with a landscape contractor to make it available for reuse in irrigation, so that the project can still meet the 100 percent reduction requirement by relying solely on those sources. 33 Water Use for Plumbing Fixtures In commercial applications, there is a range of acceptable high-efficiency toilets (HETs) that reduce water use 20 to 30 percent from the conventional 1.6-gallons-per-flush (gpf) toilet, down to 1.28 or even 1.12 gpf. There are many brands on the market of both waterfree and low-water urinals (i.e., those using 1 to 4 pints per flush) to reduce water use 50 to 100 percent below that of the standard 1-gpf urinal. Most of the building managers we interviewed for this book prefer the low-water using urinals, shown in Figure 2, reasoning that they have fewer code-compliance problems, less maintenance, Personal communication, Andrew Forster-Knight, South East Water, July 2009, 33 Ibid., p. 101.

25 and possibly fewer odor concerns. They still deliver most of the water savings of a waterfree urinal: a 1-pint-per-flush urinal will save about 87 percent of water use compared with a standard urinal. (There s a lot of fluidity in the sanitary fixture business today, so these judgments are subject to change.) Saving 35 percent of fixture water use against the LEED baseline will yield an additional point for exemplary performance. Consider a building constructed in 1985, which still has the original conventional fixtures (such as 3.5-gpf toilets) from that period. The LEED baseline is 160 percent of current code; saving 35 percent against that baseline is equivalent to simply installing all new fixtures that meet current codes! In this case, one would do a good thing, save money and water, and get six LEED points, plus possibly another for Regional Priority credits, particularly in the more arid parts of the country. All of a sudden, you realize that water efficiency upgrades could easily provide major benefits for LEED certification and pay for themselves in almost every case. 3.2 Water Audits and Performance Contracting There are also third-party energy service companies (ESCOs) that will pay for the entire water conservation installation and take their return from the savings on your water bill. Here s how one such company describes its approach. Mark Morello Figure 2. The 1-pint-per-flush urinal seems to be emerging as the consensus way to save almost 90 percent of the water used by conventional urinals, while still looking and working like a standard fixture. Courtesy of Zurn Industries, LLC. is president of Infinity Water Management based in Florida. 34 He says: We do what s called performance contracting. Everything we do has to pay for itself in savings. If we go in and do a project, the utility savings from water and energy pays for the project. If there s no payback, we don t have a project. We re taking toilets that have anywhere from 3.5 to 5 to 7 gallons per flush and we re putting in anywhere from 1.6-gpf to a 1.28-gpf or a 1.12-gpf fixture, depending on the cost of the water in the area in which we re working. That gives us a little bit of flexibility in what we can put in. If we re working with a high water rate, we can use more expensive fixtures and equipment that is on the cutting edge. If the water rate 34 Interview with Mark Morello, May accessed May 28,

26 is not that high, we tend to use standard-handle flush-valve, 1.6-gallon toilets, for example. For Morello, the key is to perform a detailed water-use audit, using at least 3 years of data if it s available, and having at least the specific information on end-uses for 95 percent of water use, to figure out exactly where water use is coming from. This is a good approach for all building and facility managers to emulate. We look at the bills for the past 3 years and we ll determine with our proprietary map where all the water is going toilets, faucets, showers, urinals, pools, irrigation, etc. Once we determine where the water is going, we ll go in with our water-saving measures and determine how much water would be saved by changing them out with more efficient options and that gives the payback. Our payback is usually within 3 to 5 years. Morello says the quickest payback is to put 0.5-gpm (gallon per minute) spray aerators to replace 2.5-gpm aerators. The next quickest payback in older buildings is to replace the toilets. If there is a commercial kitchen, he likes to replace water-cooled icemakers and refrigeration/freezer units with air-cooled units to save water and improve overall energy efficiency. 3.3 Some Plumbing Retrofits are Harder to Get Done Of course not everything in the water-fixture retrofit business is so easy. Wade Lange is vice president of property management for Ashforth Pacific in Portland, Oregon, which owns Liberty Centre, a 17-story Class A office tower situated in the heart of Portland s Lloyd District, with about 277,000 square feet of office space (Figure 3). Lange and his staff worked hard for more than 2 years to get a LEED-EB v.2.0 Silver rating. As for the plumbing fixtures, Lange says: 35 We replaced all of the [toilet] flush-values so they were low-flow. There was an investment there in materials and we did it in-house. We had to have the low-flush valves because we couldn t qualify [for the LEED prerequisite] without them. The building was built [in 1997] with low-flush valves, but they didn t work [because of low water pressures issues] and were taken out early on. So we had to go back and put in what was originally there. The staff came up with a fix to the low-flow issue; now it works and we re saving a lot of water as a result Interview with Wade Lange, April 2009.

27 The lesson here is obvious; some of this retrofit stuff is pretty technical, and owners really need to know their building. In this case, there was a virtue of having an in-house engineering staff that is committed to tackling and solving problems such as those described above. For other building owners, it may be useful to have a mechanical contractor conduct an entire building water utilization audit, to determine the most costeffective retrofits. Water Use in Cooling Towers Most of those energy-using chillers have an associated cooling tower that uses water evaporation as part of the process. The average water use is 3-gpm per ton of cooling. 36 A large commercial building with 1000 tons of refrigeration will use 3000 gallons per Figure 3. Liberty Centre was completed in 1997 and achieved LEED-EB Silver certification in Over a 2-year period, the LEED- EB certification project helped cut building energy use by nearly 16 percent and water use by 9 percent. Courtesy of Ashforth Pacific. minute of water. Consider that the average household might use 300 gallons per day, 37 and you can see the dimensions of the issue. Texas-based water expert Bill Hoffman believes that not enough people realize how much of the total water use of a large commercial building comes from wet cooling processes in cooling towers. 38 The area that has a lot of potential is the area dealing with thermodynamic processes cooling towers and boilers. First of all it will be about getting people to realize that the water costs for cooling towers are actually going up faster than electric costs. If you look at the last eight years of the Consumer Price Index from the U.S. Department of Commerce, you ll see that the cost for water and wastewater has gone up 1.45 times faster than electricity costs. This is very important because in the South and Southwest, for those buildings that typically have cooling towers, the cooling tower can be one- 36 LEED Reference Guide, p accessed May 28, Interview with Bill Hoffman, June

