REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS. 1. Explain work simplification. In what situations is this approach to job design appropriate?

Transcription

1 REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Explain work simplification. In what situations is this approach to job design appropriate? Work simplification evolved from scientific management theory. It is based on the premise that work can be broken down into simple, repetitive tasks to maximize efficiency. This approach to job design involves assigning most of the administrative aspects of work (such as planning and organizing) to supervisors and managers, while giving lower-level employees narrowly defined tasks to perform according to methods established and specified by management. Work simplification is appropriate in a stable environment, and in settings employing individuals with mental disabilities or lacking in education and training (as in some third-world operations). It is not effective in a changing environment in which customers or clients demand custom-designed products and/or high-quality services, or one in which employees want challenging work. Moreover, among educated employees, simplified jobs often lead to lower satisfaction, higher rates of absenteeism and turnover, and sometimes to a demand for premium pay to compensate for the repetitive nature of the work. (page 125) 2. Differentiate between job enlargement, job rotation, and job enrichment, and provide an example of each. Job enlargement involves assigning workers additional tasks at the same level of responsibility to increase the number of tasks they have to perform. Also known as horizontal loading, job enlargement reduces monotony and fatigue by expanding the job cycle and drawing on a wider range of employee skills. For example, if the work was assembling chairs, a worker who previously only bolted the seat to the legs might take on the additional tasks of assembling the legs and attaching the back, as well. Job rotation is another technique to relieve monotony and employee boredom. This involves systematically moving employees from one job to another. Although the jobs themselves don't change, workers experience more task variety, motivation, and productivity. The company gains by having versatile, multiskilled employees who can cover for one another efficiently. For example, a worker might assemble chairs for several days, then move to the table assembly area for a few, and spend the remainder of the week working in the shipping area, packing chairs and tables. Job enrichment is defined as any effort that makes an employee's job more rewarding or satisfying by adding more meaningful tasks and duties. Also known as vertical loading, job enrichment involves increasing autonomy and responsibility by allowing employees to assume a greater role in the decision-making process and become more involved in planning, organizing, directing, and controlling their own work. Enriching jobs can be accomplished through such activities as: increasing the level of difficulty and responsibility of the job; assigning workers more authority and control over outcomes; providing feedback about individual or unit job performance directly to employees; adding new tasks requiring training, thereby providing an opportunity for growth; or assigning individuals specific tasks or responsibility for performing a whole job rather than only parts of it. (page 71-72) 3. What is involved in the human-engineering approach to job design? Why is it becoming increasingly important? Human engineering (or ergonomics) seeks to integrate and accommodate the physical needs of workers into the design of jobs. It aims to adapt the entire job system - the work, environment, machines, equipment, and processes - to match human characteristics. Doing so results in eliminating or minimizing product defects, damage to equipment, and worker injuries or illnesses caused by poor work design. As Canadian employers fight for competitiveness, the issues of workers' compensation, lost time due to injury, and the need to provide modified work programs top the list of challenges that must be met. Designing jobs and equipment with the aim of minimizing negative physiological effects for all workers is thus linked to competitive advantage. In addition, human engineering can aid in meeting the unique requirements of individuals with special needs and adapting jobs for older workers, accommodation measures that are

