The Effect of High Involvement Work Systems and Empowerment Oriented Leadership on Job Satisfaction and Absence Frequency

Transcription

1 The Effect of High Involvement Work Systems and Empowerment Oriented Leadership on Job Satisfaction and Absence Frequency Master Thesis Human Resource Studies Student: M. M. H. van Vugt, ANR: Supervisor: Second supervisor: dr. F. C. van de Voorde dr. B. Kroon Project period: January August 2015 Project theme: Healthy workplaces

2 Abstract Healthy workplaces are increasingly important to facilitate both employee and organizational outcomes including absence frequency. This cross-sectional study aims to investigate the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between high involvement work systems (HIWS) and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency. In addition, this study investigates the interaction between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction. It was expected that they cancel each other out in influencing job satisfaction, because of their overlapping function in providing power, information, rewards, and knowledge to employees. Using a sample of 97 healthcare workers, this study found that HIWS are significantly related to job satisfaction, and that empowerment oriented leadership has a marginal positive effect on job satisfaction. No evidence was found for the mediating role of job satisfaction, and the interaction between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction. Though, gaining insight in the mediating role of job satisfaction and the interaction effect of HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership is important in clarifying the relationship between human resource practices and leadership style with absenteeism. Understanding the link between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership, and focusing on the related concepts of power, information, rewards and knowledge can provide starting points for practice in order to manage and improve sustainable employability. Keywords: high involvement work systems, job satisfaction, empowerment oriented leadership, absence frequency, healthy workplace 1

3 Table of contents Introduction... 3 Theoretical background... 6 High involvement work systems and job satisfaction... 6 Empowerment oriented leadership and job satisfaction... 7 Job satisfaction and absence frequency... 9 Job satisfaction as a mediator Interaction between high involvement work systems and empowerment oriented leadership.. 12 Method Procedure Participants Instruments Data analysis Results Correlation analysis and ANOVA Test of hypotheses Conclusion and discussion Study limitations Conclusion Recommendations for future research Practical implications References Appendix A. Questionnaire items Appendix B. Characteristics of the participants involved in this study Appendix C. Factor analyses Appendix D. Distribution of variables Appendix E. One-Way ANOVA for HIWS, empowerment oriented leadership, and job satisfaction by work location

4 Introduction Occupational health and safety management is important to facilitate the health and wellbeing of employees, and in turn affect organizational outcomes positively. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a healthy workplace is one in which workers and managers collaborate to use a continual improvement process to protect and promote the health, safety and well-being of workers and the sustainability of the workplace (Burton, 2010, p. 16). From a business perspective, organizations may provide healthy workplaces because the enormous economic cost of problems associated with health and safety at work inhibits economic growth and affects the competitiveness of businesses (Burton, 2010, p. 7). A problem for business is absenteeism, which refers to any failure of an employee to report for, or to remain at work as scheduled, regardless of the reason (Cascio, 1999, p. 596). Organizations perceive productivity loss and costs for wages and replacement, and society has to pay for healthcare and additional allowances. Employees experience health care costs, loss of income, and reduced quality of life (Van der Ploeg, van der Pal, de Vroome, & van den Bossche, 2014). Despite the reduction of the absence rate in the Netherlands, approximately from 4.1% in 2011 to 3.7% in the second quarter of 2014, absenteeism remains an important issue because of its major costs (CBS, 2014a). Approximately 2.6 billion was paid on wages for absentees by employers in 2011 (CBS, 2015). So, absenteeism still has important financial consequences on the individual, organizational, and societal level. Therefore, managing absenteeism is a relevant issue for organizations. Absence frequency is important because it predicts prolonged absence in the next year (Ybema, Smulders, & Bongers, 2010), and it is related to voluntary absenteeism (Bakker, Demerouti, de Boer, & Schaufeli, 2003; Hensing, Alexanderson, Alleback, & Bjurulf, 1998). Therefore, absence frequency, the number of times an employee reports absent (Bakker et al., 2003; Hensing et al., 1998), will be investigated in this study. Many factors influence absence frequency, including work-related factors. This study includes the work-related factors high involvement work systems (HIWS) and empowerment oriented leadership, because organizations can influence these factors in order to affect health and safety at work. HIWS are a bundle of high involvement work practices (HIWP) that offer employees opportunities for organizational involvement by increasing their autonomy and participation in work-related decision making (Boxall & Purcell, 2011; Lawler, 1996; Vandenberg, Richardson & Eastman, 1999). 3

5 Empowerment leadership refers to leaders who give their subordinates the experience of achieving control and influence at their job (Keiffer, 1984). HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership allow and encourage employees to be proactive in the organization and let them experience power, information, rewards, and knowledge (Vandenberg et al., 1999). In line with the Job Characteristics Model (JCM; Hackman & Oldham, 1976), employees who perceive HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership develop a positive attitude towards the job and feel satisfied at work, because they experience meaningfulness of work, responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of the actual results (Hackman & Oldham, 1976; Vandenberg et al., 1999). Job satisfaction is defined as the extent to which people like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) their jobs (Spector, 1997, p. 2). Previous studies indicated that job satisfaction is negatively associated with absenteeism (e.g. Cohen & Golan, 2007; Siu, 2002; Wood et al., 2012). A reason for this is that a lack of satisfaction is associated with poor physical and mental health (Faragher, Cass & Cooper, 2005). Though, previous research was often focused on the relation between job satisfaction and absence duration, and only a weak effect of job satisfaction on absence frequency was found (e.g. Notenbomer, Roelen, & Groothoff, 2006; Roelen, Koopmans, Notenbomer, & Groothoff, 2008). A key issue for research and practice is to know how to manage job satisfaction to decrease absence frequency. This study investigates the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between both HIWS and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency. Employees with low or no involvement or power, often in repetitive, simplified jobs, are more likely to be absent due to dissatisfaction (Lawler, 1996). Based on the social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity (Blau, 1964; Gouldner, 1960), it is expected that employees perceive HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership as benefits from the organization, and want to do something back in return. Employees can express their satisfaction in their behavior, by being present at work. In addition, when individuals experience sufficient reciprocity, they have less emotional distress and physical complaints (Bakker, Schaufeli, Sixma, Bosveld, & van Dierendonck, 2000; Siegrist, 2005), leading to better health and less absence. Based on the substitutes for leadership theory (Kerr, 1977; Kerr & Jermier, 1978), Jiang and colleagues (2014) proposed that service-oriented high performance work systems (HPWS) and service leadership enhance collective customer knowledge and service climate in a substitutive 4