28 third to one-half the water use for the whole building. That includes plumbing, landscape irrigation and everything else all thrown together. I recently worked on a hospital in Florida where 43 percent of the water use for the hospital went to cooling towers; in a building in Austin, Texas, the water for cooling towers was 49 percent. This is in an office building that has modern fixtures such as 1.6-gallon flush toilets. In California, a study done on grocery stores with cooling towers found that approximately 40 to 45 percent of all of the water use went to the cooling towers. Those are huge numbers when you re looking in the commercial sector. Applying good technology to make sure that you re achieving the best cooling tower operations is going to be very important in the future. The other thing that s going to be very important is to take a hard look at the overall cost benefit analysis life-cycle-costing of dry versus wet cooling. Wet cooling in cooling towers is typically more energy-efficient in many cases. However, new technologies are coming on now such as the variable-refrigerantvolume systems from Mitsubishi, Sanyo and Dyson of Japan. These are dry systems that are more efficient than the old systems that we find in many facilities. I think as you go back and look at the overall total life-cycle costing, you ll find that the cross-over point when you use dry cooling as opposed to wet cooling is changing and it s changing fairly rapidly. Mechanical contractors can use this type of information to educate building owners and facility managers about the importance of changing their approach to cooling tower design and operations to focus much more on the water use in the HVAC system, something that typically is not discussed as much as the water use in building fixtures. There is one point in LEED-EBOM for supplying at least 50 percent of the cooling tower makeup water from non-potable sources such as harvested rainwater, harvested gray water, swimming pool filter flush, municipal reclaimed water, and other sources. If you supply at least 95 percent of cooling tower makeup water this way, there is an additional LEED point for exemplary performance. LEED also rewards careful water management that reduces the required amount of cooling tower makeup water. 39 This is an area that mechanical contractors should excel in, so be prepared to bring these recommendations forward to any building owner contemplating a LEED-EBOM project. While small in the overall picture, recovering cool water from air-conditioning condensate would be a good practice for most commercial buildings. Using non-potable sources for cooling tower makeup can improve water efficiency. Air-conditioning Makeup water is fed into a cooling tower system to replace water lost through evaporation, wind drift, bleed-off or other causes, LEED Reference Guide, p. 500.

29 condensate is a prime source because it is generally as clean or cleaner than rainwater, gray water, and process water; and it is cold, providing additional efficiency gains. 40 In large commercial buildings, condensate can supply a significant portion of makeup water for cooling towers. The Rivercenter Mall in downtown San Antonio uses a condensate recovery system. The system captures condensate water from four large air handlers that produce 250 gallons (950 liters) of condensate per day. This innovative system earned the 2003 WaterSaver Leadership Award from the San Antonio Water System. 41 The condensate recovery system paid for itself in less than six months. 42 There is a credit for retrofitting cooling towers with condensate recovery systems in the LEED for Existing Buildings Operations and Maintenance rating system. 43 According to one source, If condensate is being used only for cooling-tower makeup, the condensate can often be fed directly into the cooling tower without storage because condensate produced in a building will never exceed the evaporative losses from the cooling tower. This can reduce costs significantly. Condensate production is about 0.1 to 0.3 gallons per hour per ton of A/C and is highest in regions of the U.S. with high humidity during the cooling season. For a 100,000-sq.ft. building in San Antonio, TX, this would translate into production of about 50 gallons per hour while the cooling system is in operation. 44 Here s one marketing note: according to Bill Gauley of Veritec Consulting in Ontario, Canada, 45 Another opportunity for water reduction is related to cooling towers. It s been around for years and years where a lot of cooling towers are maintained by the same companies that provide the chemicals for the cooling towers, so there s very little incentive for these companies to increase the cycles of concentration and reduce the sales of chemicals. There s an opportunity to get third-party companies to come in and monitor the cooling towers and see if they can optimize cooling tower cycles of concentration and take it out of the hands of the companies that sell the chemicals. Water Efficiency in LEED for New Construction (LEED-NC) LEED-NC is still the flagship rating system for the USGBC. In 2008, 4,750 new projects registered for LEED certification, an 80 percent increase over 2007 year-end totals. In the first half of 2009, 5,200 new projects had registered, more than a 100 percent 40 LEED Reference Guide for Green Building Operations & Maintenance, 2009 Edition, p accessed August 18, accessed August 18, LEED Reference Guide op.cit., p accessed August 18, Interview with Bill Gauley, June

30 increase over 2008 full-year totals, in just six months! 46 The two other major LEED rating systems, LEED for Core and Shell (a variety of new construction) and LEED for Commercial Interiors (for tenant improvements), while quite a bit smaller than LEED- NC in total numbers, continued to show impressive growth rates, increasing 32 percent over 2008 year-end totals and 38 percent, respectively. Clearly, the trend for green building continues to increase, even in this most difficult of economic times. How do the other LEED rating systems allocate points to water efficiency? Table 3 shows how water efficiency points are allocated in LEED 2009 rating systems other than LEED-EBOM. (All LEED rating systems now require a minimum 20 percent reduction in fixture water use, to qualify a project for certification.) Note that reductions are for potable water use, so that reusing gray water and rainwater, for example, can have a multiplier effect with efficient fixtures, by reducing the potable water requirements. Table 3. Water Efficiency Points Water Efficiency Points in LEED 2009 Rating Systems LEED for New Construction LEED for Core and Shell LEED for Commercial Interiors Prerequisite: 20% reduction in potable water use in fixtures 1. Reduction in potable water use for landscape irrigation 2. 50% Reduction in potable water use for sewage conveyance 3. 30% to 40% reduction in fixture water use Total available water efficiency points Yes Yes Yes 2 to 4 2 to 4 N/A 2 2 N/A 2 to 4 2 to 4 6 to 11 points U.S. Green Building Council data provided to the author. 26

31 4.0 Water Efficiency Technologies The purpose of this study is to identify new water efficiency technologies that might be of interest and create new business for mechanical contractors in the CII sector. There are many responses to the water supply crisis engulfing part of the U.S. in 2009, particularly in California: some involve creating new water supplies from desalting saline or brackish water; purchasing water saved by investing in irrigation water efficiencies; and reusing municipal wastewater. These approaches are beyond the scope of this report. Six areas offer immediate promise, in both new and commercial buildings, as shown in Table 4. Some are well known and their use is beginning to accelerate, while others are just coming into general distribution. Table 4. New Water Technologies and Systems for Buildings Technology or System Uses Benefits or Drawbacks 1. Rainwater Harvesting Toilet/urinal flushing; cooling tower makeup 2. Gray water reuse Toilet/urinal flushing; site irrigation 3. Waterfree or ultralow-flow urinals 4. High-efficiency toilets (HET), typically 1.28 gpf or 1.12 gpf 5. Low-flow faucets and showerheads Replaces conventional urinals Replaces conventional toilets Replaces conventional faucets 6. Water sub-metering Establish use patterns; tenants pay actual use Needs same treatment as drinking water; seasonal supply; needs onsite storage; harder to re-plumb existing buildings Higher level of treatment required; constant supply source; harder to replumb existing buildings Possible drain line problems in older buildings; saves 87.5% to 100% of urinal water use Saves 10% to 20% of water use for toilet flushing; easy to retrofit Water saving; cost-effective; easy to retrofit May be costly to retrofit vs. benefits in many buildings 4.1 Rainwater Harvesting One favorite green building technology is rainwater harvesting: the capture, treatment and use of rainwater for uses inside the building such as toilet flushing and coolingtower makeup water (to replace water lost by evaporation and back-flushing). This is such a simple and obvious thing to do in much of the country that one wonders why it has taken so long to be considered as a viable new water supply. In addition to water conservation, rainwater harvesting can help reduce stormwater runoff from building sites. Figure 4 shows a simple rainwater harvesting system installed in Tacoma, 27

