Environmental impact assessment of traffic improvement in a highly congested urban area: the Beirut Urban Transport Project

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1 Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: Environmental impact assessment of traffic improvement in a highly congested urban area: the Beirut Urban Transport Project Mutasem El-Fadel To cite this article: Mutasem El-Fadel (2001) Environmental impact assessment of traffic improvement in a highly congested urban area: the Beirut Urban Transport Project, Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 19:1, 73-83, DOI: / To link to this article: Published online: 20 Feb Submit your article to this journal Article views: 953 View related articles Citing articles: 2 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

2 Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, volume 19, number 1, March 2001, pages 73 83, Beech Tree Publishing, 10 Watford Close, Guildford, Surrey GU1 2EP, UK. Professional practice Environmental impact assessment of traffic improvement in a highly congested urban area: the Beirut Urban Transport Project Mutasem El-Fadel After nearly two decades of civil unrest, Lebanon launched a reconstruction and development initiative. Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) were introduced primarily to secure international financing and assistance. This report discusses an EIA for the proposed Beirut Urban Transport Project. The Lebanese Government is seeking to finance the project through a loan from the World Bank. Since traffic congestion has reached unsustainable levels in recent years, the main objective of the project is to improve traffic management within the City and its surrounding areas. Environmental management and monitoring are emphasized within the context of the EIA process. Keywords: environmental impact assessment; urban development; traffic management Mutasem El-Fadel is an Associate Professor with the American University of Beirut, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Bliss Street, PO Box , Beirut, Lebanon; Fax: ; mfadel@aub.edu.lb. The EIA for the Beirut Urban Transport Project was funded by the Government of Lebanon through its Council for Development and Reconstruction to meet loan approval requirements of the World Bank. The feasibility study for the proposed project was conducted under the direction of TEAM International. The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr Stenven Lintner of the World Bank for his valuable comments during the preparation of the EIA. IN MANY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, environmental impacts associated with development projects are generally ignored or perceived to be of secondary importance to the need to accommodate rapid economic growth (Olokesusi, 1992; Pisanty- Levy, 1993; Fowler and de Aguiar, 1993). Lebanon is no exception. Until recently, proper evaluation of ecological, physical, and socio-economic impacts that could result from these projects was lacking. Lebanon, however, does not have adequate economic resources to finance many of its planned projects. Thus, the Government often seeks external investments and international loans, particularly for large infrastructure projects (CDR, 1998). A primary source of these loans is the World Bank, which introduced environmental impact assessments (EIAs) into its programs in the early 1970s to help ensure sustainable development. Thus, the World Bank required the Lebanese Government to conduct EIAs for projects being proposed for potential World Bank funding. The Beirut Urban Transport Project (BUTP) is a typical example and this report describes the EIA. An analysis of alternatives for project components was first explored. Current policies and the legal and administrative framework related to the transport sector were then defined, followed by identification of potential environmental impacts and corresponding mitigation measures. The mitigation component focused primarily on the development of environmental monitoring and management plans and outlined institutional needs and limitations for carrying out those plans. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal March /01/ US$08.00 IAIA

3 Project description The proposed BUTP has three components: traffic management; provision of parking and parking controls; and grade separations. The objective is to improve the operational and economic efficiency of the urban transport system in the Greater Beirut Area (GBA). The project would provide the fundamental urban transport apparatus needed to address the extremely diverse and complex transport issues the city faces. Project operations would provide a foundation for a full transport and traffic management master plan in the GBA. Analysis of alternatives Since the traffic management component consists of a traffic control center, a video surveillance system and traffic signals across the city, alternative analysis for these elements was limited. The analysis of alternatives within the parking component focused on construction of new parking facilities and better management of on-street parking. Finally, for the grade separation component, the analysis of alternatives focused on the need for grade separations, and the type an overpass, an underpass, or a combination of the two. The use of grade separations was compared to options that involved traffic management only. Traffic management component This component included revising circulation plans, spot improvement of some intersections, installing traffic signals at more than 200 intersections, and controlling signals from a traffic control center. The traffic control center can perform surveillance functions and could be upgraded later to perform other intelligent transport system (ITS) functions. This component also included establishing