UNDERSTANDING OF INTERCULTURAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Transcription

1 Abstract UNDERSTANDING OF INTERCULTURAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT -A Study Concept of Comparing the Differences of Quality Concepts And Total Quality Management Among Different Cultures Hong Wu Fiskeriforskning A/S, Tromsø Intercultural communication and understanding of other cultures are becoming an interesting research issue that attracts more and more scholars and theorists. The related problems and applications are taken seriously into the business agenda for many companies. In the academic quarters, there are many research papers, training courses and conference programs focusing on this issue. In a business application, especially an overseas business situation, the understanding of local cultures is a very important element for the success of business. Many multinational business corporations have their own staff or personnel for dealing the problems or issues caused by intercultural conflicts. There has been a lots of research work done in this field also. For many researchers, the concept of quality and its application for industrial business is another interesting study topic. Many business companies from the industrial world favors the function of quality and its impact to their products or other forms of outcomes. Many believe that good quality of a product or service may provide good economical profits to the company. For recent years, the research work and industrial applications seem to move their attentions to the concept of relative quality, also called subjective quality or customer needs based quality. The essential philosophy of this relative quality concept focuses on the definition of good quality. It has been changed from technique based objective measurement to customer based subjective opinion. It also shows a potential moving production oriented to service oriented. The current study concept is based on the combination of two above dimensions, thus intercultural communication and quality concepts. The study will attempt to focus on cultural differences and their impact to the differences of quality concepts. On the business application side, it will be interesting to study how intercultural communication works in a total quality management (TQM) perspective. The basic concept of TQM is mobilizing every activity in a business company such as policy, mission, strategy, work planning, personnel and employee motivation together as a whole, and optimizing every function upon a most productive level. Here, the need from the customers is the key word for the whole mobilization according to modern quality theories. The understanding of customer s quality concept is among the most essential factor to implementation of TQM for a company, and the customers needs are considered as the first priority and definition of company s quality. What about the quality concept in another culture, a culture which is quite far away from Europe both geographically and culturally? For instance, is it a similar perception on the quality towards a salmon dish by a Norwegian, a Chinese or a Tanzanian cunsumer based on their cultures? Are there only objective measures that counting the quality of a fish? Even so, different cultures may have their preference to choose the criteria of each measurement. There seem to be more comparative research works need to be done in this field. 1

2 Introduction of the Problems The Meaning of quality varies from one person s opinion to another, and from one culture to another. Reaching a total agreement on the meaning of quality is not a simple task. Like a meal, the quality of a dinner is hard to be evaluated only by reading its menu. It needs definitely the taste as well, and it may be great difference by different taste. Even for the same raw materials such as a salmon, one person may prefer to a steamed fish dinner, another person to a smoked one, while third one to a raw fish (sashimi) dinner. It is impossible to compare the quality of dinner to these three dinners, unless their objective criteria are defined before hand. Everyone has their own taste and preference, so everyone is able to claim their dinner has the best quality. Upon to now, the modern concepts on quality in the industrial societies seem to have accepted one common agreement: Quality is fitness for use (Juran 1989, p.15). This means that the user or the customer will have the first priority to decide what criteria should be for the quality. The users and customers are apparently human beings and they have own cultures, values and criteria about certain thing, including concepts of quality. It is also nature that their basic cultures, values and criteria are different since these elements were already programmed in their minds in an early age (Hofstede 1980, p.14). Such differences may possibly influence their working attitudes, behavior and outcomes. As a result, the standards or evaluations of good quality or doing a good job may also varies differently from one culture to another. The good quality of a salmon dish in Norway probably includes the elements of proper nutrition, originality of the taste and color. On the other hand, a good fish dish in China may probably counted by the style of sauces, the prepared taste or size and shape of the fish under the service. Also, the quality standards of a fish dish in Tanzania must be different from them. The historical development of quality and quality management had a strong connection with the changing need and requirements from users and customers. The earliest activities about quality in our human society that we know about can be tracked back to ca B.C. where the Egyptian people executed their huge Pyramid projects. It was noticed that they had quality controller who had responsibility for the quality of work (Aune 1993, p.27). The need and requirements at that time were more or less based on technical reliability, the performance of objective measurement and the character of eternity was considered as the first priority. This was presumably the basic philosophy and criteria for the classical quality definitions also, though there is definitely a distinction between developed and developing countries. The former may perhaps consider less degree on eternity since the needs for changing models or new fashions are more frequent than the latter. The character of eternity is also settled as the first priority because the consideration on prices and lasting time is also important for consumers in developing countries, it is presumably a part of their consume culture. The modern quality study focuses also much on the competitions in the consume markets. Consumerism is the key element for the criteria of the quality. The customers preferences are the driving force for the change of markets and products. The need of customers provides legislative approaches and changing laws for the improvement of quality and quality management (Jensin 1983, p.140). The demand for good quality also depended much on the amount of suppliers. In many industrial nations, the consuming market is matured and the competitions about the same type products or service are severe and hard. This situation will in fact elevate the criteria of the quality and improve the quality of products or service. Such condition will hardly be met in a developing market where available amount of products is not sufficient for market s need. 2