32 Washington, for a new police facility, built on the site of a former big box warehouse store. Imagine even a modest half-inch rainfall on a 24,000-square-foot roof. That event will generate 1,000 cubic feet, or about 7,500 gallons, of free water. In a climate like the Pacific Northwest, or anywhere that receives light rainfall a good part of the year, this system could be quite productive. Assuming one could collect 80 percent of an annual rainfall of 35 inches, one would harvest about 420,000 gallons for reuse each year. Basic treatment with a sand filter and ultraviolet light would make it suitable for toilet flushing and similar non-potable uses. Nothing could be simpler, except that you can expect to pay $20,000 to $50,000 for such a system, and it s not in most new building budgets. But that may not be the end of the story. Many urban areas have quite expensive charges for storm-drain hookups. The author knows of cases where the impact fees or system development charges that are avoided by a 100 percent rainwater reclamation system were greater than the total cost of the rainwater collection and treatment system. In that case, a building owner is money ahead to install it. In one California university project, just the cost of installing the storm drainage to take water off the site and to connect to the town s storm drains was greater than installing two 20,000-gallon tanks to hold runoff from the 100-year rainfall event and provide toilet flushing for a good part of the year. 28 Figure 4. At the LEED Silver-certified Tacoma, WA, police vehicle maintenance facility, two 4,800-gallon culvert tanks collect rainwater and recycle it for toilet flushing. Courtesy of TCF Architecture, Tacoma

33 One caution: don t expect harvested rainwater to provide all of a site s needs, unless you are prepared to treat it to potable water standards and make that case to local code officials. In addition, the taller the building, the lower a percentage of annual needs the system will supply, because you ve only got one roof for collection purposes, but more toilet and sink fixtures for each added floor. Rainwater harvesting is a well-established technology in the residential sector (after all, our ancestors either had to depend on wells, streams, ponds or rainwater catchment for all their household needs.) Its use in the CII sector is fairly recent and certainly spurred on by the advent of the LEED system. Table 5 shows some of the practical issues involved in new and retrofit onsite water re-use applications. Table 5. Issues in New and Retrofit Applications of Onsite Water Re-Use 47 Issue New Retrofit Piping Built-in Cost effective Requires opening walls and possibly foundation changes Codes Built to code May require additional updates Systems Aesthetics Equipment Environmental Maintenance Integrated/working together Designed components; Components can be inside building State-of-the-art; Functional operations of building; Metering and water usage available Fully sustainable water savings Training in maintenance happens All separate systems with no connections Added and may look added not in original design; Tanks must remain outside/in basement, due to size New connecting to old, which may cause leaks or breaks; May not be as efficient and equipment may not matchup ; Meters may be too expensive to install as supply lines may not be easily metered Adding a sustainable element to a non-sustainable building may not help much Manager from existing system may be have less knowledge, need more training Jonathan Gray is a fan of rainwater harvesting for commercial buildings and was one of the early innovators in this field. 48 An early rainwater-harvesting project 47 Personal communication, Heather Kincaide, ASLA, Forgotten Rain LLC, July See for example, Taking the LEED in Water Conservation, by Jonathan Gray and Jerry Yudelson, March 2002, Consulting-Specifying Engineer, accessed August 18,

34 retrofit. 52 Mike Kotubey of Midwest Mechanical Contractors points out that rainwater Water Efficiency Technologies for Mechanical Contractors: New Business Opportunities was the Stephen E. Epler Hall residential building at Portland (OR) State University, a six-story dormitory that received a LEED Silver rating in This project is located in a stormwater quality area of the city, requiring rooftop drainage to be detained in a storage tank for a two-year intensity rainfall event. Rainwater is collected and drains into a 5,600-gallon tank. Over the course of the year, water is drained and refilled numerous times, and the captured rainwater is used without further treatment as reclaimed water for both flushing water closets and urinals in the first-floor public restrooms. As a further use of the rainwater, excess water is also pumped out of the storage tank and used for on-site irrigation. 49 While a typical rainwater harvesting system has been built from components, with collection/storage tank, treatment system, valves and pumps, Gray says: Many of the manufacturers like JR Smith have Zurn-packaged rainwater harvesting systems. 50 That s a great thing because we won t have to build a system anymore. One variant of rainwater harvesting systems, particularly in LEED projects, would be to combine the rainwater collection system with a green roof application. Mechanical designers and contractors interacting with green roofs also have had to come up with a number of innovative ways to handle roof runoff for both detention and retention purposes. An excellent resource for this purpose is the Texas Water Development Board s Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting, 51 as well as Heather Levario-Kincaide s more recent book, Design for Water (see bibliography). What s involved in a typical system? Some form of roof drainage, a collection and storage tank, a treatment system and a redistribution system. If you re going to flush toilets, you ll need a dual piping system, usually done only in a new building or major harvesting can be made easier with siphonic roof drains. 53 It s not really a water conservation product, but coupled with rainwater capture, the siphonic roof drain systems. 54 A conventional roof drain system is obviously dependent upon pitch so it consumes a lot of space in the ceiling and tends to be directional. You have to pick a spot and take it outside the building at that Ibid accessed August 18, accessed August 18, accessed August 18, Interview with Mike Kotubey, June See for example, accessed August 20, 2009.

35 one particular spot because of gravity drainage. A siphonic system allows you more flexibility. You re not as driven by pitch because it s really a nongravity system. You route it to multiple spots on the building and you re not dependent on as much ceiling space so it gives you a lot more flexibility to capture rainwater from the roof and direct it to an appropriate spot, internal or external to the building. Advantages, Selling Points and Benefits of to Rainwater Harvesting and Reuse In the broadest context, rainwater harvesting lessens demand on the municipal water supply. It saves money on water utility bills for the user. By reducing stormwater flows, it reduces the contamination of surface water from rainwater run-off, resulting in cleaner lakes, rivers, oceans and other stormwater receivers. Onsite stormwater detention can be used to recharge groundwater. It may increase equipment life; rainwater has low total dissolved solids (TDS) and so does not produce corrosion or scale like hard water found in many municipal supplies, particularly in the West. For LEED projects, collecting and reusing rainwater can help achieve multiple LEED rating system credit points within the categories of Water Use Reduction, Water Efficient Landscaping, Heat Island Effect and Stormwater Management. 55 In terms of what s becoming known as the energy/water nexus, according to the U.S. EPA, approximately 3 percent of total energy use in the U.S. goes to drinking water and wastewater treatment. By using non-potable water, which requires less treatment than potable water and by greatly decreasing the distance that water is transported, rainwater harvesting provides an energy-efficient systemic alternative to traditional water systems. Rainwater harvesting even reduces strain on an aging water supply infrastructure. 56 What s driving the renewed interest in rainwater harvesting? One goal is to reduce stormwater flows through rainwater roof collection and cisterns in urban settings. In some designs, the cisterns hold additional alternate water resources (gray water, condensate, cooling tower blow-down, etc.) along with the rainwater for uses beyond just landscape irrigation. Various alternate water sources are collected in the cistern, and often filtered and sanitized for use in flushing urinals and toilets throughout the building. 57 Rainwater harvesting may also be a rational economic responses to increasingly erratic seasonal and annual rainfall. For example, in spite of an average