2 becoming increasingly important, given current demographic trends. (page 73-74).The fact that ergonomics is becoming increasingly important is also related to the following facts: almost one-half of all lost-time injuries are caused by repetitive motion or overexertion repetitive strain injuries are the greatest single contributor to workers compensation claims, and cost the Canadian economy nearly $800 million each year a recent research study revealed that a majority of employees rank design issues second only to compensation as a reason to accept or leave jobs ergonomics has become a collective bargaining issue 4. We discussed several methods for collecting job analysis data - questionnaires, the position analysis questionnaire, and so on. Compare and contrast these methods, explaining what each is useful for and listing the pros and cons of each. Interviews, questionnaires, observation, and participant diaries are known as the conventional data collection methods, since they are all qualitative in nature. They are the most popular methods for gathering job analysis data, and provide realistic information about what job incumbents actually do and the qualifications and skills required. Associated with each are certain advantages and disadvantages, as summarized in Table 3.1. By combining two or more conventional techniques, some of the disadvantages can be overcome. The Interview - Three types of interviews are used to collect job analysis data: individual interviews with each employee; group interviews with employees having the same job; and supervisory interviews with one or more supervisors who are thoroughly knowledgeable about the job being analyzed. The interview is probably the most widely used method. The major advantage is that the incumbent can report activities and behaviour that might not otherwise come to light. Interviews also provide an opportunity to explain the need for and functions of job analysis, allow for probing, and can let the interviewee vent frustrations or views that might otherwise go unnoticed by management. Interviews are also relatively simple and quick, and are more flexible than surveys. There are several additional advantages to group interviews. First, groups tend to do better than individuals with open-ended questions. Also, such interviews may also be higher in reliability and validity due to cross-checking. The major drawback of the interview technique is potential distortion of information, whether due to outright falsification or honest misunderstandings. A job analysis is often used as a prelude to changing a job's pay rate. Knowing that fact, employees tend to exaggerate certain responsibilities, while minimizing others. Obtaining valid information can thus be a slow process. Interviewing is also fairly labour-intensive, and depends heavily on rapport between the interviewer and respondent. Group interviews are also fairly costly, because of the number of people taken away from their jobs to participate. Questionnaires - Having employees fill out questionnaires to describe their job-related duties and responsibilities is another good method of obtaining job analysis information. Whether structured, unstructured, or a combination of the two, questionnaires have advantages and disadvantages. A questionnaire is a quick and efficient way of obtaining information from a large number of employees and is less costly than interviewing hundreds of workers, for instance. Structured surveys lend themselves easily to computer analyses. This method also lends itself to situations in which the survey sample is widely scattered. A drawback is the fact that developing the questionnaire and testing it can be an expensive and timeconsuming process. Other disadvantages include the fact that this technique is dependent on the communication skills of respondents, does not allow for probing, and tends to focus on perceptions of the job. Observation - Direct observation is especially useful when jobs consist mainly of observable physical activities. Direct observation and interviewing are often used together. One approach is to observe the worker on the job during a complete work cycle. All of the observed job activities are noted. Then, after as much information as possible is accumulated, the incumbent is interviewed, asked to clarify points not

3 understood, and explain what additional activities he or she performs that weren't observed. Another approach is to observe and interview simultaneously, while the jobholder performs his or her tasks. Advantages include the fact that this method focuses more on reality than on perceptions, and that a thirdparty observer tends to have more credibility than job incumbents, who may have reasons for distorting the information provided. Disadvantages relate to the fact that observation can influence the behaviour of job incumbents, and its unsuitability for jobs requiring mental effort, those in which the employee engages in important activities that occur only occasionally, and those with long job cycles. Participant Diary/Log- Another technique involves asking employees to keep a diary/log or a list of what they do during the day, along with the time each activity takes. This can produce a very complete picture of the job, especially when supplemented with subsequent interviews with the employee and his or her supervisor. Another advantage is its appropriateness for jobs with a long job cycle. This method requires the participation and cooperation of job incumbents, something that it not always easy to attain. Other disadvantages include the focus on perceptions and the fact that the employee might try to exaggerate some activities and underplay others. However, the detailed, chronological nature of the log tends to minimize this problem. Quantitative Job Analysis Techniques- Although most employers use interviews, questionnaires, observations, and/or diaries/logs for collecting job analysis data, there are many times when these narrative approaches are not appropriate. For example, when the aim is to assign a quantitative value to each job so that they can be compared for pay purposes, a more quantitative job analysis approach may be best. The two most popular quantitative methods include: Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) - The position analysis questionnaire is a very structured job analysis questionnaire that is filled in by a job analyst. The PAQ contains 194 items, each of which represents a basic element that may or may not play an important role in the job. The job analyst decides whether each item plays a role on the job and, if so, to what extent. The advantage of the PAQ is that it provides a quantitative score or profile of the job in terms of how that job rates on five basic dimensions: (1) having decision-making/communication/social responsibilities, (2) performing skilled activities, (3) being physically active, (4) operating vehicles/equipment, and (5) processing information. The PAQ's real strength is in classifying jobs. Results can be used to compare jobs to one another; this information can then be used to determine appropriate pay levels. Functional Job Analysis (FJA) Functional job analysis rates the job not only on responsibilities pertaining to data, people, and things, but also on the following dimensions: the extent to which specific instructions, reasoning, and judgment are required to perform the task; the mathematical ability required; and the verbal and language facilities involved. This quantitative technique also identifies performance standards and training requirements. 5. While not legally required, having job descriptions is highly advisable. Why? How can firms ensure that their job specifications are legally defensible? Job Descriptions and Human Rights Issues While employers are not legally obligated to have job descriptions, it is highly advisable, since failure to develop such descriptions may mean that job duties are never determined, clarified, prioritized, and justified. Human rights legislation requires employers to ensure that there is no discrimination on any of the prohibited grounds in any aspect or terms and conditions of employment. Essential job duties can be clearly identified in the job description. When assessing suitability for employment, training program enrolment, and transfers or promotions; and appraising performance, the sole criteria examined should be KSAs required for the essential duties of the job. Even when an employee