3 Classical Definitions of Quality and a Culture The definitions of quality have never been the same from one book to the other. Nearly every school thought or theoretical principle has their own definition. The latest development of definition on quality for manufacturing industry must be the definition on ISO standard which many industrial nations have agreed about. It sounds like this: [Quality is] the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. This is an approach to define the quality in relatively wide and objective aspects, and it is also an approach to define the quality without cultural colors. However, the applications of ISO (which together applies with ISO 9000 standards) are mainly limited to industrial nations, such as European countries, USA and Japan. Technically, ISO may only function well in mechanical and manufacturing industries. The compatibility of a such definition to other countries and their cultures, and other industrial sections for instance fishery industry may be questionable. The definitions of a culture will be more complicated and unsystematic than quality. Compared to ISO, there is still no international association attempting any agreement about the standard definition of a culture. There are scholars and theorists working with the definitions of a culture, and they are backgrounds are so different from one to other. Thus their definitions of a culture can be varied from anthropological, psychological, organizational, sociological, even political or geographical aspects. The following quotations are only few of them: Anthropological aspect: Culture is the knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morals, customs and other capabilities of one group distinguishing it from other groups (Ronen, 1986, p. 21). Sociological aspect: Culture is the integration of three basic elements, as attitudes, beliefs, and values of a society (Fayweather, 1959). Organizational aspect: Political aspect: Culture is a system of shared meaning generates certain value orientations which are expressed in the actor's relationship with his/her fellow-men, time, and nature (Trompenaars, 1986). Culture can be defined as the sum of environmental factors, as education, religion, language, politics, legal and technology, which are transmitted from one generation to the next in a given society (Owens & Martin, 1986). Geographical aspect: Cultures may be defined as patterns of thought and manners which are widely shared. The boundaries of the social collectivism within which this sharing takes place are problematic so that it may make as much as sense to refer to a class or regional culture as to a national culture (Child & Kieser, 1977). This is a definition giving by the geographical aspect. Psychological aspect: Culture is the integrated sum of the total of learned behavioral traits that are manifest and shared by members of a society. It may be considered as the man-made part of our environment (Hutcheson, 1980). 3