36 annual rainfall of about 16 inches, in recent years, Los Angeles has experienced rainfall as low as 3 inches. By focusing on low-rise buildings that have a greater ratio of roof area (collection surface) to total water use, a greater annual percentage of total annual use can be supplied. In spite of these manifold benefits, some Western states still have 19 th Century water laws that prohibit or limit capturing rainfall for private use. For example, Colorado recently legalized limited rainwater harvesting, but much of Utah and Washington state still have widespread rainwater harvesting restrictions. 58 Washington allows rainwater harvesting only in a few areas, including Seattle and the San Juan Islands, where some residents have spent $50,000 or more on 10,000-gallon rain storage tanks and filtration systems. 59 To stay current with the different state laws and regulations, one can rely on the American Rainwater Catchment Systems Association s website as a resource. 60 Rainwater harvesting is of course a worldwide phenomenon. For example, national legislation in Belgium requires all new construction to have rainwater harvesting systems for the purposes of flushing toilets and supplying external water uses. The purpose of this legislation is twofold: to reduce demand for treated water and the expansion of the water supply infrastructure; and to collect and use rainwater instead of burdening local stormwater management systems. Bangalore is the first city in India to have a mandatory rainwater harvesting policy for new construction. With an average rainfall of 900 to 970 mm (36 to 39 ) over seven months, and an elevation of 900 meters above mean sea level (MSL), water has to be pumped in from reservoirs at 400 meters above MSL. Water is heavy, and pumping costs are enormous because electric power charges are quite expensive. 61 Market opportunities in the U.S. vary by building type and the availability of water demand that can accept non-potable water sources, which are approved in specific localities for potable use. According to the Alliance for Water Efficiency, restrooms, landscape irrigation and space conditioning (cooling and heating) account for 87 percent of the water use in schools and 89 percent of the water use in office buildings 62 In schools, rainwater harvesting systems also can be used as a teaching tool. Challenges and Lessons Learned Cost/benefit analysis of rainwater collection systems is not always favorable when Stephanie Simon. (2009, March 25). Currents: Out West, Catching Raindrops Can Make You an Outlaw. Wall Street Journal (Eastern Edition), p. A.14. Retrieved June 12, 2009, from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: ) accessed August 18, accessed August 18, 2009.

37 compared to most potable water prices. Even when a ten-year life-cycle-cost analysis is used in a rainy U.S. climate, the water collected over the ten years would cost approximately $4.55 per hundred cubic feet (CCF), two to four times local water prices, and this assumes the water is put to beneficial use and replacing potable water use. While it is true that the rainwater can be used to flush toilets, the added cost of equipment to convey the water to the toilets hampers overall cost-effectiveness. 63 Rainwater harvesting for in-the-building reuse is obviously much easier to integrate into new buildings, because it s easier to integrate the required dual-piping system and it may be possible even to reduce water meter size and/or avoid fees for hooking up to the storm or sanitary sewer. Many municipal water systems charge commercial users for both the meter size (equivalent to a capacity charge on an electricity bill) and for actual water use. In addition, many utilities charge for sewage treatment, based on water use, so the economics of displacing those charges may lower the payback to acceptable lengths. In existing buildings, the best use for harvested rainwater is landscape irrigation, since the rainwater is collected anyway at ground level and can be distributed without full treatment; it can also be pumped back to the roof for use as cooling tower makeup water, often a major water user in commercial and institutional buildings. Figure 5. Overview schematic of rainwater harvesting in Victoria, British Columbia, for the Dockside Green mixed-use project. Courtesy of Busby Perkins+Will accessed August 18,

38 When designing systems, it s important to match rainfall patterns to use patterns to minimize storage volumes. For example, on the West Coast, the November to May rainy season closely approximates the academic year, making rainwater recovery and reuse a natural fit for K-12 schools and colleges. There is also a need to find places to place 10,000-gallon to 50,000-gallon storage tanks, or groups of tanks. Sometimes, they can fit underneath ramps in underground parking garages or be buried under parking lots during site renovations. Figure 5 shows a typical rainwater collection system schematic. In this system, rainwater must be collected, diverted and flushed into a storage tank. There must be a system overflow valve, and then the water in the tank is treated before reuse. Regulatory Concerns Plumbing engineer Winston Huff of Nashville, TN-based Smith Seckman Reid, Inc., believes that the main issues are not technological but institutional: 64 The issue with rainwater, gray water or any kind of reuse water is not a technology issue right now. It s more of a process, a regulation and how the building is maintained and how it gets its permits. Plumbing engineers will design the systems and get involved in a project early on. An owner may decide to build a 20-floor office building, so they ll contact an architect and engineers. Usually the plumbing engineer is one of the first to come in and the owner will have a great scheme to build an office building with rainwater system but they don t know how big the tank needs to be and what type of piping is required and all. So they ll look to the plumbing engineer and say, Alright, design me a rainwater system. I say to our plumbing engineers, Before you spend anytime designing it and getting into the technology, you ve got to start asking [a lot of] questions, [and then get] to the regulatory people to see first of all if it s acceptable to do that. Costs of Rainwater Harvesting Systems The key costs in a rainwater harvesting system revolve around tanks, pumps and treatment system. Table 6 shows some of the costs involved; all numbers are approximate but include freight from the Midwest to Arizona. Other detailed cost estimates (Appendix 4) show a range of about $3.00 to $4.00 per gallon for larger commercial systems, including both site-built and modular systems Interview with Winston Huff, April 2009.

39 Table 6. Costs of Key Components of Rainwater Harvesting System, Including Installation 65 Project Item Cost 6000-gallon tank $18,000 Anchoring option $ 2,567 25,000 gallon tank (incl. oil/water separation) $66,500 With anchoring option $11,500 Pump with filter $20,000 Product Availability Many rainwater harvesting systems are engineered and custom designed from components, a job that most mechanical contractors can accomplish with a little experience installing these systems. There are packaged systems available, and Table 7 shows some of the units on the market at this time. Many of these units will work for both rainwater and gray water storage and re-use. A Skyharvester 20,000-gallon package is installed at UNUM Insurance in Chattanooga, TN. In that case, there is a commercial underground storage for a 100 percent irrigation system. The building uses 7,950 gallons per week. Drainage is collected off a 1.64-acre parking lot. The system required addition of an oil and grease separator and an in-tank filtration for grit separation. This was restricted to the left side of the tank as clean water was moved through the right side of irrigation distribution. 4.2 Gray Water Reuse Unlike rainwater, which is highly variable both year-to-year and seasonally within a year, gray water tends to be reliably present in most commercial environments. In a large office building, just the water from sinks can be significant on a daily basis, certainly enough to flush many toilets and urinals. In a hotel, there is almost a guaranteed flow of water from hotel guests and functions, so why purchase more potable water, when there is another supply that you ve already paid for? Gray water is generally defined as untreated wastewater that has not come into contact with toilet waste, kitchen sink waste, dishwasher waste or similarly contaminated sources. Gray water includes wastewater from bathtubs, showers, and bathroom washbasins, clothes washers and laundry tubs. This includes gray water from both residential and non-residential installations. The capture, treatment, and 65 Source: Quote from Watertronics, August