a Traffic Management Organization (TMO). The impacts of the no-action alternative and benefits of proposed improvements associated with this component include: Busy intersections with no signals that need excessive numbers of policemen to control traffic, preventing them from being deployed to duties that are more serious. Policemen, if well trained, can perform very well at isolated intersections, but cannot coordinate intersections along a corridor or on a network. Without signals, delays are longer at intersections, resulting in significant economic losses. Stop-and-go conditions of traffic congestion cause more exhaust emissions. Well-equipped intersections with signals increase traffic safety, especially for pedestrians. Gaps between motor vehicle platoons permit safer midblock crossing for pedestrians. Timed signals give protected movements to pedestrians at locations of heavy pedestrian traffic. Establishing a TMO provides for a traffic engineering unit that can sustain the proposed improvements and plan for future needs. Parking component Chaotic parking is the major cause of traffic congestion in Beirut. It has downgraded the quality of life and forced pedestrians from the sidewalk to the traffic lanes. This has not only jeopardized the safety of pedestrians but also discouraged people from walking short distances in the city. Field surveys indicated a need to increase the offstreet parking supply. This could prove to be an expensive endeavor because of high land prices. In addition, off-street facilities may not be used because on-street parking regulations are not enforced. This finding was confirmed by parking surveys which revealed that parking lots in some parking-deficient zones were rarely full, while streets around them were packed with illegal or improper on-street parking (TEAM, 1998a; 1998b). The use of off-street parking facilities becomes attractive to car owners when strict enforcement makes illegal parking costly. The financial viability of offstreet parking will then generate investor interest. The no-action alternative for this component implies that the existing unacceptable parking chaos is condoned, a situation whose cost to society includes reduced street capacity, reduced intersection capacity, and the general deterioration of the quality of urban life. The parking component was initially envisaged to include underground parking garages on sites owned by municipalities in the GBA. These sites were mostly public gardens. Parking surveys revealed, however, that these sites were not located optimally to address the parking deficit. As a result of the findings about utilization of offstreet garages, the emphasis of the proposed action was reoriented towards addressing in greater depth the organization of on-street parking by making it timed and for-a-fee in business areas and by increasing the enforcement of parking restrictions. These measures were necessary in order to correct perceptions of the cost of owning and operating a vehicle. Concessions for managing on-street parking could also be contracted to the private sector. These concessions would be conditioned in certain zones by requiring the concessionaire to provide (probably build, own, and operate) a specific number of public off-street parking spaces within a specified perimeter. This alternative is based on the premise that tight control of on-street parking will increase the demand for off-street parking. In addition, the investment in offstreet parking need not come from public funds, since parking is a financially viable business, particularly if it is part of a commercial development or if it is not entirely underground. 74 Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal March 2001

4 Grade separation keeps conflicting movements apart in space by use of an overpass or underpass: this arrangement permits one or two directions of travel to negotiate the intersection uninterrupted while other movements intersect at-grade Grade separation component At road intersections, the type of control needed varies with the volume of intersecting traffic. On low volume roads, a stop sign is sufficient. As the intersecting volumes increase, a traffic signal becomes warranted. The traffic signal separates the conflicting movements in time. Each traffic direction is given a proportion of green commensurate with its share of the total conflicting traffic. At some major intersections, where two or more multi-lane roadways intersect, traffic volume may reach a peak-hour level where traffic control signals result in excessive stopping delays and long queues on some or all approaches to the intersection. Such situations may not be correctable by geometric improvements or by improving the sophistication of the signal control. Figure 1. General layout of intersection locations in the Greater Beirut Area Table 1. Existing and future conditions at 16 locations Grade separation number Peak-hour average delay per vehicle (secs) 1998 existing conditions 2010 without grade separation 2010 with grade separation 1 1,945 11, , , No conflict 1, ,035 No conflict* No conflict ,600 No conflict 13 1,020 3, , , Note: * No conflict indicates uninterrupted flow with implementation of current or future projects The next option is separating conflicting movements in space. One of the intersection roads or movements through the intersection can be grade separated, that is, its traffic will go over on an overpass (bridge) or under in an underpass (tunnel), while other traffic movements stay at-grade. This arrangement permits one or two directions of travel to negotiate the intersection uninterrupted while other movements intersect at-grade. The heaviest movement is usually grade-separated, so that the intersecting traffic at-grade is reduced to levels that can be handled by a traffic signal. Grade separation can