4 Overviewing to the above definitions of a culture, there are several points concerning culture which can be summarized here: 1) A culture is something labeled by a group people, not a single person. 2) There are many cultures in this world and they are all different from each other. 3) Within one culture, there usually exists harmony and cohesion among the people. 4) Between two, or more cultures, it appears easily confrontations. 5) A culture includes different indicators, as laws, languages, behavior and attitudes. 6) The consequences of a culture may influence its environments around. The impact of a culture towards the quality concepts and implementation of quality management in a given culture may be strongly regulated by the above points. Combining the definitions of quality and the definitions of a culture, it is important to be aware of the coexisting of quality and a culture for any industrial application. The correlations between quality and a culture may be illustrated as the following assumptions: -Quality is determined by users or customers who carry different cultures and values. -Each culture has own expectation and understanding towards quality. -Cultural differences bring different criteria, performance and outcomes of quality. The suggestion is using the above assumptions as the hypothesizes for the further detailed study. The main discipline of the study, for instance, the data collection and information gathering are suggested to focus on the following two directions: (a) The direction of culture and intercultural actions. (b) The direction of quality and cultural aspect on quality. The first mentioned is the study of people, their cultures, and cultures consequences in a society or a social system. It will be interesting to study how people s perception about quality, their attitudes and values toward quality performance, and their criteria of good or poor quality has varied differently from one culture to another. For instance, Americans prefer bone-free fish, Japanese appreciate red color of the fish meat, while British customers rather look for the white color (Sørensen, 1995a). They standards og quality must be different according to their different preferences. The major principle of this direction is distinguishing the differences between / among cultures. The crucial issue will be how different cultures have created different quality. The (b) direction rather focuses on the integration of quality and its cultural aspects, according to the modern definition of quality. It is ability to satisfy the stated or implied needs. The multiplicity of global cultures also indicate that needs are in great variation, and needs are different from one culture to another. However, it is indeed necessary to present a culture in the quality, or demand the quality after cultural conditions. The major principle of this direction is thus seeking the similarity between a culture and quality. The crucial issue will be how can we understand a culture so then imply it as a part of quality or quality performance. 4

5 Supporting Theories There are many theories and school disciplines that are linked with issues of cultures and quality. The supporting theories may be the combination of cultures and quality. The two major groups of these theories are mentioned as: 1) Theories of cultures and intercultural relationships. 2) Theories of quality concept and quality management. Some theorists and their theories concerning cultures and intercultural relationships are suggested to be used as supporting theories. Their theories and methodology are considered more or less as quantitative approaches. And their theoretical conclusions are rather cultural divergence based. Thus they believe the differences between cultures more than the similarity among the cultures. Some of representative theories are: Hofstede s Theory of Cultural Consequences. Ronen s Theory of Comparative and Multinational Management. Adler s Theory of Methodological Approaches in Cross-cultural Research. Hofstede s theory includes four dimensions of cultural values among people or employees from 66 countries in the world. The four dimensions are: Individualism versus Collectivism, Masculinity versus Femininity, Tolerance versus Intolerance of Uncertainty, and Power Distance versus Power Equalization. By these four dimensions, people and their cultures are possibly classified and mapped in different degrees so that we are able to see How Different they are from each other. Ronen s theory includes an overview of national cultures over most countries in the world and their business implications. The theory also made comparative study among business cultures numbers of nations, including Norway. It is a potential phenomenon for such studies that the data from Africa and Asia countries is usually lacked, for instance data from China. However, the data from Japan was included. Adler s theory gives a very good overview of the cross-cultural research and methodological issues. A list of comparative approaches is included in one of her published books. By following her theory, we can easily find the proper method which is compatible for the current study. It is a guide book of methodology issues for cross-cultural study. USA and Japan both have a strong tradition of quality research and implementation. The first modern concept quality was developed in the USA, then applied widely and efficiently in Japan, especially for automobile and mechanical industries. There are many scholars and theorists in Japan also dealing with research issues and problems in quality in recent years. It has suggested to use some classical and modern theories of quality to support the study, as: Juran s leadership for quality Ishikawa s quality control techniques and methods Kondo s human motivation for quality management Juran s theory argues that the quality is improved by planning, specially by identifying the users and customers needs. His quality approach is defined by trilogy: Quality planning (knowing customers needs), Quality control (meeting customers needs), and Quality improvement (satisfying customers needs). The needs from customers, which are strongly influenced by customers cultural identities, are considered as the first priority by his theory. 5