6 manner, because both factors overlap in their functions to enhance these outcomes (Jiang, Chuang, & Chiao, 2014). In line with this study, it is expected that HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership reduce the impact of one another in relation to job satisfaction, because of its overlap in providing power, information, rewards, and knowledge to employees. This study makes a contribution to research on HIWS. First, this study will research whether job satisfaction is a mediator in the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency. Van de Voorde and colleagues (2012) argued that limited research is done regarding the relationship between high involvement practices and employee outcomes (Van de Voorde, Paauwe & van Veldhoven, 2012). Corresponding to this, little research has been conducted on the relationship between work-related factors, including HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership, and work processes experienced by employees, including involvement and empowerment. And in turn, on the influence of these work processes on employee affective outcomes, including job satisfaction, and operating outcomes, including absenteeism (Boxall & Macky, 2009). Second, this study will provide knowledge about the interaction between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership. Research on the interaction between human resource (HR) practices and leadership style is limited, and the interaction between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership has not been investigated before (Jiang et al., 2014). Third, this study will clarify the influence of this important interplay on job satisfaction. Last, implications for practice will be provided about managing job satisfaction positively for both the organization and employee. It is important for organizations to know how job satisfaction can be managed through HR practices and leadership style to decrease absence frequency. In sum, this cross-sectional study aims to investigate the mediating effect of job satisfaction in the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency. In addition, this study will focus on the interaction effect between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction. This resulted in the following research questions: To what extent does job satisfaction mediates the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency, and between empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency? And to what extent do HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership interact with each other to affect job satisfaction? 5

7 Theoretical background In the following section, the variables that are included in this study and the interrelationships between them are explained by using the social exchange theory as an underlying theory. The social exchange theory indicates that behavior is influenced by an individual s desire to maximize benefits and minimize costs (Blau, 1964). A social exchange relationship is based on the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960). Employees and organizations interact with each other. When one party experiences benefit from the other, it reciprocates benefits, which in turn leads to beneficial exchanges between parties. In this study, it is expected that when employees experience HIWS or empowerment oriented leadership, they feel satisfied and reciprocate benefits to the organization and supervisor by being present at work. High involvement work systems and job satisfaction Organizations that offer HIWS increase job satisfaction in employees by providing employees with benefits, including power, information, knowledge and rewards. Job satisfaction is defined as the extent to which people like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) their jobs (Spector, 1997, p. 2). Job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from an appraisal of one s job or job experiences (Locke, 1976, p. 1300). Other researchers stated that job satisfaction is an attitude, defined as a positive (or negative) evaluative judgment one makes about one s job or job situation (Weiss, 2002, p. 175). Vandenberg and colleagues (1999) proposed a model of HIWS by indicating high involvement work as a collective set of mutually reinforcing attributes: power (to act and make decisions about work), information (about processes, quality, customer feedback, event and business results), rewards (tied to business results and growth in capability and contribution), and knowledge (of the work, business, and the total work system) (PIRK), which influences job satisfaction, and in turn organizational performance positively (Butts, Vandenberg, DeJoy, Schaffer, & Wilson, 2009; Lawler, 1986; 1996; Vandenberg et al., 1999, p. 303). These elements empower workers to make more decisions, enhance the information and knowledge they need to do so, and reward them for doing so (Boxall & Macky, 2011, p. 41). The adoption of HIWS is aimed at obtaining a high level of commitment and involvement within the organization in a way 6

8 that proactive behavior is largely controlled by the individual instead of external factors (Wood, 2010). The Job Characteristics Model (JCM; Hackman & Oldham, 1976) proposes that five core job characteristics influence three critical psychological states: meaningfulness of work results from the job characteristics skill variety, task identity or task significance, responsibility for outcomes from autonomy, and knowledge of actual results from feedback. In turn, these psychological states affect work outcomes, including job satisfaction (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). HIWS provide the PIRK-elements to enhance employee s control at work and increase proactive behavior to achieve higher job satisfaction (Vandenberg et al., 1999). According to the JCM, organizations can increase job satisfaction by enriching jobs with more autonomy, skill utilization, and development (Wood & de Menezes, 2011). Power, information, and knowledge are related to autonomy and feedback, which enhance job satisfaction, because employees experience responsibility for outcomes and knowledge of actual results (PIRK; Lawler, 1986; 1996; Hackman & Oldham, 1976). In addition, Kanter s (1993) theory of structural empowerment states that access to empowerment structures, including opportunity and power, is associated with both individual s formal and informal power within the organization. Access to job-related empowerment structures, including HIWS as individual s formal power, leads to increased job satisfaction (Kanter, 1993). Previous research indicated that greater experience of HIWP and work enrichment is related to higher levels of job satisfaction (Macky & Boxall, 2008; Wood, 2008; Wood, van Veldhoven, Croon, & de Menezes, 2012). Based on research, the JCM and the theory of structural empowerment, it is expected that when employees experience enriched job designs, including the PIRK-elements within HIWS, they feel more satisfied at work: Hypothesis 1: HIWS are positively associated with job satisfaction Empowerment oriented leadership and job satisfaction The leadership style of supervisors contributes to the employee s perceived availability of work-related resources (Pantelidis, 2014). According to Kanter s theory of structural empowerment (1993), informal power develops from relationships and networks, for example with superiors (Kanter, 1993). At the individual level, empowerment is the experience of achieving control and influence in daily life and community participation (Keiffer, 1984). An empowering leader facilitates the experience of power in subordinates. Subordinates experience perceived 7

9 control, perceived competence, and power as being energized towards achieving valued goals, which in turn influences their empowerment positively (Menon, 2001). It is expected that empowerment oriented leadership improves job satisfaction of subordinates by letting them feel empowered within their job. Empowering leadership is originated in transformational leadership. In transformational leadership an interaction between leader and followers exists to create an envisioned change in individuals and social systems by increasing followers motivation to go beyond self-interests for the good of the organization (Burns, 1978; Bass, 1985). An transformational leader provides subordinates with an inspiring mission and vision and transforms and motivates them through idealized influence (charisma), intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration (Bass, 1985). Previous research indicated that transformational leadership highly corresponds to charismatic leadership, because charisma is necessary for both leadership styles to be effective (e.g. Northouse, 2004). Charismatic leaders act in a unique way and have extraordinary leadership abilities to motivate and activate their followers, and bring social change (House, 1977). Though, Den Hartog (1997) stated that transformational leadership is broader, and consists of two dimensions: charismatic, including inspirational motivation and idealized influence (Bass, 1985), and empowerment, including intellectual stimulation, individual consideration, and participative leadership (Bass, 1985). Charismatic and empowerment leaders provide individual attention to their subordinates and stimulate them to take initiative and responsibility (De Hoogh, den Hartog, & Koopman, 2004). Based on research from De Hoogh and colleagues (2004), this study will investigate the influence of charismatic and empowerment oriented leadership, because empowerment oriented leadership is increasingly apparent in organizations, and especially in healthcare organizations (De Hoogh et al., 2004). Supervisors in this sector encourage employees to take control, for example by stimulating self-regulated teams. Therefore, this study will investigate the role of an empowering oriented leader in affecting job satisfaction. Konczak and colleagues (2000) state that leader empowering behavior consists of six dimensions (Konczak, Stelly, & Trusty, 2000). The first dimension is the delegation of authority, by placing new responsibilities to subordinates, which may be related to the power attribute of PIRK (Lawler, 1986; 1996; Vandenberg et al., 1999). In addition, the subordinate must feel accountable for the responsibilities and leaders must encourage self-directed decision making 8