appreciably reduce delays at intersections. Several criteria guided the development of alternative grade separation designs (TEAM, 1998c): Provision of an acceptable future level of service in terms of minimizing peak-hour average delay per vehicle. Minimization of the need for additional rights of way and avoid involuntary resettlement of residents, relocation of businesses, and acquisition of private land. Underpasses are preferred to overpasses, however, they must avoid archeological and historic sites, as well as existing major utilities. Consideration of site characteristics, such as topography and drainage. Short underpasses are preferred to tunnels that require mechanical ventilation and the associated additional costs for construction, operation and maintenance. Preserving access to existing land uses, striking a Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal March

5 balance between the interests of through traffic and local traffic in dense urban areas. When selecting the configuration of grade separations, maintenance of traffic during construction must be taken into account. Aesthetics and landscape preservation. Use of value engineering judgment to reach a costeffective design. Using the above criteria, 16 intersections along major corridors in the city were identified for grade separation (see Figure 1.) In conjunction with other project components, these sought to improve the operational and economic efficiency of the GBA urban transport system by ensuring desirable traffic circulation and network capacity. A travel forecasting model (EMME/2) was used to conduct a network analysis for the GBA with and without the proposed grade separations. The data provided by the analysis included flow speed, capacity, and computed zone-to-zone travel speed and time. The peak-hour average delay at each intersection was used as a measure to assess performance with and without the grade separation. Table 1 compares peak-hour average delay per vehicle in 2010 with and without the proposed grade separations. The numbers indicate that up to a 99% decrease in peak-hour average delay per vehicle could be attained at the intersections where a grade separation is proposed. Policies, legal and administrative framework A legal or institutional framework for conducting and reviewing EIAs in Lebanon is currently lacking (El- Fadel et al, 2000; Abbing and van Woerden, 1998). An Environmental Code has been drafted and submitted for governmental approval but no action has been taken. The proposed code includes conducting environmental assessments (EA) for developmental projects. The provisions largely follow guidelines recommended by the World Bank (1991a; 1991b). EIA findings would be used during all project phases: design, construction, and operation. A design alternative would be selected that minimizes adverse impacts associated with a proposed project. Environmental management and monitoring plans would be developed and implemented. Transport-sector related policies A review and analysis of existing policy formulation, planning, design, and implementation, operation and maintenance of transport systems and services in Lebanon revealed several gaps and overlaps in functions and geographical jurisdiction (TEAM, 1998d). Functional weaknesses exhibit themselves as follows: Lack of coordination between urban transport modes and components, such as the needs of through traffic versus local traffic, private cars versus public transport, traffic lanes and parking lanes, parking and public transport, intra-urban and interurban public transport, and paratransit planning and enforcement. These problems result in imbalances, congestion, accident hazards, excessive pollution and loss of economic productivity. There is currently no mechanism of coordination of these complex issues among 53 municipalities constituting the GBA. There is a major gap in the transport system management function that results in substantial losses in improvement opportunities for the urban transport system. The parking function is not well addressed in terms of policy and control, contributing to the current inefficiencies of urban transport. Road safety is addressed only as a physical subproject; once a project is implemented, safety is forgotten. Paratransit 1 represents a floating hazard on the urban road network; it lacks planning, organization, and control. Process gaps occur in policy setting, planning, financing, and more seriously, operations management, maintenance management, and user information and awareness. These weaknesses exhibit themselves as: Lack of understanding of problems and needs. Lack of policy for setting priorities, particularly when individual freedom is in conflict with public interest, and for weighing short-term and longterm priorities. Lack of understanding of the economic impacts of congestion on users and the urban economy, and the need to adopt knowledge-intensive hightechnology management approaches for solving complex urban transport problems. Inadequate management approaches in public administration: the transport system user is a customer whose satisfaction must be sought through efficient, cost-effective, and high-level service. Limited recognition of the long-term importance of the role of public transportation in the development of the GBA. A summary of the allocation of transportation-related functions to transportation and traffic management organizations is presented in Table 2. It is a responsibility matrix that identifies both functional and process gaps as shaded areas. Potential impacts and mitigation plan The environmental impact analysis showed that the greatest environmental impacts would occur during the construction phase, particularly dust and noise emissions and detouring of traffic. The potential presence of unknown sites of archaeological significance 76 Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal March 2001