6 Ishikawa s theory goes on techniques for quality improvement. The most fundamental approach is quality control circles (QCC) and quality control teams and (QCT) in which the former represents the bottom-up style, and based on voluntary, while the latter represents the top-down style, and directed by superiors (Ishikawa 1990, p.219). However, both techniques are actual for quality improvement. The practical implementation may emphasize one technique over for another, which much depends on cultural conditions. Kondo s human motivation theory is based on implementation of classical psychological theories in new business or working situation. This approach prefers Maslow and Herzberg s motivation theories, but criticizes Taylor s structural management theory. Nevertheless, it will be very interesting to study how these classical motivation theories are able to function in for instance Norwegian, Chinese and Tanzanian contexts. The Expectation of the Study The introduction of this study concept is expecting to find out the correlationships between the quality concepts by different people groups and their cultures. Hopefully, the study will be able to classify the different ways of understanding quality by the people from two completely different, sampled countries, for instance Norway, China and Tanzania, and analyze the reasons of such differences by their backgrounds, as culture, values, mentality and education programs. By this, it is expected to find out the better criteria to define quality in a particular culture or a country. The outcomes of the study, hopefully, are used to map the differences between two sampled countries, in quality concepts and their different ways to manage quality in productions or services. It is also expected to use the outcomes as a part of guideline for any establishment of quality management programs or intercultural business management between two countries. The objectives of the study are to answer the following questions: Are quality concepts and understanding really different between two countries? What correlations between Norwegian cultures and their quality perceptions? Is it possible to harmonize Norwegian quality concepts into a foreign/export country? How can such different quality criteria benefit / harm each other for both cultures? By these questions, we are looking the problems, thus differences first, then making comparative study between Norwegian and a sampled foreign country, say Chinese and Tanzanian cultures. Furthermore, the comparative study objective will be focused on the issues of quality, particularly on the quality concepts, the differences on quality concepts, and different ways to manage quality. Finally, we will list up quality criteria for Norwegian culture and other national cultures, at the present time, Chinese and Tanzanian cultures and see if there is possibility to benefit them each other on implementation. 6

7 Methodology and Suggestion to the Further Study Both quantitative and qualitative approaches should be used for the investigation and data collection for a such study. The quantitative approach will presumably be based on either questionnaire survey or comparison of the secondary statistic data. The function of the quantitative approach is giving an overview of target research objects, so that their differences can be distinguished. The qualitative approach will be deep interviews to involving actors or persons, as for instance local experts or consumers, whom come from different cultures. The function of qualitative approach is describing the facts of a particular case or object, so that the details are examined. It has been suggested that the questions for both approaches will be designed on quality basis. This means the respondents will primarily be asked questions about their views on quality or quality management, not questions about cultures. Presumably, their answers may carry their cultural colors, so that their cultural backgrounds are possible to be identified by comparing or the differences among their answers, or grouping their answers. One example of the actual research questions for this study is the focus on the concepts of fish quality, and different views of fish quality. It is unknown whether the different cultures have the same criteria for the good quality of a fish. Nevertheless, it is quite possible that the answer turns to no. And it is probably hard to find a common criteria of the measurement. However, there is still possible to distinguish the criteria into subjective (personal opinions) approaches and objective (physical measures) approaches. According to the theory of cultural divergence (Hofstede, 1980), every culture has their own preferences and indicators towards a value or the quality of one thing. The value of a fish is much depended on its species, but also quality. The quality of a fish is then much depended on the preferences by the users. Even for the very objective measures as freshness, the criteria may be different from one culture to another. For instance, the question of how long time from catching the fish to the dinning table will be considered as the acceptable freshness for a fish will probably not have an unique answer by all cultures. From common sense, it is knowing that the coast cultures have much crucial attitudes toward the time than the inland cultures. A traditional Christmas dinner in South Coast of Norway demands alived cods (preferably catched early but restored alive in a seine) few hours before they end up on the dinner table, while the inhabitants from the inland seem not be such demanded. It will be interesting to compare such a geographical and cultural distinction and its impact to the views of quality for a fish. And it is reasonable to assume that their views will be quite different. The study shall also attempt to compare other measuring criteria for fish quality by different geographical and cultural groups in two major aspects of measure principles - subjective and objective criteria. The former represents human preferences and taste, while the latter represents a definite instrumental measurement (Sørensen, 1995b). The former is usually depended by individuals and will be varied from one person to another. The latter may have an objective standard to follow up, but still will be able to vary from one culture to another culture. Understanding of their differences may help us to reach properly customer s quality. For instance, the measures of smell, taste, consistency and colors, let us call them for the dimensions of quality for a fish are usually given by the point scales (Nyvold, Pedersen & Sørensen, 1995). There are two questions that can be asked in concerning intercultural concept quality: 7