10 among subordinates, which captures the second and third dimension. The fourth dimension states that leaders must share information with their subordinates to enable them to contribute to the organization, which can be linked to the information attribute of PIRK (Lawler, 1986; 1996; Vandenberg et al., 1999). Fifth, the leader must develop the right skills among their subordinate in order to perform the job properly. Skill development is related to the knowledge attribute of PIRK (Lawler, 1986; 1996; Vandenberg et al., 1999). Last, leaders have to give their subordinates the room to make mistakes and coach them for innovative performance and to learn at work. Based on these dimensions, empowerment oriented leadership is related to the PIRK attributes, which are related to job satisfaction (Vandenberg et al., 1999). Continuing on the JCM (Hackman & Oldham, 1976), autonomy, feedback, and development affect job satisfaction positively. Supervisors can provide employees with enriched jobs in a way that they experience their work as pleasurable, meaningful and valuable. For example, when a supervisor provides subordinates with job characteristics, including autonomy, their job satisfaction increases, because subordinates experience responsibility of outcomes. Previous research found a positive relationship between empowerment and job satisfaction (e.g. Lautizi, Laschinger, & Ravazzolo, 2009; Manojlovich & Laschinger, 2002). In addition, work enrichment results in increased job satisfaction (Wood, 2008; Wood et al., 2012). Based on previous research, the JCM theory, and the theory of structural empowerment, it is expected that empowering employees, by providing them with job characteristics, including PIRK, increases their job satisfaction: Hypothesis 2: Empowerment oriented leadership is positively associated with job satisfaction Job satisfaction and absence frequency In predicting absenteeism, job satisfaction is an important factor, because satisfied employees appear to be less absent (e.g. Notenbomer et al., 2006; Roelen et al., 2008). Employees can choose to withdraw from work in several ways, including absenteeism, psychological withdrawal, lateness, and turnover (Beehr & Gupta, 1978). Two types of absenteeism can be distinguished: duration and frequency. Absence duration is related to the amount of time an employee is absent from work, and can result from health problems. Absence frequency is the 9

11 number of times an employee reports absent, and can be an indicator of voluntary absenteeism (Bakker et al., 2003; Hensing et al., 1998). The relationship between job satisfaction and absence frequency will be investigated in this study, because absence frequency is a predictor for absenteeism in future (Ybema et al., 2010). It is expected that voluntary absenteeism or absence frequency can occur when an employee is dissatisfied at work. Building upon the social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity (Blau, 1964; Gouldner, 1960), employees who receive benefits from the organization experience a positive attitude towards the organization. It is expected that when employees feel satisfied at work, they have a feeling of reciprocity because they feel that the organization is investing in them or cares about them. Employees want to do something back to benefit the organization. When employees are satisfied at work, it is expected that they report sick less often, because they experience pleasure at work and want to do good for the organization. In addition, employees may reciprocate to maintain or enhance the benefits they receive from the organization, in order to preserve the social exchange relationship (Gouldner, 1960). Previous research indicated that job satisfaction appears to be a predictor of absenteeism (e.g. Cohen & Golan, 2007; Siu, 2002; Wood et al., 2012), and is related to absence frequency (e.g. Roelen et al., 2008), because satisfied employees experience enjoyment at work and have less health complaints (Faragher et al., 2005). In addition, employees experience less emotional distress and physical complaints when they receive sufficient reciprocity, (Bakker et al., 2000; Siegrist, 2005), leading to better health and less absence. Based on these findings and the social exchange theory, it is expected that satisfied employees show lower levels of absence frequency: Hypothesis 3: Job satisfaction is negatively associated with absence frequency. Job satisfaction as a mediator Central in this section is the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency. Building upon the social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity (Blau, 1964; Gouldner, 1960), employees who receive benefits from the organization experience a positive attitude towards the organization. HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership can act as benefits for the 10

12 employee, because employees perceive power, information, rewards, and knowledge at work. In line with the JCM (Hackman & Oldham, 1976), employee s experience of these PIRK attributes increases job satisfaction (Vandenberg et al., 1999), which in turn creates a feeling of reciprocity towards the organization or supervisor (Gouldner, 1960). Satisfied employees hold a positive attitude towards the organization or supervisor, and want to do something back, because they appreciate the benefits. They feel the organization or supervisor is investing in them by providing them with power, information, rewards and knowledge, and want to benefit the organization or supervisor in return. It is expected that dissatisfied employees report sick more often. Therefore, job satisfaction can act as a mediator in the relationship between both HIWS and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency. Recently, a multi-level study has examined the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between high involvement management (HIM) and absenteeism, and between enriched job design and absenteeism. They found a significant positive indirect effect of HIM and a significant negative overall effect of enriched job design on absenteeism (Wood et al., 2012). In line with this study, it is expected that job satisfaction mediates the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency. Though, in line with the JCM and the social exchange theory, it is expected that job satisfaction negatively mediates these relationships on the individual level. When workers perceive benefits from the organization and feel satisfied, they have a feeling of reciprocity towards the organization, because they enjoy their work, and feel the organization is investing in them. Moreover, beside health and safety-related factors, reasons for absenteeism may be irresponsibility, and a lack of support or communication to employees (Hanna, Menches, Sullivan & Sargent, 2005; Barrow, 2013). Responsibility, communication, and support are related to respectively power, information, and rewards, which in turn increase job satisfaction (Vandenberg et al., 1999). Therefore, it is expected that a mediation effect of job satisfaction exists in the relationship between these PIRK elements and absenteeism. As PIRK is related to HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership, it is expected that job satisfaction will mediate the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency. Based on the social exchange theory, JCM, and previous research, it is expected that job satisfaction results from HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership, and in turn influences 11

13 absence frequency negatively on the individual level. Therefore, two mediating processes of job satisfaction will be addressed in this study: Hypothesis 4a: The relationship between HIWS and absence frequency is negatively mediated by job satisfaction Hypothesis 4b: The relationship between empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency is negatively mediated by job satisfaction Interaction between high involvement work systems and empowerment oriented leadership In predicting job satisfaction, HR practices and leadership style can interact with each other. It is proposed that both HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership affect job satisfaction positively. Based on these hypotheses, it is expected that an interaction between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership will occur. The substitutes for leadership theory, indicates that substitutes for leadership tend to negate the leader's ability to either improve or impair subordinate satisfaction and performance (Kerr & Jermier, 1978, p. 377). Based on this theory, it is expected that organizational factors, including HIWS, decrease the influence of supervisor s behavior on job satisfaction. For example, HIWS provide employees with power, information, rewards, and knowledge that are out of supervisor s control. In addition, employee s professional orientation and self-regulated teams in healthcare can reduce the influence of a leader, because of greater value of feedback from peers (Kerr & Jermier, 1978). Employees are allowed and enabled to influence their own outcomes, including job satisfaction. As a result, the supervisor will have less influence because of its overlap with HIWS in their function to increase power, information, knowledge, and rewards in employees. In line with the vitamin model of Warr (1987, 2007), more control (vitamins) is healthy up to a certain point, and beyond this point a sustained or a downturn in employee benefits will occur. The power element within HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership corresponds to control in the vitamin model. In line with this model, the effect of power as vitamins, leads to positive employee outcomes, including job satisfaction, up to a certain point. Therefore the power element within HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership can cancel each other out. 12

14 Previous research of Jiang and colleagues (2014) indicated the substantive influence of HR practices and leadership style. They found that the positive effect of both service-oriented HPWS and service leadership on collective customer knowledge and service climate was stronger when respectively service leadership and service-oriented HPWS were lower (Jiang et al., 2014). In line with this research and the substitutes for leadership theory and vitamin model, it is expected that HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership will overlap in their function to enhance job satisfaction, because both predictors tend to increase employee s power, information, rewards, and knowledge. This leads to the last hypothesis: Hypothesis 5: HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership negatively interact on job satisfaction. When both HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership are present, they will reduce the positive influence of one another on job satisfaction. 13