40 Table 7. Packaged Rainwater Harvesting Systems (Research by Heather Kinkade) Company Name System Name/ Number Size Cost Performance data Brac Systems (Canadian) Brac Greywater Recycling System Model CGW ,590 gallon capacity $7,500- $75,000 Commercial systems available. For toilets and irrigation. The model delivers up to 13,192 gals/hr at 71 psi. This is an all-in-one gray water system that can be used to capture rainwater. The system includes an in-ground holding tank, inground lift station, above-ground dual pressure filters, a water management processor with a dedicated pump, a VFD 15 hp constant pressure pumping system, pressure filter alarms, and an integrated monitoring and controller processor with built-in BMS functionality. ReWater Systems Inc. (California) The ReWater System Models RWAF4 and RWAF5 200 gallon surge tank no large storage tank included. $7,400 Commercial system for irrigation only. ReWater is a gray water system that can be used for rainwater capture. This supply system can also be engineered to back itself up with pressurized fresh water in case it runs out of stored rain, thereby assuring a permanent irrigation water supply. JR Smith Mfg. Co Seven possible packages Largest package is for a 5,500 sq. ft. roof. They do have components that can serve roofs up to 32,000 sq.ft. The packages include Vortex rainwater filter (downspout filter), overflow device, smoothing inlet, suction pump, float switch, floating filter, and a purification kit is optional. NO TANK INCLUDED Blue Ridge Atlantic Enterprises (BRAE) 7 to 10 possible packages Largest package includes storage tank for 6,000 gallons. They offer commercial system designs up to 500,000-gallon storage. They also offer educational systems. Includes a tank, tank liner, basket filter sign kit, flex couplers, pump, and screens. Kit ships complete with everything needed to build and maintain a rainwater system. 36

41 Bushman RW Systems 3 packages: the largest a slim-line 620 gallons They have tanks up to 6,500 gallons and equipment for larger systems but no package for larger systems. Watertronics Skyharvester Package 20,000 gallon This is a lager commercial package with a tank, pump, tank level controls, vortex filter, UL control panel, integration of irrigation controller if needed. No purification system. reuse of gray water not only yields usable water that would otherwise be directed to the sewer, its use on the landscape and for car washing is generally not subject to the typical watering restrictions that are sometimes imposed by local jurisdictions. 66 One important caveat about toilet or urinal flushing with gray water: Toilet manufacturers are concerned and are very much involved with the development of a water quality standard that gray water systems must meet if the water is to be used for flushing toilets or urinals. Until such a standard exists and these systems can be tested and certified by a third party lab, many believe that the water should only be used for underground irrigation. 67 The Pontos division of the Hansgrohe company makes an interesting product called AquaCycle, which relies on biological treatment, rather than chemical, and can accommodate varying loads, such as from office buildings and educational facilities that may have low water use on weekends and during holiday periods. I reviewed an installation at a large office building in Frankfurt that was plumbed to the bathroom sinks and the kitchen that seems to be working quite well. The units are available in 3-cubic meter and 4.5-cubic meter modules, about 800 and 1200 gallons, respectively (Figure 6). Since the storage capacity is primarily required only for one day, it s not hard to calculate how many are needed to collect gray water and return it for toilet and urinal flushing. The AquaCycle 4500 (4.5-cu.m.) is also a low energy user, with a power demand of 5.4-kWh per day. 68 There is a larger application of the Pontos system at a municipal swimming pool in France, which might also be a type of use which mechanical contractors should consider. The system is quite simple, consisting of four major steps: Pre-filtration First, the gray water enters a filter that retains coarser particles such as textile fluff, hairs, etc. The filter is cleaned automatically at regular intervals and the residues are fed 66 accessed August 20, Personal communication, Gunnar Baldwin, Toto U.S.A., June Source: Pontos AquaCycle 4500 specification sheet accessed August 18,

42 into the wastewater drain. 2. Biological treatment After pre-filtration, the gray water undergoes a 2-stage biological treatment process. In stage 1, the water is treated under supply of atmospheric oxygen. Microorganisms adhering to the surface of the carrier material introduced into the tanks of stages 1 and 2 break down the biodegradable content of the water using their metabolic processes. After 3 hours, the water is pumped from stage 1 to stage 2, where it undergoes the same treatment for a second time. 3. Sediment removal During the biological treatment process (stages 1 and 2), surplus biologically active sludge is generated. This is automatically removed at set intervals and fed into the wastewater drain. 4. UV disinfection After the sedimentation stage, the water enters a third stage in which it passes through a UV lamp light for sterilization purposes. After this stage, the recycled water is odorless and storable for a long period. It can be reused as high-quality process water according to the local sanitary regulations. There are many benefits of gray water reuse in this manner. Some of them are: The biological-mechanical cleaning process requires no chemical additives Certified water quality the products, the production and the cleaning process are approved by German TÜV (a product quality organization) Consistent water quality the treated water complies with the European Union bathing water directive, which means it can be used for direct human contact Fully automatic system due to self-cleaning components no user intervention necessary, reducing maintenance requirements Independent of weather conditions (unlike rainwater harvesting) shower, sink and bath water is always produced in most installations No adverse effects on architectural design e.g. no excavation is necessary because the system will be installed in a basement mechanical room and is space-efficient Low maintenance maintenance only necessary once a year for smaller units, twice a year for larger units* Low operating costs power consumption estimated at 1.5 to 2.5 kwh per treated cubic meter of clear water (6 to 10 kwh per 1000 gallons). You can see that gray water recovery and onsite reuse has some compelling 38

43 arguments in its favor and should be considered for new building installations, especially where the water rate system has steeply graduated charges for increasing Figure 6. The AquaCycle gray water treatment system provides biological treatment of wastewater from sinks and showers. Courtesy of Pontos/Hansgrohe AG. 39

44 water use. Table 8 below shows some of the packaged gray water systems that are on the market. This is not a comprehensive listing, but will serve as a guide to supplier opportunities. Company System Size Cost Notes Brac Systems (Canadian) 1 ReWater Systems (U.S.) 2 Hansgrohe, Germany (division of MASCO) 3 Brac Gray water recycling system, Model CGW Models RWAF4 and RWAF5 PONTOS AquaCycle 4500, 13500, etc gals (17,373 liters) 200-gallon surge tank 4500 to 13,500 liters per day (1200 to 3600 gallons) $7,500 to $75,000 See notes for previous table; 13, psi. $7,400 For irrigation only, uses sand filter, serves up to 32 sources FOB Germany 1 accessed August 20, accessed August 20, accessed August 20, phase water treatment, including UV-light sterilization Table 8. Packaged Commercial Gray Water Systems One supplier provided the following analysis of the value of gray water systems in San Diego County, CA, for a residential irrigation system. 70 As a source of water, at a current average mid-tier retail price of $2.47 per CCF, the systems would supply 3.6 acre-feet (1.17 million gallons) over a 20-year system life for a value of $3,873, assuming 125 gallons per day demand from a 3.2 person household. As a replacement for a basic irrigation system (controller, valves, tubing, etc.), the gray water system would be worth $1,500 in a new installation. As a method of reducing wastewater treatment charges, assuming a cost of $3.22 per CCF and a production of 3.6 acre-feet over a 20-year life, the system would save $5,050. This shows a total life-cycle value of $10,423 per system at 2007 local water and sewer treatment rates. Don Giarratano of D/K Mechanical Contractors points out that in water-short regions such as Southern California, the market interest in gray water and reclaimed water systems is growing dramatically. 71 For us in Southern California, reclaimed water or gray water systems are where we really need to expand to create a broader availability of use of those types The monetary value of greywater irrigation systems: San Diego County Analysis, Stephen Wm. Bilson, accessed August 20, Interview with Don Giarratano, April 2009.