6 Table 2. Functional responsibility matrix Process Urban transport modal coordination Road construction and maintenance TSM and control Modes and functional issues Parking policy and control Road safety Vehicle licensing and control/ traffic enforcement Public transport Paratransit Policy and research Standards and regulations Strategic and tactical planning Financing Project preparation and implementation Operations management Maintenance management User information and awareness MOT MOPW MOT MOT MOT MOPW MOPW (GDU) MOPW CDR MOF CDR MOPW CDR/CEGP CEGPVB MOMRA MOPW CEGPVB MOMRA MOI MOT MOF CDR MOPW CDR CEGP CEGPVB MOI MOE MOI MOI MOI MOI MOT OCTFC OCTFC MOF OCTFC OCTFC MOMRA OCTFC OCTFC Notes: CD = Council for Development MOF = Ministry of Finance = Municipality & Reconstruction CEGP = Conseil Exécutif des MOI = Ministry of Interior OCTFC = Railways & Public Grands Projets Transport Authority CEGPVB = Conseil Exécutif des MOMRA = Ministry of Municipal TSM = Traffic signal management Grands Projets de la and Rural Affairs Ville de Beyrouth GDU = Directorate General of MOPW = Ministry of Public Works Shaded areas represent functional Urbanism and process gaps MOE = Ministry of Environment MOT = Ministry of Transport MOT could require site-specific mitigation and/or monitoring during construction. During project operation, with the exception of the visual intrusion of overpasses, the analysis showed that the proposed project would result in more positive to neutral environmental impacts compared to not implementing the project. Table 3 provides a qualitative summary (relying on the quantitative analysis, as well as judgment based on previous experience with similar projects) of the significance of environmental impacts associated with construction and operation. Table 4 presents a summary of the elements of a mitigation plan that are being considered. These are subdivided into the three phases of the project: design, Irrespective of the proposed project, urban air quality is the major environmental problem associated with transport-related activities: monitoring data could form the basis for a public alert system that could be part of traffic management schemes construction, and operation. During project operation, the elements of the mitigation plan would become the responsibility of the municipalities with jurisdiction over the specific component of the project. These elements would become part of routine maintenance activities undertaken by municipalities. Table 3. Significance of potential environmental impacts Potential impact Construction phase Operation phase Traffic +++ Air quality /+ Noise level /+ Landscape and /0 visual intrusion Construction waste 0 Water quality 0 Archeology / /0 0 Health and Safety + Economics +++ Social /+ Notes: +++ High positive impact; ++ Moderate positive impact; + Low positive impact; 0 Neutral impact; High negative impact; Moderate negative impact; Low negative impact Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal March

7 Table 4. Summary of elements of mitigation plan Parameter Mitigation measure Design phase Construction phase Operation phase Traffic Air quality Noise level Landscape and visual intrusion Construction waste Water quality Public participation Modification of design to reflect public consultation process Development of detour schemes Assessment of existing standards, regulations Assessment of a long-term strategy for emission control Maximizing the distance to adjacent buildings Adequate ventilation in tunnels Assessment of existing standards and regulations Consideration for porous material, flexible joints, and supports Minimizing number of joints Consideration for sound barriers Protection of buildings and sensitive receptors Documentation of existing conditions Consideration of an underpass versus an overpass Blending color(s) of paint Blending exterior construction material Blending architectural features Provisions for visual screens or greenbelts Locate nearby disposal sites and secure permit for waste disposal Explore waste material recycling or re-use Provisions for proper surface and ground water drainage Archaeology Notify the Department of Antiquities Prepare archaeological mitigation plan with site specific interventions Develop archaeological monitoring plan for construction phase Develop archeological chance find procedures Health and safety Develop and/or review and update general health and safety plans Public communication Detour schemesextended construction hours Site and construction materials stock pile enclosure Spraying of long-term stockpiles with chemical bonding agents On-site mixing in enclosed or shielded areas Proper unloading operationswater damping of stockpiles when necessary (dry conditions) Sealing of completed earthworks and re-vegetation as soon as possible Medium and heavily used haul routes permanently surfaced Damping unsurfaced haul routes Keep hauling routes free of dust and regularly cleaned Minimal traffic speed on-site with proper enforcement Maintenance and repair of construction machinery Construction of site enclosures Control of timing of noise emissions Proper road maintenance Enforcement of speed limits Employ low noise machinery, or machinery with noise shielding and/or sound absorption materials (eg onsite power generator enclosure) Proper maintenance of equipment and machinery Preserve existing vegetation when feasible Blend color(s) of paint Blend exterior construction material Blend architectural features Provisions for visual screens or greenbelts Implementation of appropriate landscaping Waste transport and disposal at designated disposal sites Proper surface and ground drainage Decrease water usage during construction phase Minimize soil exposure time during construction phase Minimize