15 Method This cross-sectional quantitative study was conducted in May A Dutch healthcare organization, providing both intramural and extramural care, was included in this research. The study was approved by the management of the three locations involved. The sample involved all employees with a contract, and an account of the organization in these three locations. Procedure Data were collected using an online self-report questionnaire developed for this study (Appendix A). A small pilot study was conducted (N = 9) to assess whether the questionnaire was clear and easy to complete in time. After the pilot, all employees (approximately N = 250) were informed and invited to participate in the research by an introduction , announcements, posters, and face-to-face contact. Each employee received a link to the online questionnaire by e- mail from the manager, and was asked to fill out the questionnaire within three weeks. After two weeks a reminder was send to all employees to increase the response rate. In addition, paper versions of the questionnaire were handed out through face-to-face contact with the researcher. The participation of employees in this study was voluntarily, and confidentiality and anonymity was guaranteed by conducting data-analyses outside the organization without tracing responses to employees. Participants In total, 102 questionnaires were returned within the predefined three week response period, which resulted in a response rate of approximately 40.8%. Participants who only filled out the control variables were excluded, resulting in a final valid sample of N = 97. In Appendix B, the demographics and job characteristics of all participants are presented. The mean participants age was 44.65, and the majority of the sample was female (N = 85). Most participants worked part time (80.4%) and were working in care and wellbeing (66.0%). The living situation of the participants was mostly a multi person household with or without children at home, respectively 50.5% and 26.8%. 14

16 Instruments Validated instruments were used to measure HIWS, empowerment oriented leadership, job satisfaction, and workload. Additional questions were added to measure the control variables and absence frequency. High involvement work systems. HIWS were measured by using the Participative Decision-Making, Information Sharing, Performance-Based Rewards, and Training scales of Riordan and colleagues (Riordan, Vandenberg, & Richardson, 2005). These scales are based on the PIRK-elements power, information, rewards, and knowledge (Vandenberg et al., 1999; Lawler, 1986). All scales were measured on a 5-point scale ( 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree ). First, participative decision-making was measured with three power items (α =.76) (example item: I have sufficient authority to fulfill my job responsibilities ), with an explained variance of 68.5% by one component and factor loadings above.76. The Barlett s Test of Sphericity was significant (p =.000), and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value was.63 (see Appendix C for the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of all (sub)scales). A KMO value above.60 is recommended in research (Pallant, 2010). Second, the information sharing scale consisted of six items (α =.73) (example item: Company policies and procedures are clearly communicated to employees ). This scale was forced to explain the variance by one component, resulting in an explained variance of 43.7%, and factor loadings above.49. The KMO value was.75, and the Barlett s Test of Sphericity was significant (p =.000). Third, five items were included to measure performance-based rewards (α =.65) (example item: Generally I feel this company rewards employees who make an extra effort ), with an explained variance of 42.0% by one component and factor loadings above.58. The Barlett s Test of Sphericity was significant (p =.000), and the KMO value was.67. Fourth, knowledge was measured by the training scale, consisting of four items (α =.89) (example item: I receive sufficient training to do my job ), with an explained variance of 74.8% by one component, and factor loadings above.80. The Barlett s Test of Sphericity was significant (p =.000), and the KMO value was.83. The overall score of HIWS was calculated by averaging the four subscales (α =.70). The PCA indicated that the validity of this HIWS scale was good. The explained variance was 54.0%, with factor loadings above.62. The Barlett s Test of Sphericity was significant (p =.000), and the KMO value was.72. This overall score was used in the analyses. 15

17 Empowerment oriented leadership. To measure empowerment oriented leadership, the charismatic and empowerment oriented leadership subscale of the Charismatic Leadership In Organizations (CLIO; De Hoogh et al., 2004) was used. The subscale consisted of 11 items (α =.96), including formulating an attractive vision, giving sense and meaning to employee s work, leading by example, participation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. The items were assessed on a 7-point scale ( 1 = totally disagree to 7 = totally agree ) (example item: My supervisor is always looking for new opportunities for the organization ). The KMO value was.92, and the Barlett s Test of Sphericity was significant (p =.000). The validity of this scale was good with one component explaining 70.3% of the variance and with factor loadings all above.72. Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction was measured using a single item on a 10-point scale ranging from 1 to 10 (one item: In general, how satisfied are you with your job? ) (Berkhout, Boumans, van Breukelen, Huijer Abu-Saad, & Nijhuis, 2004), and was normal distributed (Appendix D). Previous research indicated that a single item measure highly correlated with scale measures, thus the validity and reliability of a one item measure is good (Wanous, Reichers, & Hudy, 1997). Absence frequency. Absence frequency was measured for the past twelve months (one item: How often did you report sick in the past twelve months? ). Because of a lack of normality, absence frequency was transformed by using the square root transformation (Pallant, 2010), which improved the skewness and kurtosis values extremely (Appendix D). Control variables. Control variables were included at the individual level, including age, gender, level of education, and living situation. Age (continuous), gender (0 = female; 1 = male), and living situation (0 = multi person household with children at home; 1 = multi person household without children at home; 2 = one person household; 3 = only parent with children at home; 4 = other) were controlled because previous research indicated that these factors influence absence frequency (e.g. Ichino & Moretti, 2009). Level of education was measured by using the standardized classification: Lower (basic education, vmbo, the first three years of havo/vwo, mbo 1 (vbo, lbo, ulo, mulo, mavo)), Middle (havo, vwo, mbo 2, mbo 3, mbo 4), and Higher (hbo-, wo-bachelor, hbo-, wo-master) (CBS, 2014b). At the job level type of job contract, job function, work location, working hours, and workload were included. Previous research indicated that type of contract was related to absenteeism (e.g. Lusinyan & Bonato, 2007), and job demands, including 16

18 working hours and workload, were related to absence frequency (e.g. Bakker et al., 2003). It was expected that job function and work location influence absenteeism as well. The following categories for job contract were used: Full-time ( 35 hours a week), Part-time, Call worker, and Student. After consultation with the nursing homes, five categories of job function were used: Care and Well-being, Horeca and Facilitair, Management, Human Resources and Other. Work location was measured by using the three locations as answer possibilities. Working hours were measured as a continuous variable. Workload was assessed using the shortened version of the workload subscale of the Vragenlijst Beleving en Beoordeling van de Arbeid (VBBA; Van Veldhoven & Meijman, 1994; Van Veldhoven & Broersen, 2003) (α =.85). This subscale included six items on a 4-point scale ( 1 = never to 4 = always ) (example item: Do you have problems with the pace of work? ). Based on the PCA, the validity of this scale was good. One component with factor loadings above.69 explained 57.8% of the variance. The Barlett s Test of Sphericity was significant (p =.000), and the KMO value was.77. Data analysis The data were analyzed using SPSS version To determine the impact of the categorical control variables level of education, living situation, job contract, job function, and work location on HIWS, empowerment oriented leadership, job satisfaction, and absence frequency, one way ANOVA s were performed using the post-hoc tukey procedure. Correlation analyses using Pearson s correlation coefficient were performed in order to investigate the relationship between HIWS, empowerment oriented leadership, job satisfaction, and absence frequency. In addition, the relationship between these variables with the control variables age, gender, working hours, and workload, was measured with the Pearson correlation coefficient. Multiple regression analyses were performed to test the hypotheses. The baseline model included the control variables, which were added in the first model of all regression analyses. First, a regression model was constructed to test the effect of HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction (hypotheses 1 and 2). Control variables were included in model 1. For hypothesis 1, model 2 included HIWS as independent variable, and job satisfaction as the dependent variable. For hypothesis 2, model 2 included empowerment oriented leadership as the independent variable, and job satisfaction as the dependent variable. In addition, HIWS and 17