45 of systems. It s already water that s out there. It s reprocessed water. There s no reason that it can t be delivered to the right locations. It makes sense for new construction or even retrofit construction. It s not like we get rain every month here in Southern California. In fact, water rationing is already taking place here. We re doing three projects at the University of California Irvine. They mandate that gray water/reclaimed water systems be used in all of their facilities there. The City of Irvine has been at the leading edge when it comes to reclaimed water systems for commercial building applications. It s mandated within in the city, and they have done a great job providing a distribution source for that. For the University of California at Irvine projects, we re using Kohler fixtures including the china and the trim. We re using Sloan flush valves. For the gray water system, it s a filter bank and pump system and usually we buy those out as a package from a company called Weil Aquatronics, a manufacturer s representative. These projects will save a minimum of 20 percent and possibility up to 50 percent of total water use. We have projects at Camp Pendleton [San Diego County] where there s no gray water or reclaimed water currently available for use in barrack applications. There are 1,000 water closets in the barracks, but yet we are piping in a dual water pipe system because there will be a point in time where Camp Pendleton will have reclaimed water available. For the buildings they re currently constructing, they re making preparations so when that time comes the systems will already be built into the structures. [Then] it will just be a matter of making the final connection. 4.3 High-Efficiency Toilets (HETs) The Energy Policy Act (EPAct) of 1992 mandated a maximum of 1.6 gallons per flush for new toilets beginning in In January of 2007, the U.S. EPA s WaterSense program released its first product specifications for high-efficiency toilets (HETs). WaterSense specifications require that HETs use at least 20 percent less water (less than or equal to 1.28 gallons 4.8 liters per flush) than standard 1.6 gallon per flush (gpf) models. The water efficiency and flushing performance of WaterSense HETs have to be tested and verified by an independent testing laboratory and manufactured by a company that has voluntarily partnered with the EPA and the WaterSense program. HETs are available in various forms such as: Pressure-assist toilets that compress air at the top of the refill tank to increase flush velocity. Flushometer-valve toilets that use direct water pressure without a tank. These are common in commercial buildings. 41

46 Dual-flush toilets use about 1.6 gpf for solids and 0.8 to 1.1 gpf for liquid, with an average flush of less than 1.28 gallons. 72 Improved Performance and Testing Owing to advancements in hydraulic engineering and more effective performance testing, HETs currently on the market are far more reliable than first generation HETs introduced in 1990s. Near every toilet component, including the tank, flush valve, bowl rim and trapway has been re-engineered using new tools such as Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling. 73 Although all toilets sold in the United States meet the minimum flush volume and performance standards of the American National Standards Institute/American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ANSI/ASME), these products receive only a pass or fail grade, making relative performance ratings impossible. In 2003, the Maximum Performance (MaP) test was established to identify how well popular toilet models perform using a realistic test media. A new testing protocol, cooperatively developed by water-efficiency and plumbing fixture specialists in the U.S. and Canada, incorporated the use of soybean paste as a test media, closely replicating the real world demand upon fixtures. In May 2009, the 14 th edition of these MaP test results was released, detailing the performance of more than 1,000 toilet models as well as indicating WaterSense certified HETs. 1 A MaP test exclusively for commercial products and applications is under development in Lessons Learned with HETs The drainline carry of waste using HETs is not nearly as well-studied or understood as HETs initial flushing performance (the removal of all waste from the bowl in a single flush). Particularly in existing commercial buildings, there may be reason for caution before replacing conventional toilets with HETs. Drainline blockage may occur from installing HETs in existing buildings, especially if there is not a sufficient slope to carry waste to the sewer, the physical conditions of the existing drainlines are questionable or there are little or no supplemental flows available in the drainline to augment the carry of waste. Bill Gauley of Veritec Consulting in Ontario, Canada, suggests caution when dealing with HETs: 75 We re doing some projects with the 3-liter toilets, which is 0.8 gallons, but I Walsh, James. High Efficiency Toilets. Reeves Journal: Plumbing, Heating, Cooling 89.4 (Apr. 2009): 34-34, _A_ Personal Interview with John Koeller, May 13, Interview with Bill Gauley, June 2009.

47 wouldn t recommend them for commercial applications. They are going into a residential project, senior housing, which is a very tough application for toilets. They re doing quite well there, so they ll be moving into single-family residential. Commercial drainlines tend to be longer, with less slope, larger diameter, and less supplemental flow, so we don t recommend anything as low as 0.8 gallons for nonresidential. The model we re using is WaterSense labeled. Hennessy and Hinchcliffe developed it, and it is sold by Niagara Conservation in the U.S. In new commercial construction, the building s design can prevent most of these drainage challenges by the placement of other water-consuming fixtures such as lavatories and flushing urinals upstream of the HETs and providing for drainline slopes of greater than one-percent. When reviewing plans and specifications that call for HETs, drainline carry should be one of the first considerations, according to experts. 76 Where to Learn More In addition to the traditional association resources, the Alliance for Water Conservation and the EPA websites provide extensive information on the WaterSense program, industry partners and certified toilet tank and bowl combinations (which is a subtle, yet important distinction since only specific tank and bowl combinations can achieve WaterSense toilet certification). 77 The EPA s WaterSense Current, a quarterly news update on WaterSense, is a valuable resource to keep current on this maturing certification system. Retrofitting with Dual-Flush Valves A few years back, Sloan introduced the UpperCut, a dual-flush valve that offers a full 1.6- gallon flush in the down direction and a reduced 1.1-gallon flush in the up direction. 78 Since then, other manufacturers have brought out similar products. Troy Aichele of Stirrett-Johnsen mechanical contractors has had experience with installing these valves. 79 Dual-flush valves work flawlessly. In fact, whether it s a retrofit or a new building, dual flushometers work typically better because they re new. Older flushometers need maintenance or they leak or they don t work very well. In addition to saving water, the maintenance crews typically love them because accessed August 20, Interview with Troy Aichele, May