4 cannot perform one or more of the essential duties of the job due to reasons related to a prohibited ground, such as a physical disability or religion, an employer is expected to make reasonable accommodations to the point of undue hardship. (page 150) Writing Legally-Defensible Job Specifications - Writing the job specification involves examining the duties and responsibilities and answering the question, "What human traits and experience are required to do this job?" Both skill and effort factors should be considered, as well as the human implications of the working conditions. To comply with human rights legislation, it is imperative that all qualifications listed in the job specifications be justifiable, based on the current job duties and responsibilities. Unjustifiably high educational and/or lengthy experience requirements can lead to systemic discrimination. For that reason, many employers are no longer indicating that a degree or diploma is mandatory; rather, they specify that the position calls for a university degree in a specific area, a college diploma in that area, or an equivalent combination of education and work experience. The qualifications of the current incumbent should not be confused with the minimum requirements, since he or she might be under- or overqualified. To avoid overstating or understating qualifications, it is helpful to ask the question, "What minimum qualifications would be required if this job were being filled in the immediate future?" When developing job specifications for entry-level positions for which on-the-job training will be provided, identifying the actual physical and mental demands is critical. The goal is to identify those personal traits - the human requirements - that are valid predictors of job success. A physical demands analysis - which identifies the senses used, and type, frequency, and amount of physical effort involved in the job - is often used to supplement the job specification. Having such detailed information is extremely beneficial when determining accommodation requirements. Identifying the human requirements for a job is accomplished either through a judgmental approach or statistical analysis. The judgmental approach is based on the educated guesses of job incumbents, supervisors, and HR managers. The usual procedure to obtain the required information is to ask questions on the job analysis questionnaire such as, "What does it take in terms of education, knowledge, training, and the like to do this job?" When this approach is used, it is important that all qualifications listed are justifiable based on the current job duties and responsibilities. The NOC and Career Handbook can provide helpful reference information. Basing a job specification on statistical analysis is more difficult. Basically, the aim is to statistically determine the relationship between (1) some predictor or human trait such as verbal or written communication skills, keyboarding speed, or finger dexterity and (2) some indicator or criterion of job effectiveness (such as performance, as rated by the supervisor). The objective is to determine whether there is a correlation between them, which means that the former predicts the latter. In this way, the human requirements for performing the job can be statistically ascertained. This method is more legally defensible than the judgmental approach, since human rights legislation forbids using traits that could lead to discrimination on a prohibited ground in any employment decisions, unless the employer can prove that there is a bona fide occupational requirement. A statistical validation study provides such proof. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Why isn't it always desirable or appropriate to use job enrichment or include the five core dimensions when designing jobs? How would you determine how enriched an individual employee s job should be? Job enrichment programs are more successful in some jobs and settings than in others. Moreover, not all employees want additional responsibility and challenge of enriched jobs or those including the five core dimensions. Some people prefer routine jobs and may resist job redesign efforts. In addition, job redesign efforts almost always fail when employees lack the physical or mental skills, abilities, or education needed to perform the job. Furthermore, neither approach will correct job dissatisfaction problems related to inequitable compensation, inadequate benefits, or lack of job security. Unions have sometimes resisted job enrichment, fearing that management will expect workers to take on more responsibility and challenge without additional