19 empowerment oriented leadership were controlled for each other s influence by adding empowerment oriented leadership and HIWS in model 3, respectively for hypothesis 1 and 2. Second, a regression model was composed to test the influence of job satisfaction on absence frequency (hypothesis 3). The first model included the control variables. The second model included job satisfaction as the independent variable, and absence frequency as the dependent variable. Third, a regression model was composed to assess the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency (hypothesis 4a), and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency (hypothesis 4b). The first model included the control variables. In the second model respectively HIWS for hypothesis 4a and empowerment oriented leadership for hypothesis 4b were included as the independent variables, and absence frequency as the dependent variable. Furthermore the mediation factor job satisfaction was added in model 3. Following the conditions for mediation (Baron & Kenny, 1986), the Sobel Test was carried out when the independent variables HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership were significantly related to the mediator job satisfaction, and in turn job satisfaction was significantly related to the dependent variable absence frequency. Fourth, a regression model was constructed to determine the interaction effect between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction (hypothesis 5). Control variables were included in model 1. The second model included HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership as independent variables, and job satisfaction as the dependent variable. The interaction term, which was computed by multiplying the standardized variables of HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership, was added to the regression model in model 3. In addition, the Simple Slopes Test (Aiken & West, 1991) was used, and an interaction graph with HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership as independent variables was created to interpret their combined effect on job satisfaction. 18

20 Results Correlation analysis and ANOVA No significant differences between group means were found for level of education, living situation, job contract, and job function. So, those control variables were not included in the following regression analyses. Though, significant differences between group means were found for work location (Appendix E). The mean of location A and C differed significantly from location B in HIWS (p <.05), and a significant difference between location A and B was found for empowerment oriented leadership (p <.01). Therefore, work location was included as a dummy variable in the regression analyses with HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership as independent variables. The correlation analysis indicated that workload had a significant correlation with job satisfaction (r = -.34; p <.01), but no significant correlations were found for age, gender, and working hours. Therefore, workload was included in all regression analyses. In sum, the control variable work location was included in the regression analyses were HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership were included. Workload was included in all regression analyses, because of its significant correlation with job satisfaction. In Table 1, descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations are presented for the variables considered in the regression analyses, including absence frequency, HIWS, empowerment oriented leadership, job satisfaction, workload, and work location. Location B differed significantly from location A (reference group), resulting in significant correlations with HIWS (r =.34; p <.01), and empowerment oriented leadership (r =.36; p <.01). As mentioned before, workload had a significant correlation with job satisfaction (r = -.34; p <.01). Absence frequency did not correlate significantly with the other variables. Significant positive correlations were found between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership (r =.50; p <.01), and HIWS and job satisfaction (r =.42; p <.01). Empowerment oriented leadership was significantly correlated with job satisfaction (r =.29; p <.01). The absence frequency of participants is low in the past twelve months (.76). Overall, participants experience HIWS (3.49 on a 5-point scale), empowerment oriented leadership (5.60 on a 7-point scale), and job satisfaction (7.88 on a 10-point scale) as high in the organization. Participants experience moderate workload (2.00 on a 4-point scale). 19

21 Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and correlations of the study variables Variable Mean SD Absence Frequency HIWS Empowerment oriented Leadership ** 1 4. Job Satisfaction **.29** 1 5. Workload ** 1 6. Location B **.36** Location C ** 1 Notes: N = 97. *p <.05, **p <.01; absence frequency: transformation (SQRT(old variable)); HIWS: 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree; empowerment (emp.) leadership: 1 = totally disagree to 7 = totally agree; job satisfaction: 1 = extremely unsatisfied to 10 = extremely satisfied; workload: 1 = never to 4 = always; and work location: 0 = location A (reference group), 1 = location B, 2 = location C; no differences between groups were found for age, gender, level of education, living situation, job contract, job function, and working hours, so those control variables are not included in this table and in the following regression analyses. 1 N = HIWS: high involvement work systems, constituted by calculating the participative decision-making (power), information sharing, rewards, and training (knowledge) (PIRK) subscales. 20

22 Test of hypotheses Multiple regression analyses were performed to examine the direct effect of HIWS on job satisfaction, and empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction (hypotheses 1 and 2). As shown in Table 2 and Table 3, the positive effect of HIWS on job satisfaction was found to be significant (ß =.36; p <.01) even when controlled for empowerment oriented leadership (ß =.33; p <.01). Therefore, hypothesis 1 was supported. As shown in Table 2, it appears that empowerment oriented leadership is marginal positively related to job satisfaction (ß =.21; p <.10). However, the influence of empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction becomes non-significant when controlled for HIWS (ß =.08; p =.491) (Table 3). Therefore, hypothesis 2 was marginally supported in this study. In addition, workload was significantly negative related to job satisfaction (ß = -.33; p <.01). Table 2 Direct effect of HIWS on job satisfaction controlled for empowerment oriented leadership Model/variable R 2 R 2 F F B SE ß Model 1 (control variables) *** 4.80*** Workload *** Location B Location C Model *** 3.91* Empowerment oriented * leadership Model *** 9.24*** HIWS *** Notes: *p <.1, **p <.05, ***p <.01; work location: 0 = location A (reference group), 1 = location B, 2 = location C. 1 HIWS: high involvement work systems, constituted by calculating the participative decision-making (power), information sharing, rewards, and training (knowledge) (PIRK) subscales. 21

23 Table 3 Direct effect of empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction controlled for HIWS Model/variable R 2 R 2 F F B SE ß Model 1 (control variables) *** 4.80*** Workload *** Location B Location C Model *** 13.10*** HIWS *** Model ***.48 Empowerment oriented leadership Notes: *p <.1, **p <.05, ***p <.01; work location: 0 = location A (reference group), 1 = location B, 2 = location C. 1 HIWS: high involvement work systems, constituted by calculating the participative decision-making (power), information sharing, rewards, and training (knowledge) (PIRK) subscales. Table 4 shows the influence of job satisfaction on absence frequency (hypothesis 3). No significant direct effect was found in the relationship between job satisfaction and absence frequency (ß = -.03; p =.776). Therefore, hypothesis 3 was not supported in this study. Table 4 Multiple regression analysis predicting absence frequency Model/variable R 2 R 2 F F B SE ß Model 1 (control variables) Workload Model Job satisfaction Notes: *p <