48 now they have a new product that s working well and doesn t require any attention or repairs. Often times, when I promote these flushometer upgrades I ll say, I ve had a lot of luck getting 75 percent of the cost approved but you re still going to have to pay for the 25 percent. Typically, that is how much they re already spending maintaining their old flushometers. We ve installed them in hospitals and clinic care applications. We tested them in the rooms first because patient care is number one. The nurses like them. The patients had no problem with them. The technology is to a point where they actually work better, feel better and they re more enjoyable. We installed retrofit kits on regular water closets. We ve done them on tank-type water closets in places like nursing homes and also on bedpan washers, which was key for us because about 80 percent of rooms in the hospital have bedpan washers. John Koeller is a highly regarded water expert. He has a different take on the dual-flush valves that needs to be considered. 80 I don t recommend dual-flush valves for commercial uses because anywhere that you have the public coming in, if they come into to a restroom in a public building and they see dual-flush, they re not going to know what it is. I don t care how many signs you put up. Most people flush with their foot, if you have a dualflush flushometer valve, you have to lift up for the small flush. I don t know how many people are going to take their foot and try to lift up. They re not going to use their hand; they re going to use their foot. I do recommend them for homes and even hotel rooms but in commercial situations where there s public access, you re probably wasting your money. Koeller s point is one we raised earlier, in drawing a distinction between water efficiency and water conservation. If you can t convince people to change behavior, then waterefficient devices may yield savings far less than you envision. Contractors might have unhappy customers if they advocate strongly with building owners and facility managers for installing these devices and then actual water use doesn t decrease. 4.4 Low-Water-Use and Waterfree Urinals 81 Urinals waste more than 150 billion gallons of fresh water per year, equivalent to the water use of 1.5 million homes, at an average use of 300 gallons per day per home. 82 The average urinal installed since 1992 uses 1 gallon per flush, which is the code Interview with John Koeller, Technical Adviser, Alliance for Water Efficiency, May Yudelson, Green Building A to Z, pp Assuming 150 gallons per capita per day and two people per household.

49 requirement, based on the 1992 federal Energy Policy Act, amended in 2005 and (Overall, the average might be closer to 2 gallons per flush for all urinals currently installed.) Think of nearly 80 million men at work, making an average of three flushes per day, five days a week, (most of them older urinals using 2 to 3 gallons per flush), just to get rid of a liquid that s nearly sterile and more than 99 percent water. As a result of these considerations, waterfree urinals began to come on the market about ten years ago. Background and Standards The Energy Policy Act of 1992 established a maximum flush rate for urinals. However approximately 80 percent of the 12 million urinals in the United States do not meet this federal standard, some using as much as five gallons per flush. Most urinals currently installed in the United States use the allowable maximum one-gallon per flush. 83 The water saving urinals currently on the market include waterfree units and the increasingly popular one-pint per flush (ppf) units. However, many local plumbing codes still require urinal flushing, which prevents the use of waterfree urinals. 84 The EPA s WaterSense program is currently developing specifications for water-efficient flushing urinals which they intend to release before the end of WaterSense labeled high-efficiency flushing urinal fixtures and flushometer valves will use no more than 0.5 gpf and will undergo trap seal restoration and flush performance testing. 85 Waterfree Urinals The design of waterfree urinals includes an oil seal below the drain, designed to prevent sewer gases from rising up (one of the purposes of the flush and the drain) into a bathroom. The seal has to be changed periodically. According to one manufacturer, the units work according to very simple physical principles: 86 The sealant liquid trap provides an airtight barrier between urine and the restroom to prevent odors from escaping the drain, but allows urine to pass through because the sealant liquid is lighter than water. Urine immediately penetrates the sealant liquid and flows to the drain. Uric sediment is collected by the cartridge, leaving an odor-free environment, clean pipes and absolutely no water waste

50 Basically, waterfree urinals should work fine in situations where there is a large, often anonymous population of users coupled with regular maintenance, such as office buildings, restaurants, airports, schools, stadiums and theaters. With proper design and installation, routine maintenance (including quarterly treatment-cartridge replacements) and a little signage to tell users what s going on, waterfree urinals work just fine, reducing overall water consumption in buildings by up to 40,000 gallons per year per urinal. Waterfree urinals are used in such places as the Jackie Gleason Theater in Miami Beach; the Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington; the Harold Washington Social Security Center in Chicago; the twin Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and the Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, in Atlanta, Georgia. Over the long run, widespread adoption of ultra-low-flush and waterfree urinals will also help reduce future infrastructure development costs by reducing water demand and sewage generation. Not considering maintenance costs, waterfree urinals, either in new buildings or in renovations, may pay for themselves in water savings in a relatively short time. Ultra-Low-Flush Urinals A more recent market entrant has been the 1-pint-per-flush urinal, which works as a conventional urinal, but with 87.5 percent less water use than a one-gallon (8-pint) per-flush fixture. Manufacturers such as Zurn Industries, Sloan Valve and Caroma have introduced ultra-low-flush urinals that are expected to have fewer uric salt accumulation and sanitary issues, owing to the regular flushing. 87 The one-pint urinal seems like a good compromise (between conventional flushers and waterfree urinals) and one likely to be more acceptable to a large number of users and code officials. Such units can be retrofitted into existing water closets without some of the concerns attending to the installation of waterfree urinals. However, waterfree urinals have their partisans, so the mechanical contractor should become familiar with them. There are compromises and design tricks as well. One that we ve heard, especially in new buildings or major renovations, is to plumb the waterfree urinals downstream either from a regular flush urinal or from the bathroom sinks, so that there is always way flowing through the drainline. Jonathan Gray advocates: In Oregon, we added the requirement to install the water pipe to the urinal behind the wall. There s no rough-in, but the pipe is there for the urinal. We felt that it was something that we needed to add to code due to the fact that it gives

51 the owner the opportunity to add water-using urinals later. I am not a proponent of waterless urinals except for the liquid-seal type. They do have their place and we do specify them on different projects. We took care of the plumbers where they at least have to put the water to the wall where the rough-in would be, so it can be changed later [if the owner wants to make a change]. In older buildings, when wanting to retrofit with waterfree urinals, there may be issues with buildup of uric acid crystals when the urinals are upstream of the sinks and other flush devices. The best solution is to make sure that there is regular flow in the drainline from other fixtures. If not, then the ultra-low-flow urinal or even a conventional urinal may be a good solution for replacement of pre-1993 urinals. Waterless v. Ultra-Low-Flow Urinals Experts within the plumbing and water conservation community are divided on the merit of waterfree urinals. Waterfree urinals, such as those produced by Falcon Waterless Technologies or The Waterless Co., can save as much as 40,000 gallons per year in an average sized office building. However, keeping waterfree urinals clean, replacing the expensive trap seal liquids and preventing uric salt deposits from obstructing the drainline have proven to be problematic and costly. 88 Some industry experts argue that the full-cycle life cost of waterfree urinals actually exceeds that of conventional urinals as a result of the ongoing maintenance they require. 89 Table 9 shows such a comparison; however, one should note it was prepared by a vendor of lowflow urinals. New Urinal Technology The Ecoblue Cube intends to use microbiology to transform conventional urinals into hygienic, cost-effective and near-waterfree urinals. The Ecoblue Cube, a small cake block intended to be placed within the urinal bowl, contains natural bacteria, water softeners, deodorants and biodegradable surfactants that form an invisible biofilm over a urinal s surface and trapway. According to the manufacturer, this biofilm of beneficial bacteria breaks down uric acid, eliminates odor, and reduces maintenance. 90 Trials of the Ecoblue Cube have shown promising preliminary results. 91 Regulatory, Political and Code Issues Interview with John Koeller, May accessed August 19, accessed August 19,