8 -Will different cultures give the same preference to the smell, taste, consistency or colors, etc. Hence, for a particular culture, which dimension counts most? -Will different cultures give the same point scale for the same smell, taste, consistency or colors? Is point scale used properly for each dimension? Even within the a same dimension or point scale, the different culture may also have their preferences of quality criteria. For instance, the Japanese consumers are known for their favoritism to the fat salmons, while the Southern Europeans do not show such a preference. Hence, within the same dimension of fat, the scores (by point scale) of fat contents for a salmon may indicate different quality for Japanese consumers and Southern Europeans. By seeking the answers to the mentioned questions, it is hopefully enriching the knowledge of intercultural understanding combined quality criteria for fish consume. The better understanding of different customer groups and their cultural backgrounds will bring us to define the proper quality criteria and measurements. The understanding of quality is on an increasing demand from the market, and quality seems to become more and more important as trade mark for fish export. Understanding of other cultures and their impact to their quality criteria will surely improve the product acceptance among the consumers and possibilities for expanding of a market. Quality and cultures are two essential and elementary dimensions. However, their inter-dependent mechanism is more complicated than only the sum of these two. There are more fundamental research work and observations need to be done here. 8

9 References Adler, N. A Typology Management Studies Involving Culture Journal of International Business Studies (Fall, 1983a): Adler, N. Cross-cultural Management Research: The Ostrich and the Trend. Academy of Management Review. (No.8, 1983b): Adler, N.J. From the Atlantic to the Pacific century: cross-cultural management reviewed. & Doktor, R. Organizational Science Abroad. (1989): Ajiferuke, M. Culture and other explanatory variables in comparative studies. & Boddewyn, J. Academy of Management Journal. (Vol.13, June 1970): Aune, A. Kvalitetsstyrte Bedrift. Ad Notam Gyldendal, Child, J. Contrasts in British and West German management practice: A recipes for success & Kieser, A. cultural bound? Paper presented at the Conference on Cross-cultural Studies on Organizational Functioning, Hawaii, Fayerweather, J. The executive overseas. Syracuse University Press, Hofstede, G. Culture's Consequences. Cross-cultural research and methodology series. Beverly Hills, Ca., Sage Publications, Hofstede, G. The applicability of McGregor s theories in South East Asia. Journal of Management Development. (Vol.6, No.3, 1987): Hucheson, J.M. Transfer of Technical Training Across Cultural barriers. First International Conference on Technology for Development. Canberra, Ishikawa, K. Introduction to Quality Control. JUSE Press, Japan Jensin, E. Kvalitetsstyring, kvalitetssikring, kvalitetskontroll. Tapir, Trondheim, Juran, J. M. Juran on Leadership for Quality. An Executive Handbook. The Free Press. Toronto, Canada, Kluckhohn, F.R. Variations in Value Orientations. West port, CT: & Strodtbeck, F. Kondo, Y. Human Motivation - A Key Factor for Management. 3 A Corporation, Tokyo, Japan, Nowotny, O.H. American vs. European Management Philosophy. Harvard Business Review, Nyvold, T.E., Konsumpakket Fisk i Modifisert Atmosfære Oppdragsrapport, Fiskeriforskning, Tromsø, Pedersen, G. Norway. & Sørensen, N.Kr. Owens, S.D. Project Management And Behavioral Research In An International Context. & Martin, M.D. Project Management In Progress - Tools And Strategies For The 90s. North Holland, Ronen, S. Comparative and Multinational Management. Wiley Series in International Business, New York, Smircich, L. Concepts of culture and organizational analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly. (No.28, 1983): Sørensen, N. Kr. Kvalitetsbegrepet - ulike aspekt ved kvalitet på fisk og fiskeprodukt. (a) Kvalitetsledelse i fiskerinæringen. Fiskeriforskning, Tromsø, Sørensen, N.Kr. Måling og styring av fiskekvalitet. Kvalitetsledelse i fiskerinæringen. (b) Fiskeriforskning, Tromsø, Whitehill, Jr. Cultural values and employee attitudes: United States and Japan. Journal of Applied Psychology. (Vol.48, No.1, February 1964). 9