24 Based on the assumptions of mediation analysis of Baron and Kenny (1986), there is no mediation of job satisfaction in the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency because of a lack of significance in the relationship between job satisfaction and absence frequency. Therefore, the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency was not supported in this study (hypothesis 4a and 4b). In testing hypothesis 5, a multiple regression analysis was performed to predict the interaction effect of HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction (Table 5). The addition of the interaction term in model 3 did not significantly increase the R 2 (p =.119). Therefore, the interaction effect between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction was not supported in this study. Because of a lack of evidence for the moderation, the Simple Slopes Test (Aiken & West, 1991) was not performed. Table 5 Multiple regression analysis predicting job satisfaction Model/variable R 2 R 2 F F B SE ß Model 1 (control variables) ** 5.05** Workload ** Location B Location C Model ** 6.19** HIWS ** Empowerment oriented leadership Model ** 2.73 Interaction Notes: *p <.05, **p <.01; work location: 0 = location A (reference group), 1 = location B, 2 = location C. 1 HIWS: high involvement work systems, constituted by calculating the participative decision-making (power), information sharing, rewards, and training (knowledge) (PIRK) subscales. 2 Interaction effect of HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership. 23

25 Conclusion and discussion The purpose of this cross-sectional study among healthcare employees (N = 97), was to examine the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency. In addition, this study tested the interaction between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction. This study indicated that HIWS are significantly positively associated with job satisfaction (hypothesis 1), and empowerment oriented leadership has a marginal positive effect on job satisfaction (hypothesis 2). No evidence was found for supporting the remaining hypotheses. HIWS have a significantly positive effect on job satisfaction, therefore hypothesis 1 was supported. In line with the JCM (Hackman & Oldham, 1976), power, information, rewards and knowledge can result in enriched job designs for employees, leading to higher job satisfaction. In addition, HIWS, as job-related empowerment structures, increase job satisfaction as stated in the theory of structural empowerment (Kanter, 1993). Previous studies indicated a positive relation between HIWS and job satisfaction (e.g. Lawler, 1986; Macky & Boxall, 2008; Vandenberg et al., 1999). The effect of empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction was marginally significant (hypothesis 2). A positive relationship between empowerment oriented leadership and job satisfaction was indicated by the theory of structural empowerment (Kanter, 1993), and in previous studies (Lautizi et al., 2009; Manojlovich & Laschinger, 2002). Corresponding to these theories and findings, power, information, rewards, and knowledge as incorporated in HIWS and empowerment leadership, increase job satisfaction in employees (Vandenberg et al., 1999). The marginal significance in the relationship between empowerment oriented leadership and job satisfaction as found in this study, might be caused by the fact that multiple leaders are present in the organization involved. Employees have scored only their own leader, but the data consisted of multiple leaders. No significant results were found in the relationship between job satisfaction and absence frequency (hypothesis 3). Previous research found a marginal effect of job satisfaction on absence frequency (e.g. Roelen et al., 2008). Though, in this study, the effect of job satisfaction on absence frequency was nonsignificant. Job satisfaction and absence frequency were determined with an one-item self-report measure. More detailed measures could lead to more insights in these variables to support the hypothesis. The self-reported questionnaire could also have led to 24

26 information bias because participants could give social desirable answers regarding HIWS, empowerment oriented leadership, job satisfaction, and absence frequency. In addition, because of the cross-sectional nature of this study, long term effects could not be examined. In this study, absence frequency was measured for the last twelve months, and HIWS, empowerment oriented leadership, and job satisfaction were measured at this moment. This post-predictive design is a limitation for finding adequate relationships between the predicting variables and absence frequency, because absence frequency should be measured in another time perspective than the predicting variable. When measuring the predicting variables at this moment, absence frequency should be measured for the next twelve months. In addition, employees may experience other work-related factors that influence their absence frequency. Employees in healthcare often experience power at work, for example through self-regulated teams and self scheduling, and often feel responsible in their work because of intensive contact with clients and colleagues. For example, by self rostering, employees perceive and take the responsibility to respond to their own and their colleagues needs. In this way, employees can anticipate on for example their private life, which can influence absence frequency. In line with the social exchange theory and norm of reciprocity (Blau, 1964; Gouldner, 1960), it was expected that employees feel satisfied through receiving benefits from the organization and the supervisor, including HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership, and in turn want to do something back by being present at work (hypothesis 4a and 4b). However, a mediation analysis was not performed because of a lack of significance between job satisfaction and absence frequency. The lack of significant results can be explained by methodological issues, including the specific characteristics of the sample and the influence of other work-related factors on absence frequency as mentioned before. Therefore the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency, was not supported in this study (hypothesis 4a and 4b). A recent multi-level study found a significant positive indirect effect of HIM and a significant negative overall effect of enriched job design on absenteeism (Wood et al., 2012). In contrast to this research, no evidence was found on the individual level. The interaction between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction was almost negative significant (p =.119) (hypothesis 5). The small sample size might prevented 25

27 the researcher from finding evidence for the moderation. Jiang and colleagues (2014) proposed the interaction effect of leadership and HR practices on employee and organizational outcomes (Jiang et al., 2014). They found that when service-oriented HPWS were low, service leadership was more positively related to collective customer knowledge and service climate, than when serviceoriented HPWS were high (Jiang et al., 2014). In line with these results and the substitutes for leadership theory (Kerr, 1977; Kerr & Jermier, 1978), this study revealed HIWS as a more important indicator for job satisfaction than empowerment oriented leadership. In presence of HIWS, the influence of empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction became weaker. This can be explained by the specific characteristics of the sample. Healthcare employees, including nurses, are professionals, and HIWS give them the opportunity and responsibility to determine their own outcomes. For example, employees work in self-regulated teams, perform self rostering, and respond to ongoing changes in healthcare. This decreases the influence of empowerment oriented leadership on employee outcomes, including job satisfaction, because these employees are professionals and are already responsible for their work. Based on the vitamin model (Warr, 1987; 2007), power lead to positive employee outcomes up to a certain point. The fact that empowerment oriented leadership was less positively related to job satisfaction in presence of HIWS, might indicate that employees already achieved that certain point. In this way, the power element within HIWS cancels the influence of leadership out. Though, no significant effect was found for the interaction between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership. More research is needed to investigate this effect. Study limitations Limitations of the study exist in methodological issues regarding the sample and procedure of this study. The cross sectional data of this study do not reveal information of the influence of HIWS and empowerment on job satisfaction and absence frequency over time. In addition, the small numbers of participants (N = 97), might have caused that no evidence was found for hypotheses 3, 4 and 5, and that small correlations were found with absence frequency. Most participants in this study were female. In addition, healthcare workers have specific characteristics. For example, most employees in healthcare are professionals in their job, which can impact the influence of supervisors on their behavior. In addition, healthcare workers are closely involved 26

28 with clients and colleagues, which can influence absence frequency, because they can experience the responsibility to be at work. This decreases the external validity of this research to other sectors. Additionally, this study resulted in data which are specific for the nursing homes included. To increase the generalizability of results, a larger sample resulting from several organizations or sectors is needed. Sources of bias could have appeared because the questionnaire was a selfreported questionnaire, which can lead to social desirable answers or information bias. In addition, it is possible that only employees with less absence frequency and higher levels of satisfaction participated in this study. The questionnaire was online for only three weeks. Therefore, employees on holiday or sick leave were excluded from research. Limitations in the questionnaire were identified after collecting data. The questionnaire did not include open-ended questions, which had provided more insight. For example, more insight could be provided in other (work-)related factors, beside job satisfaction, that influence absence frequency. In addition, some participants indicated that they had several leaders, and differences in leadership style between leaders existed as well. For example, self rostering and self-regulated teams were not implemented equally across the locations. Additionally, participants indicated after filling out the questionnaire that they experienced difficulties with the information-statements regarding communications with the higher management, because they were not aware of these communications. The experience of performance-based rewards remained low among the participants. In examining the data in detail, it turned out that participants experienced moderate to high levels of recognition and appreciation but that they usually did not experience promotion or an increase in salary when they perform well. This can be explained by the fact that healthcare workers receive appreciation from colleagues and clients, but materialistic rewards are not common. Therefore, the reward subscale was less applicable in healthcare. Training and knowledge were experienced as high in the healthcare organization. This corresponds to the organizational culture of the healthcare organization as a learning organization, because the healthcare organization provides internships to students and trainings to their employees. The specific results in the healthcare sector lead to less external validity. 27