chemical usage (lubricants, solvents, petroleum products) Survey and/or salvage of selected archaeological sites Documentation of buried sites and conservation of materials Construction monitoring by archaeological consultants Implementation of archaeological chance find procedures Provide pedestrian walk ways Install proper warning signs Provide protective clothing and equipment Create buffer zones Follow local written procedures Maintenance and operation of traffic management organization Maintenance of ventilation in tunnels Implementation of long-term strategies Adoption of emission reduction technologies Opportunities for phase-out of lead in gasoline Usage of alternative fuel Development of emission and air quality standards Regulations for vehicle inspection and maintenance system Air quality monitoring network The proposed project could be used as a vehicle to initiate some of these longterm strategies Sound insulation and pavement maintenance Limiting vehicle speed Implementation of long-term strategies for noise control Development of noise emission standards Regulations for vehicle inspection and maintenance system Maintenance of exterior material, visual screens, or greenbelts Not applicable Maintenance of surface water drainage Not applicable Maintenance of signs and warnings (continued) 78 Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal March 2001

8 Table 4. (continued) Parameter Mitigation measure Design phase Construction phase Operation phase Socioeconomics Eliminate or minimize land acquisition and population resettlement Ensure community participation Develop proper compensation and resettlement plans Ensure community participation Not applicable Environmental monitoring Environmental monitoring would be undertaken during both the construction and operation phases to affirm the accuracy of the impact analysis, evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation measures, respond to unanticipated environmental impacts, and improve traffic management and environmental controls. Environmental parameters to be monitored with their corresponding location, frequency, and duration of monitoring are summarized in Table 5. The monitoring data would be important for future environmental management in the transport sector. It would provide the basis for determining the accuracy of environmental quality predictions and the scientific support for establishing or modifying future environmental measures. Irrespective of the proposed project, urban air quality is the major environmental problem associated with transport-related activities. In this context, monitoring data would provide a useful tool for raising public awareness. It could be used as the basis for a public alert system that could be made part of traffic management schemes. Such a system would rely on a monitoring network that would alert authorities when high background levels of pollution and unfavorable meteorological conditions are likely to give rise to serious health effects for asthma sufferers or other vulnerable groups. When this occurs, parts of the urban area could be closed to vehicular traffic until the emergency has passed. Therefore, to identify the magnitude of the problem Table 5. Proposed monitoring plan of poor air quality and evaluate the effectiveness of policy measures, complementary measures should be considered as an element of medium-term capacity building. The most relevant measure would be the establishment of a network of fixed air quality monitoring stations. Environmental management In the context of urban transport and traffic management, institutional capacity, policies on urban air quality, and training requirements are the most relevant elements of sustainable environmental management. Institutional capacity Institutional capacity for environmental management in Lebanon is weak, which constrains the potential range and effectiveness of policy options (World Bank 1996). Lebanon has a large body of environment-related laws, but needs to update and consolidate them. Law enforcement is generally weak because responsibilities and coordination are not clear. Also there is insufficient deterrent value. The recent creation of the Ministry of Environment (MOE) has contributed to strengthening the institutional framework for the design and implementation of environmental policy. The MOE was given by law a broad mandate over environmental issues in an effort to establish an integrated environmental management system under an independent environmental Parameter Location Samples Frequency Phase Traffic Air qualitytsp, PM10, Pb, CO, NO2, SO2, VOC, O3 NoiseLmin, Leq, Lmax Along corridors andtraffic routing schemes At intersections and traffic routing schemes At intersections and traffic routing schemes Counts and delay analyses at two locations per intersection Four samples per intersection and route per day Four samples per intersection and route per day Water qualityph, COD, oil, At intersections Four samples/month Q C conductivity, Pb, Cu, Cr, Zn Landscape At intersections Visual inspection Q C, O Accidentscars/pedestrians Entire area of Beirut Police/newspaper records Q C, O Health and safety At intersections Visual inspection Co C Archaeology At intersections Visual inspection Co C Notes: Q = Quarterly; Co = Continuous; C = Construction; O = Operation Q Q Q C, O C, O C, O Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal March