10 Intercultural Quality Management - One Day Seminar Understanding of Different Quality Concepts and Their Cultural Impact (Arrranged through a cooperation project between SIK and Agder Collge) The Purpose of the Seminar The purpose of this Intercultural Quality Management seminar is request to provide an introduction of different concepts or understanding of quality, specially by different cultures. The seminar will presumably focus on the correlationships between the different quality concepts by different people groups and their cultures. Hopefully, the seminar will be able to open a discussion for understanding of quality by the people from two different countries, preferably Norway and one of her overseas business partner countries. The study materials of the seminar helpfully are used to illustrate the cultural differences between two sample countries, Norway or one another overseas business partner. And their impact to the relevant quality concepts and their different ways to manage quality in productions or services. It is also expected to compare the differences of two, or more countries in their different ways of establishment of quality management programs. Furthermore, an overview of intercultural business management between two countries. The participants of the seminar are expected to obtain the answers for questions: the following Are quality concepts and understanding different between Norway and other cultures? What correlations between Norwegian cultures and their quality perceptions? What correlations between foreign / overseas cultures and their quality perception? Where is the possibility for harmonizing Norwegian quality concepts to other cultures? How can such different quality criteria benefit each other in use? By answering these questions, we are able to focus the relevant problems, thus cultural differences first, then making comparative study between Norwegian and her overseas business partners cultures. Hence, participants will presumably be aware for the differences in cultures and their impact to the differences in the quality concepts and understanding. The discussion of issues of quality, particularly on the quality concepts, the differences on concepts, and different ways to manage quality, may lead participants better understanding of quality concept from their own cultural aspect, as well as other s cultural aspects. The seminar may also attempt to list up quality criteria for Norwegian culture and one or two other sample cultures and see if there is possibility to benefit them each other on implementation. 10

11 The Contents Of The Seminar 1. An introduction of quality and quality concept - from classical to contemporary definitions to quality. 2. Modern definitions on quality - the needs of customers are essential for quality. 3. Customers are culturally dependent, so do their needs. 4. Culture determines needs, so the criteria for the quality. 5. An overview of different cultures, from anthropological aspect to economical aspect. 6. The synergy of cultural theories and quality management - matching the quality criteria and their cultural conditions. 7. Japan s quality leadership and management based on Japanese cultures, vs. American quality principles and their implementation in American cultures. Where Europe stands and what are European cultures vs. their impact to European quality criteria? 8. Norwegian overseas business activities in third world countries. Cultural differences and their impact to quality standards and implementations. 9. A dilemma on priority: Should quality standardize the world and her different cultures, or should quality concepts be determined by different cultures? 10.Be aware for cultural impact to quality and seeking realistic solutions in quality implementation for overseas business. 11