29 Conclusion HIWS were significantly positive related to job satisfaction, and empowerment oriented leadership had a marginal positive effect on job satisfaction. The mediating role of job satisfaction and the interaction effect between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction could not be supported. This study provided new insights in the potential mediating role of job satisfaction, and the potential interaction effect between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership, but further research is needed. Recommendations for future research Based on the analysis and interpretation of the study results, recommendations can be provided for future research. First, the potential mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency is worth to investigate in future to broaden the knowledge regarding HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership in organizations. This will provide starting points for occupational health management in practice. Previous research indicated a significant relation between job satisfaction and absence duration (e.g. Notenbomer et al., 2006; Roelen et al., 2008), possibly job satisfaction might be a mediator in the relationship between HIWS or empowerment oriented leadership and absence duration. In addition, the post-predictive design in this study should be replaced by measuring absence after one year, to examine the effect of predicting variables over time. Second, other predictors, including job stress, might be a better predictor for absenteeism (e.g. Leontaridi & Ward, 2002). Therefore, future research can investigate the mediating role of job stress in the relationship between HIWS and absence frequency, and empowerment oriented leadership and absence frequency. In addition, job satisfaction is strongly related to job stress (e.g. Zangaro & Soeken, 2007). Therefore, it is interesting to investigate the mediating effect of job satisfaction in the relationship between HIWS and job stress, and empowerment oriented leadership and job stress. Third, the interaction between HR practices and leadership style is underrepresented in research and should receive more attention. Building upon the substitutes for leadership theory (Kerr, 1977; Kerr & Jermier, 1978), and the vitamin model (Warr, 1987; 2007), HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership interact negatively with each other, because overlap exists between the PIRK attributes, and the provision of power is favorable 28

30 up to a certain point. In this study, no evidence was found for the interaction between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership on job satisfaction. Though, it was indicated that in presence of HIWS, empowerment oriented leadership was no longer related to job satisfaction. The small sample size of this study might have prevented to find evidence. Future research should focus on the interaction effect between HR practices and leadership style to get more insight into their effect on employee and organizational outcomes. Last, the target population in this study was very specific, future research could find evidence for the hypotheses in investigating the profit sector. In addition, it is interesting to compare the non-profit with the profit sector, because of differences in characteristics of participants, supervisors and organizations. Practical implications Healthy workplaces and improving sustainable employability are increasingly important for organizations. HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership are positively associated with job satisfaction, and job satisfaction is, based on previous research, related to absenteeism. Managers need to take into account the opportunities to influence both HR practices and leadership style in a way to foster job satisfaction and sustainable employability. Conditions of work attendance should be increased by focusing on the concepts of power, information, rewards, and knowledge to improve employee satisfaction. In addition, HIWS appeared to be more important in predicting job satisfaction than empowerment oriented leadership. Therefore, organizations should consider the implementation of HIWS in developing and maintaining a healthy workplace. Based on this research, no evidence was found for the interaction effect, but understanding the relationship between HIWS and empowerment oriented leadership is important in managing job satisfaction and sustainable employability. Possibly a negative effect may appear, indicating that when HIWS are low or not present, empowerment oriented leadership is needed in order to increase job satisfaction. 29

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38 Appendices Appendix A. Questionnaire items Demographics 1 Age [Number] 2 Gender (female/male) 3 Education - Lower: basic education vmbo, first three years of havo/vwo, mbo 1 (vbo, lbo, ulo, mulo, mavo)) - Middle: havo, vwo, mbo 2, mbo 3, mbo 4 - Higher: hbo-, wo-bachelor, hbo-, wo-master) 4 Living situation - Multiperson household with children at home - Multiperson household without children at home - Only parent with children at home - One person household - Other Job characteristics 1. Work location - Location A - Location B - Location C 2. Job function - Care and wellbeing: e.g. verzorgende, helpende, verpleegkundige, zorgassistent(e), activiteitenbegeleid(st)er, gastvrouw of heer - Horeca and Facilitair (H&F): e.g. receptionist(e), technische dienst, huishoudelijk of horeca medewerk(st)er - Management: e.g. teammanager, ondersteunend medewerker manager - Human Resources - Other 37

39 3. Job contract - Full time (>34 hours a week) - Parttime (<35 hours a week) - Call worker - Student) 4. Working hours [Number] 5. Workload 1 = Never 2 = Sometimes 3 = Often 4 = Always 1. Do you have too much work to do? 2. Do you have to work extra hard in order to complete something? 3. Do you have to hurry? 4. Do you find that you are behind in your work activities? 5. Do you have problems with the work pace? 6. Do you have problems with the work pressure? High involvement work systems (HIWS) 1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = neither agree nor disagree 4 = agree 5 = strongly agree 1. Participative Decision Making / Power 1. I have sufficient authority to fulfill my job responsibilities. 2. I have enough input in deciding how to accomplish my work. 3. I have enough freedom over how I do my job. 2. Information Sharing 4. Company goals and objectives are clearly communicated to employees. 5. The channels for employee communication with top management are effective. 6. Top management is adequately informed of the important issues in my department. 7. Company policies and procedures are clearly communicated to employees. 8. I often have to rely on the grapevine to get job-related information (reverse). 38

40 9. Most of the time I receive sufficient notice of changes affecting my work group. 3. Performance-Based Rewards 10. I am satisfied with the amount of recognition I receive when I do a good job. 11. Generally I feel this company rewards employees who make an extra effort. 12. There is a strong link between how well I perform my job and the likelihood of receiving a raise in pay/salary. 13. There is a strong link between how well I perform my job and the likelihood of receiving high performance appraisal ratings. 14. If I perform well, I am more likely to be promoted. 4. Training 15. I receive sufficient training to do my job. 16. Education and training are integral parts of this company s culture. 17. I have had sufficient/adequate job-related training. 18. If I felt that I needed more job-related training, the company would provide it. Empowerment oriented leadership Hieronder vind je een aantal uitspraken over leiderschap. Geef voor iedere uitspraak aan in hoeverre deze jouw directe leidinggevende weergeeft. Daarvoor omcirkel je één van de cijfers 1 t/m 7 die achter de uitspraken staan. 1 = helemaal niet mee eens 2 = niet mee eens 3 = meer niet dan wel mee eens 4 = midden 5 = meer wel dan niet mee eens 6 = mee eens 7 = helemaal mee eens 1. Mijn leidinggevende praat met medewerkers over wat voor hen belangrijk is. 2. Mijn leidinggevende stimuleert medewerkers om op nieuwe manieren over problemen na te denken. 3. Mijn leidinggevende heeft visie en een beeld van de toekomst. 39