9 protection ministry with separate administrative functions and resources. Its powers include the ability to: 1) formulate general environmental policy and propose measures for its implementation in coordination with other concerned agencies; 2) protect the natural and man-made environment in the interest of public health and welfare; and 3) control and prevent pollution, irrespective of the source (Law 216, 1994) The institutional framework for environmental management remains fragmented, however, because the MOE s broad mandate overlaps with those of several other ministries or governmental agencies. These units of government are agriculture; hydraulics and electrical resources; industry and petroleum; public health; public works; transport; as well as the Council for Development and Reconstruction. This constrains the ability of the MOE to impact the coordination of various sector initiatives and the facilitation of the integration of environmental policy into developmental initiatives. In addition, the MOE lacks provisions for a unit or body to carry out its tasks. For example, monitoring functions are accorded to the MOE; however, enforcement is the prerogative of the Ministry of the Interior. Furthermore, the resources and staffing levels provided to the MOE keep its capacity for environmental management very limited. The MOE s annual budget of US$5 million in 1995 was reduced to less than US$2 million in The MOE has 13 full-time employees out of the 139 specified by law and an unspecified number of contractors depending on budget and grant availability. While it has by law the power to define conditions for granting permits for classified projects, it lacks the capacity to conduct or adequately review EIAs for these projects. The MOE attempted to enact regulations on ambient air quality standards, pollutant emissions, and noise levels. These regulations, however, were not adopted by Parliament and, more importantly, the standards are difficult to enforce because of the lack of institutional capacity. In conclusion, there is considerable need to strengthen existing institutions with responsibilities for environmental management with encouragement for private-sector participation in providing environmental services and non-government organization (NGO) participation in monitoring and enforcement. Strengthening and enhancing cross-sectoral coordination and planning control mechanisms are also needed. Table 6. Car ownership rate in some countries Country China Philippines EU Lebanon Japan USA Persons/ car Source: ERM (1995) Table 7. Composition of vehicle fleet and corresponding average age Vehicle type Average age (years) 1 Policy on urban air quality Urban air quality is the most important aspect in the environmental management process related to urban transport and traffic management. Vehicular transport is a primary factor contributing to poor urban air quality in Lebanon. Other factors include emissions of pollutants from small industries and enterprises and privately operated power generators, as well as dust associated with construction activities. Measurements, observations, and modeling results indicate that transport and construction are the main contributors to poor air quality in urban areas. For this reason, the primary focus of policies should be on these sectors. Construction emissions are typically temporary, and policies are needed to ensure the implementation of mitigation measures, such as those described in Table 4. The underlying causes of pollution from urban transport in Lebanon include: a high level of vehicle ownership that is comparable to wealthier countries (Table 6); the age structure and condition of the vehicle fleet; and the dominance of private cars over public transport (Table 7). While the proposed project would not result in negative air quality impacts at the operational level in comparison with the no-project alternative, long-term mitigation actions are needed to address existing air pollution. The main strategies to reduce vehicle emissions in the GBA include fuel improvement, compulsory annual tests, emissionrelated taxes, and development of air quality standards. Fuel improvement strategy Composition (%) 2 Passenger vehicles Pickups 14 6 Goods vehicles 16 2 Buses 18 2 Sources : 1 Dar Al-Handasah (1995) 2 TEAM (1994) This focuses on: phasing out leaded fuel by encouraging the use of unleaded fuel through an emission-related taxation policy; sulfur content reduction in diesel fuel through a reformulation that would allow no more than a 0.05% sulfur content, a lower ozone-forming potential, more oxygen, and fewer carcinogens; and the use of alternative fuels, especially compressed natural gas (CNG), which has a promising costemission trade-off and can substitute for dieselfueled buses. Compulsory annual tests Vehicles in Lebanon are old (Table 7) and poorly maintained. While vehicle 80 Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal March 2001

10 Table 8. Medium- and long-term measures to reduce traffic induced emissions In Lebanese urban areas Measure Activity Responsibility Enforcement Coordination Incentive Benefits Fuel improvement strategy Compulsory annual testing of vehicles emission levels Emission-related taxes on mineral oil Emission-related registration fees and annual taxes on vehicles Phase out leaded gasoline Reduce sulfur content in diesel Check use of alternative fuel Certify and control garages to force regular technical inspections (annual emission test) and to control them Taxes or increased taxes for oil for leaded and diesel fuelno taxes or freezing of taxes on unleaded fuelsubstitute valueadded taxes by emissionrelated taxes on fuel Classify vehicles by type and age into emission brackets Determine emission-related rates of taxation on vehicles Industry and Petroleum Environment Determine limit values of health impact for content in gasoline and diesel Gather information on gasoline and diesel qualities from various oil companies Gather information on prices for compact natural gas (CNG) and CNG-running vehicles Cost benefit analysis for phasing in CNG vehicles Orientation towards enforcement of controls and severe penalties to improve the efficiency compulsory annual tests of vehicle emissions Feasibility study on the