52 In some places, the plumbers union has not accepted waterfree urinals because of concern over losing the line hookup labor on each urinal. In other cases, code officials have not accepted waterfree urinals. In general, these issues are disappearing as the industry gets greater familiarity with both ultra-low-flow and waterfree alternatives to the conventional 1.0-gpf urinal. Generic Urinal Type Usage Comparison Pint Waterfree 1.0 gpf Urinal Use/day Water Use (gallons/day) Water Use (Gallons/year) 3, ,000 Cartridge Use (quantity/year) Cost Comparison ($) Annual Flush Valve Maintenance Annual Cartridge Cost Annual Water/Sewer Cost Total Annual Operating Cost Upfront Purchase Price First Year Cost $643 $808 $677 Ten Year Cost $1,028 $4,480 $2,720 Table 9. Life-Cycle Cost Comparison of Three Generic Types of Urinals Other Water-Saving Technologies Beyond the technologies profiled in this report, there are a number of other watersaving appliances, products and systems that are coming into use, many of which may wind up in a mechanical contractor s lap. Showerheads Standards: EPAct 1992 established a maximum of 2.5 gallons per minute (gpm) for showerheads at 80 psi. Efficient showerheads use 2 gpm or less. EPA s WaterSense program is working on a standard for showerheads that will likely use this flow rate or a slightly lower one. Efficient showerheads can pay for themselves in just a few months because they also reduce energy use accessed August 19, 2009.

53 Implementation issues: Flow restrictors are sometimes used to meet the EPAct maximum flow limit but they can be easily removed. Multiple showerheads and body-wash nozzles are trendy in newer bathrooms. They present a loophole for showerhead efficiency standards. Kohler and Delta Faucet, among others, are marketing high-end shower tower systems that use as much as 20 gpm. This trend is contributing to a rise in water consumption in new homes and remodeled bathrooms. Faucets Standards: EPAct 1992 limits the flow rate of residential kitchen and bathroom faucets to 2.5 gpm at 80 psi or 2.2 gpm at 60 psi. EPA s WaterSense uses a more stringent maximum flow rate of 1.5 gpm at 60 psi for residential bathroom faucets, a one-third reduction. Implementation issues: Some faucets achieve mandated low flow rates with aerators or flow restrictors that can be later removed. The lower the flow rate, the longer it takes for hot water to reach the user, thereby requiring greater amounts of energy. Pre-rinse Spray Valves Standards: Typical pre-rise spray valves use about 3.2 gpm. EPAct 2005 established a maximum legal flow rate of 1.6 gpm (6.0 lpm) for pre-rinse spray valves manufactured after January 1, There are at least three manufacturers that produce more efficient pre-rinse spray valves that use no more than 1.28 gpm and meet more stringent performance criteria. 4.6 Non-Conventional Systems Composting Toilets Composting toilets are only made by a handful of manufacturers, like Clivus Multrum, Sanco and Sun Mar. They have a very small market share and are likely to be seen mostly in remote settings and in environmental education centers. The Clivus Multrum is a dry composting toilet, but does require a small fan for operation, making it ideal for a hookup with a solar electric power system. This product has been in use in the U.S. for nearly 40 years, so one can certainly say it s proven in the field. Air-Pressure and Vacuum Toilet Systems To date, these systems have only been used in specialty applications like airplanes, prisons, military bases, and other large installations. Microphor and Evac are two manufacturers of these systems. We did see a large office building (with significant 49

54 green goals) in Frankfurt, Germany, equipped with vacuum toilet systems, but they were not working all that well, according to the facility manager. Onsite Blackwater Treatment Systems The advent of the LEED rating system, which awards one point for projects that reduce the use of potable water for sewage conveyance by 50 percent, has spurred interest in onsite wastewater treatment and reuse systems. Some notable LEED projects, including the 27-story Solaire apartments in New York City s Battery Park City development (LEED Gold) and the 16-story Oregon Health and Science University s Center for Health and Healing in Portland s (OR) South Waterfront district (LEED Platinum) have incorporated proprietary wastewater treatment systems that use reclaimed water for site irrigation and toilet flushing. (See section below on membrane bioreactors.) In the case of the Portland project, the avoided cost of hookups to the sanitary system, more than paid for a third-party to build, own and operate the blackwater treatment system. Mechanical contractors are likely to see future demand in various groundbreaking green design projects that incorporate onsite wastewater treatment systems and should begin to understand how these systems are designed, installed, permitted and operated. Living Machines The Living Machine, from Worrell Water Technologies, is a system that established biological process to break down of waste products, delivering clean water for site irrigation or for return to the building for toilet flushing. As a biological system, it does require some ongoing maintenance. The Worrell Tidal Wetland Living Machine system incorporates a series of wetland cells, or basins, that are filled with special gravel. As water moves through the system, the cells are alternately flooded and drained to create multiple tidal cycles each day, much like in nature, resulting in high quality wastewater treatment. This patented tidal process naturally brings oxygen to the wastewater, improving treatment performance by producing cleaner water using less energy. Then, wetland vegetation and microorganisms, especially in the root zone, promote a complex and stable ecosystem, generating clean water performance under a variety of conditions. 93 According to Eric Lohan and Will Kirksey of Worrell Water Technologies: You can think of Living Machine as the engine for the water treatment side. We use other technologies for disinfection and we use pumps, filters and things to take that treated water and put it back into building systems for flushing toilets accessed August 20, Interview with Eric Lohan, June 2009.

55 Generally the plumbing of the system is done by a mechanical contractor. Because these biological systems straddle a number of different disciplines, sometimes irrigation contractors and general residential plumbers work on them. There are a few firms that specialize in onsite wastewater treatment systems so they do electrical contracting, mechanical contracting and the earthworks. According to Worrell, the system can treat: up to 200,000 gallons per day. With our current technology, you can start out small and begin to ramp up. Right now our largest project is about 30,000 gallons per day. We could easily parlay that into 100,000 gallons per day or so. Somewhere in that range would be the largest project that we would go after right now. Membrane Bioreactors At the opposite end of the technology spectrum is the membrane bioreactor, a system that can process and recycle all gray water and blackwater from a building. It typically uses more energy than a Living Machine, occupies a much smaller footprint (it can easily fit in the basement or mechanical room of a building) and produces sludge from the sewage solids that must be either discharged to a sewer or hauled away by a honey bucket truck. However, the system can be automated and has been proven in previous projects for both large residential and large commercial applications. Figure 7. The Vancouver (BC) Convention Centre uses advanced membrane bioreactor blackwater treatment to recycle toilet waste for onsite reuse. Courtesy of the Vancouver Convention Centre. 51