41 4. Mijn leidinggevende is altijd op zoek naar nieuwe mogelijkheden voor de organisatie. 5. Mijn leidinggevende moedigt medewerkers aan om onafhankelijk te denken. 6. Mijn leidinggevende is in staat anderen enthousiast te maken voor zijn/haar plannen. 7. Mijn leidinggevende betrekt medewerkers bij besluiten die van belang zijn voor hun werk. 8. Mijn leidinggevende stimuleert medewerkers hun talenten zo goed mogelijk te ontwikkelen. 9. Mijn leidinggevende geeft medewerkers het gevoel aan een belangrijke, gemeenschappelijke missie/opdracht te werken. 10. Mijn leidinggevende laat zien overtuigd te zijn van zijn/haar idealen, opvattingen en waarden. 11. Mijn leidinggevende delegeert uitdagende verantwoordelijkheden aan medewerkers. Job satisfaction How satisfied are you with your current job? [Number: 1-10] Absence frequency How often were you absent from work in the past twelve months? [Number] 40

42 Appendix B. Characteristics of the participants involved in this study Variables Total (N = 97) Demographics Age (18-64) 1 ; mean(sd) 44.65(12.45) Gender, female; N(%) 85(87.6) Education level 2 ; N(%) Lower 15(15.5) Middle 67(69.1) Higher 15(15.5) Living situation; N(%) Multi person household with children at home 49(50.5) Multi person household without children at home 26(26.8) One person household 8(8.2) Only parent with children at home 8(8.2) Other 6(6.2) Employment characteristics Work site; N(%) Location A 48(49.5) Location B 23(23.7) Location C 26(26.8) Job function; N(%) Care and Wellbeing 64(66.0) Horeca and Facilitair 19(19.6) Other 3 14(14.4) Job contract; N(%) Fulltime 11(11.3) Parttime 78(80.4) Other 4 8(8.2) Working Hours (3-45) 1 ; mean(sd) 25.98(7.37) 1 Minimum and maximum value 2 Lower: basic education, vmbo, the first three years of havo/vwo, mbo 1 (vbo, lbo, ulo, mulo, mavo); Middle: havo, vwo, mbo 2, mbo 3, mbo 4; Higher: hbo-, wo-bachelor, hbo-, wo-master 3 Management, 7(7.4%), Human Resources, 3(3.2%), and Other, 3(3.2%) 4 Call worker, 4(4.2%), and Student, 4(4.2%) 41

43 Appendix C. Factor analyses Table 1. PCA High involvement work systems scale* Subscale/statistics Factor 1 Participative Decision Making / Power.73 Information Sharing.81 Performance-based Rewards.62 Training / Knowledge.77 Eigenvalue 2.16 Explained variance (%) 54.0 KMO.72 Bartlett s test of sphericity.000 Method: Principal Component Analysis *calculated by averaging the four subscales: Power, Information, Performance-based Rewards and Knowledge/Training. Table 2. PCA Participative Decision Making subscale Item/statistics Factor 1 I have sufficient authority to fulfill my job responsibilities.82 I have enough input in deciding how to accomplish my work.90 I have enough freedom over how I do my job.76 Eigenvalue 2.05 Explained variance (%) 68.5 KMO.63 Bartlett s test of sphericity.000 Method: Principal Component Analysis 42

44 Table 3. PCA Information Sharing subscale, forced one factor Item/statistics Factor 1 Company goals and objectives are clearly communicated to employees The channels for employee communication with top management are effective Top management is adequately informed of the important issues in my department Company policies and procedures are clearly communicated to employees I often have to rely on the grapevine to get job-related information (reverse) Most of the time I receive sufficient notice of changes affecting my work group Eigenvalue 2.62 Explained variance (%) 43.7 KMO.75 Bartlett s test of sphericity.000 Method: Principal Component Analysis Table 4. PCA Performance-based Rewards subscale Item/statistics Factor 1 I am satisfied with the amount of recognition I receive when I do a good job Generally I feel this company rewards employees who make an extra effort There is a strong link between how well I perform my job and the likelihood of receiving a raise in pay/salary There is a strong link between how well I perform my job and the likelihood of receiving high performance appraisal ratings If I perform well, I am more likely to be promoted.60 Eigenvalue 2.10 Explained variance (%)

45 KMO.67 Bartlett s test of sphericity.000 Method: Principal Component Analysis Table 5. PCA Training subscale Item/statistics Factor 1 I receive sufficient training to do my job.83 Education and training are integral parts of this company s culture.80 I have had sufficient/adequate job-related training.72 If I felt that I needed more job-related training, the company would provide it.64 Eigenvalue 2.99 Explained variance (%) 74.8 KMO.83 Bartlett s test of sphericity.000 Method: Principal Component Analysis Table 6. PCA Charismatic and Empowerment oriented leadership scale (CLIO subscale) Item/statistics Factor 1 Mijn leidinggevende praat met medewerkers over wat voor hen belangrijk is Mijn leidinggevende stimuleert medewerkers om op nieuwe manieren over problemen na te denken Mijn leidinggevende heeft visie en een beeld van de toekomst.81 Mijn leidinggevende is altijd op zoek naar nieuwe mogelijkheden voor de organisatie Mijn leidinggevende moedigt medewerkers aan om onafhankelijk te denken

46 Mijn leidinggevende is in staat anderen enthousiast te maken voor zijn/haar plannen Mijn leidinggevende betrekt medewerkers bij besluiten die van belang zijn voor hun werk Mijn leidinggevende stimuleert medewerkers hun talenten zo goed mogelijk te ontwikkelen Mijn leidinggevende geeft medewerkers het gevoel aan een belangrijke, gemeenschappelijke missie/opdracht te werken Mijn leidinggevende laat zien overtuigd te zijn van zijn/haar idealen, opvattingen en waarden Mijn leidinggevende delegeert uitdagende verantwoordelijkheden aan medewerkers Eigenvalue 7.74 Explained variance (%) 70.3 KMO.92 Bartlett s test of sphericity.000 Method: Principal Component Analysis Table 7. PCA Workload Item/statistics Factor 1 Do you have too much work to do?.71 Do you have to work extra hard in order to complete something?.84 Do you have to hurry?.77 Do you find that you are behind in your work activities?.77 Do you have problems with the work pace?.77 Do you have problems with the work pressure?.69 Eigenvalue 3.47 Explained variance (%) 57.8 KMO.77 Bartlett s test of sphericity.000 Method: Principal Component Analysis 45

47 Appendix D. Distribution of variables Table 1. Characteristics of the initial variable of absence frequency (N = 94) Mean(SD) Minimum/ Maximum Skewness Kurtosis Absence frequency 1.15(1.86) Figure 1. Distribution of the initial variable absence frequency 46

48 Table 2. Characteristics of the square root variable of absence frequency (N = 94) Mean(SD) Minimum/ Maximum Skewness Kurtosis Absence frequency square root.75(.77) Figure 2. Distribution of absence frequency with a square root transformation 47

49 Table 3. Characteristics of the variable job satisfaction (N = 94) Mean(SD) Minimum/ Maximum Skewness Kurtosis Job satisfaction 7.87(1.03) Figure 3. Distribution of job satisfaction 48