implementation of compulsory annual emission tests Finance Announce and publish a list of vehicle types, that can use unleaded fuel without any technical changes or devices Finance Environment Definition and establishment of emission brackets and assignment of types of vehicles to the brackets Transport Environment Public Health Transport the Interior Industry and Petroleum Environment Transport Reduce subsidies of diesel Provide subsidies on the use of vehicles running with alternative fuel (see also measure 3) Tax benefits for owners of tested cars and additional regular inspections at certified garages (see also measure 4) Self-induced incentive by the lower price of unleaded fuel Rates of taxation for lowlevel emission cars would not be raised for five years Taxes for high-level emission cars would be taxed up to 100% based on their classification Decrease in emissions (lead, SO2, and fine particulates) Operating buses on alternative fuel as example for the private sector to run similar buses Reduction of vehicle emissions 50% Improvement of technical standard of garages through financial support Reduction of lead and particulate in the air Decrease in vehicle movement Higher revenues from taxation Sensitization of population to buy cars that use unleaded fuel Preparations for selling cars fitted with catalytic converters or sending catalytic converters for refitting Improvement of vehicle fleet step-by-step within 5 years Emissions reduction Higher tax revenues to use for addressing environmental and health issues Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal March

11 inspection is required at registration time, instruments are not available to conduct emission tests, and certificates are issued on a regular basis in exchange for cash payments without an actual inspection. Based on visual observations, exhaust fumes from circulating vehicles prove the inefficacy of the inspection system. A proper maintenance and inspection program could reduce vehicle emissions by at least 50%. Vehicle emissions are strongly related to vehicle maintenance practices and model year (as a surrogate for technology) but less so for vehicle age (given the model year). For example, in Mexico City, where inspection and maintenance programs are similarly lacking, 70% of gasoline vehicles and 85% of diesel vehicles participating in a voluntary check-up failed the emission test (Krupnick, 1991). Emission-related taxes Taxes on cars and fuel consumption in Lebanon are imposed but they are not emission-related. Incentives for emissions reduction include: raising taxes on mineral oil for leaded gasoline and diesel fuel; elimination or freezing of taxes on unleaded fuel; and substitution of value-added taxes by emission-related taxes on fuel. Development of air quality standards Standard procedures and measurement methods of ambient air quality are vital factors in developing and attaining air quality standards. Procedures have not been developed and measuring equipment has not been acquired in Lebanon. Extensive field characterization, as well as administrative legal maneuvers, would need to be made before developing air quality standards. Until then, international standards (EU, WHO (World Health Organization), US Environmental Protection Agency) could be adopted. While running an air quality management plan, these standards could be adjusted based on the measured air quality, meteorological situation, traffic and industrial emissions factors, population exposure, and environmental strategies and policies. In conclusion, the medium- to long-term environmental management measures that should be adopted by Lebanon to reduce traffic-induced emissions can be classified under two categories, technical and legislative. The technical measures include improvement of fuel quality or introduction of fuel alternatives (that is, phasing out leaded gasoline, imposing limitations on diesel passenger cars), and compulsory vehicle testing and maintenance at state-controlled and certified garages. The legislative measures relate to taxes on emissions from fuel and private vehicle ownership. These two categories of measures are interrelated and a well-coordinated implementation effort would be necessary to accomplish a perceptible improvement in urban air quality. Table 8 summarizes these measures with a suggested responsibility for implementation, as well as approaches to enforcement, incentives for compliance, and benefits expected in the context of country-specific characteristics. These measures could be readily introduced from a technical and institutional perspective. However, the cultural attachment to the private automobile, combined with the absence of mass transit alternatives, means that restrictions on automobile use will not be welcomed and control measures will need to be accompanied by public awareness campaigns. The awareness campaign would increase the public s understanding of the linkages between pollution from vehicles, individual responsibility for vehicle management, and human health. Training requirements Appropriate environmental management strategies dictate that construction and operation occur in accordance with the current state-of-the-art and knowledge related to environmental protection. This could be accomplished by hiring personnel with an appropriate educational and professional background and instituting a periodic training program. Site-specific plans need to be adequate to protect the public and the environment, and to contribute to the mitigation of potential environmental impacts. To achieve this, the contractors who will be involved in the construction and operation of the various components of a proposed project, and personnel who will be involved in monitoring activities, must attend an environmental training course prior to the initiation of project activities. The