5 compensation. Managers, fearing a loss of authority and control, or worried about possible elimination of supervisory jobs, have also been sources of resistance. The strength of the linkage among job characteristics, psychological states, and work outcomes is determined by the intensity of an individual employee's need for growth. Thus, the key to determining how enriched an individual employee s job should be and/or the extent to which the five core job characteristics should be present is assessing the intensity of his or her need and desire for growth. For individuals with high growth needs, enriched jobs or those including the five core dimensions lead to high internal motivation, high-quality work performance, high satisfaction with their work, and low turnover and absenteeism. (page 72) 2. Assume that you are the job analyst at a bicycle manufacturing company in British Columbia, and have been assigned responsibility for preparing job descriptions (including specifications) for all of the supervisory and managerial positions. One of the production managers has just indicated that he will not complete the job analysis questionnaire you have developed. (a) How would you handle this situation? (b) What arguments would you use to attempt to persuade him to change his mind? (c) If your persuasion efforts failed, how would you go about obtaining the job analysis information you require to develop the job description for his position? (a) I would try to discover the cause of his resistance. If it is simply a matter of not understanding the importance of this information and/or the reasons why it is being collected, providing additional information may be advantageous. Perhaps he is confusing this process with some type of efficiency evaluation. In such case, explaining that job analysis is the procedure firms use to determine the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of each job, and the human attributes (in terms of knowledge, skills, and abilities) required to perform it (page 93), may be all that is required to overcome his resistance. If that tactic failed, I would seek advice from my boss, since he or she might have additional hints regarding how this situation should be handled. Presumably, completing the questionnaire has the support of senior management and is required of all employees. Perhaps an explanation from the HR Manager would overcome the production manager s resistance. (b) Arguments to attempt to persuade him to change his mind include: First of all, job analysis is the cornerstone of a wide range of HRM activities. It is used to develop job descriptions and job specifications. Having accurate information about jobs and their human requirements is essential for legal compliance in a number of areas. For example: Human Resources Planning: Knowing the actual requirements of jobs is essential in order to plan future staffing needs. When this information is combined with knowledge about the skills and qualifications of current employees, it is possible to determine which jobs can be filled internally and which will require external recruitment. Job analysis information is also extremely helpful in assessing how a firm's employment equity goals can be met most effectively. Recruitment and Selection: The job description and job specification information should be used to decide what sort of people to recruit and hire. Identifying bona fide occupational requirements and ensuring that all activities related to recruitment and selection are based on such requirements, is necessary for legal compliance in all Canadian jurisdictions. Compensation: Job analysis information is essential for determining the relative value of and appropriate compensation for each job. Job evaluation should be based on the required skills, physical and mental demands, responsibilities, and working conditions - all assessed through job analysis. The relative value of jobs is one of the key factors used to determine appropriate compensation and justify pay differences if challenged under human rights or pay equity legislation. Information about the actual job duties is also necessary to determine whether a job should be classified as exempt or nonexempt for overtime pay and maximum hours purposes, as specified in employment standards legislation. I would point out that a job reevaluation might result in higher pay for his position if there have been responsibilities added since it was previously evaluated. I would also indicate that the fact that his position is currently classified as exempt is likely the result of a previous job analysis process.

6 Performance Appraisal: To be legally defensible, the criteria used to assess employee performance must be directly related to the duties and responsibilities identified through job analysis. The standards used must also be justifiable. Training, Development, and Career Management: By comparing the KSAs that employees bring to the job with those that are identified by job analysis, managers can determine the gaps. Training programs can then be designed to bridge these gaps. Having accurate information about jobs also means that employees can prepare for future advancement by identifying gaps between their current KSAs and those specified for the jobs to which they aspire. If he is an individual with upward mobility goals, I would discuss the important role that job analysis and skills inventories play in succession planning. Job Design: Job analysis is useful for ensuring that all of the duties having to be done have actually been assigned, and identifying areas of overlap. Also, having an accurate description of each job sometimes leads to the identification of unnecessary requirements, areas of conflict or dissatisfaction, and/or health and safety concerns that can be eliminated through job redesign. Such redesign may increase morale and productivity and ensure compliance with human rights and occupational health and safety legislation. (c) If all of my efforts at persuasion and those of the HR Manager failed, with the permission of my boss and support of senior management, I would use observation or the PAQ technique. Since his job likely involves a fair number of unmeasurable mental activities, and some important activities that might occur only occasionally, my preference would be PAQ. 3. Since the top job in a firm (such as president, executive director, or CEO) is by nature broader in scope than any of the other jobs, is there less need for a job description for the president? Why or why not? While it is true that the job descriptions for lower-level positions tend to include more detailed explanations of duties and tasks, job descriptions are equally critical for senior management positions, including president or CEO. Such descriptions tend to include broader responsibility statements, rather than an outline of specific tasks. Having a job description and job specifications for the most senior-level position are absolutely essential for HR planning, recruitment and selection, compensation, performance appraisal, and succession planning purposes. Even the most senior-level person is accountable to others, such as a board or stockholders. Shareholder activism is combining with other changes to tighten up the restrictions on what firms pay their top executives, thus increasing the importance of having a job description. For example, the Ontario Securities Commission has rules regarding disclosure of executive compensation (salary, bonus, stock options and other compensation) for companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange. The chief executive officer s pay must always be disclosed, as well as that of the next four highest paid employees. Further, boards of directors must disclose how they make executive compensation decisions, and hence must act responsibly in reviewing and setting executive pay. That includes determining the key performance requirements of the executive s job; assessing the appropriateness of the firm s current compensation practices; conducting a pay-for-performance survey; and testing shareholder acceptance of the board s pay proposals. A related development for public sector employees was the Ontario government s requirement that, beginning in 1996, public disclosure be made of salaries for provincial government employees earning $ or more. The law also applies to employees in the broader public sector, including hospitals, universities, school boards, crown agencies, and municipalities.