objective is to ensure that contractors and monitors have an appropriate environmental awareness and the knowledge and skills needed to implement mitigation measures. The training program should emphasize issues related to environmental laws, regulations, and standards, pollution health impacts, pollution prevention measures, sampling techniques and environmental monitoring guidelines (air, noise, water), protection of cultural heritage in developmental projects, traffic, and pedestrian safety measures during both construction and operation. Summary and conclusions The introduction of the EIA process to Lebanon can be attributed, in great part, to international financing agencies such as the World Bank. In this context, an EIA was conducted for the proposed Beirut Urban Transport Project. It addressed project alternatives, policies, the legal and administrative framework related to the transport sector, potential environmental impacts and corresponding mitigation measures, and the development of environmental monitoring and management plans within the context of countryspecific institutional capacity and limitations. The principal objectives of the EIA process included: Providing a sound basis for design decisions that takes into account environmental considerations; Ensuring that the project is implemented with full awareness of environmental factors, informing the 82 Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal March 2001

12 public when and how project implementation could affect their environment; Facilitating public participation in the decisionmaking process; and Addressing the barriers hindering effective implementation of environmental management and control within the current organizational setting. Environmental assessment cannot be an effective tool if its components are deficient. In this context, the factors most crucial to ensuring the successful implementation of EIA results include: The need to strengthen the capacity of relevant institutions; The need to review and consolidate existing environmental regulations, and more importantly ensure their enforcement; The need to redefine the roles and responsibilities of each institution within the institutional framework for traffic and transport activities, environmental management, and monitoring, to reduce duplication and overlap, as well as confusion and competition between the various parties involved; The need to establish a comprehensive database for various environmental indicators, evaluate their accuracy, and strengthen existing scattered data; The need to establish policies on urban air quality management and set training guidelines for proper implementation of these policies. Note 1. Paratransit consists of public and semipublic transportation services that are more flexible and personalized than conventional fixed-route or fixed-schedule services. It utilizes low- and medium-capacity highway vehicles. Public paratransit is available to anyone who pays a predetermined fare (for example, taxi services, low-fare buses, and dial-a-ride). Semipublic paratransit is available only to people of a certain group, such as the elderly, employees of a company, or residents of a neighborhood (as in van pools and subscription buses). References J M Abbing and F van Woerden (1998), Development of procedures for environmental impact assessment (EIA) in Lebanon, draft report, Transtec/Fitchner Consortium, Sector Implementation Unit 3, Ministry of Environment, Beirut, Lebanon. CDR, Council for Development and Reconstruction (1998) January progress report (CDR, Beirut). Dar Al-Handasah (1995), Maintenance and rehabilitation of Lebanon road network, CDR, Beirut. M El-Fadel, M Zeinati and D Jamali (2000), Development of procedures for environmental impact assessment in Lebanon, Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 20, pages ERM, Environmental Resources Management (1995), Lebanon, assessment of the state of the environment (CDR, Beirut). H G Fowler and A D de Aguiar (1993), Environmental impact assessment in Brazil, Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 13, pages A Krupnick (1991), Transportation and air pollution in urban areas of developed and developing countries, Discussion Paper QE91-08, Quality of the Environment Division, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC. F Olokesusi (1992), Environmental impact assessment in Nigeria: current situation and directions for the future, Journal of Environmental Management, 35, pages J Pisanty-Levy (1993), Mexico s environmental impact assessment experience, Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 13, pages TEAM International (1994), Greater Beirut transportation plan, data collection, Report no 4, CDR, Beirut. TEAM International (1998a), Parking districts selection, Beirut Urban Transport Project, CDR, Beirut. TEAM International (1998b), Parking zones selection, Beirut Urban Transport Project, CDR, Beirut. TEAM International (1998c), Grade separations justification, Beirut Urban Transport Project, CDR, Beirut. TEAM International (1998d), Institutional assessment and setting up a traffic management organization, Beirut Urban Transport Project, CDR, Beirut. World Bank (1991a), Environmental assessment, Operational Directive 4.01, The World Bank, Washington DC. World Bank (1991b), Environmental Assessment Sourcebook, vol I: Policies, Procedures, and Cross Sectoral Issues, Technical Paper no 139; vol II: Sectoral Guidelines, Technical Paper no 140; vol III: Guidelines for Environmental Assessment of Energy and Industry Projects, Technical Paper no 154 (The World Bank, Washington DC). World Bank (1996), Lebanon: environmental strategy framework paper, Natural Resources, Water and Environment Division, Middle East Department, World Bank, Washington DC. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal March