Introduction 3. Finding Markets 9. Sourcing Material

Transcription

1

2 Introduction 3 Typical Functions of Handlers and Reclaimers 5 About This Manual 6 Who Should Read This Manual 6 Generalized Post-Consumer Plastics Recycling Flow Chart 7 Finding Markets 9 Factors to Consider When Looking for a Market 9 Reclaimers as a Market 12 Defining Markets 13 End-Users as a Market 15 How Do I Locate a Market? 16 Sourcing Material Identieing Scrap Plastics Commodity Thermoplastics What are the Sources of Scrap Plastic? How Do I Use the SPI Codes? Estimating Quantities Available Negotiating a Contract Working with Private Haulers Working with Local Governments Competition How Can I Identify Uncoded Resins? Worksheet: Estimating Plastics Feedstock in the Waste Stream Worksheet: Estimating Plastics Feedstock from Municipal Programs Text printed on 100% recycled paper (at least 25% post-consumer content)

3 ~ ~ ~ Designing a Handling Operation 41 Site Requirements Building Requirements Equipment Requirements What is a MRF? Baling in a Rural Operation Storage Requirements Quality Requirements Health and Safety Requirements Hazardous Material Residue and Rejects Facility Regulations Risks and Opportunities 67 Worksheet: Estimating Processing and.. Operating Costs 70 Plastics Recycling Flow Chart 73 Appendices 75 Appendix A Estimates of Post-Consumer Plastics Packaging Recycled iq Calendar Years 1990 and Appendix B ISRI Baled Recycled Plastic Commercial Guidelines 77 App-endix C OSHA Office Locations 95 Appendix D EPA Regional Offices 101 Appendix E For Additional Information/ Publications of Interest 103 ( c

4 lntr I n the past five years, recycling has become a visible part of the American business landscape. While the recycling of industrial scrap materials - from paper and textiles to metals and plastics - has been occurring for decades in the United States, large-scale municipally sponsored recycling programs are a relatively new and rapidly growing phenomenon. As these recycling programs have developed, municipal officials have become increasingly aware that plastics are a growing segment of the solid waste stream. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), plastics packaging as a percentage of total discards increased from half a percent by volume in 1960 to 10 percent by volume in Many communities are adding plastics to their existing recycling programs and many new recycling programs are including plastics as a targeted material from the outset. In fact, a recent survey conducted by the plastics industry identified over 6,000 communities across the country that have access to plastics recycling. As with other recyclables, the infrastructure for recycling plastics consists of four major components: Collection: Handling: Reclamation: End-Use: Rather than being discarded after serving their intended purpose, plastics are collected for recycling. Collected plastics are sorted to enhance quality and compacted to reduce storage and shipping costs. Sorted plastics are cleaned and processed into flakes or pellets of consistent quality acceptable to manufacturers - or in some cases directly into an end product. Pellets or flakes are converted into new products.

5 The plastics handler is a critical link in the plastics recycling infrastructure. A handler takes the first step in transforming waste or scrap plastics into a viable market commodity. Now, more than ever before, plastics handling operations are needed to accommodate the increasing amount of postconsumer plastics targeted for recycling at the municipal, commercial, and industrial levels.

6 Typical Functions of Handlers and Reclaimers" st-consumer plastics ) are delivered to the facility in es and dumped onto a tipping floor. From there, a conveyor. As they move down the sorted, either mechanically or manually. other recydables and certain plastic types, cs are sorted, they are either depositpment, onto a conveyor that leads to mat or into a storage bin until sufficient material accumulated. Processing may involve cleaning and dating. Ideally, each type of plastic is baled or granu- The baled or granulated material normally is stored onto a vehicle for shipment to market. dlers, plastics reclaimers typically plastics for sale to end-users who, in r the manufacture of products. In some cases, one entity may fdfd the role handler and plastics reclaimer. There currently are plastics handlers operating in the United States, 156 as both handler and reclaimer. and Aasociatzs, "1992 Post-Consumer Plastics Handlers &

7 About This Manual In developing a post-consumer plastics handling business, there are three basic issues to be addressed: sourcing plastic scrap, building and operating a facility and marketing processed material. This manual provides a thorough discussion of these issues and some of the ways that they can be addressed successfully. It is likely that the post-consumer plastics handling industry will evolve dramatically in the next decade - becoming more complex and sophisticated. Although the information presented in this manual has been researched caremy, and is believed to be accurate as of September 1992, some data may become outdated. Therefore, use this manual as a tool in identifymg and thinking through the issues to be addressed in building a viable longterm business. The manual should not be interpreted as a warranty or guarantee that post-consumer plastics handling is a suitable business opportunity for any particular person.. Who Should Read This Manual? This manual seeks to provide the basic tools for starting up a plastics handling operation to anyone interested in pursuing the opportunity: Recycling companies who are familiar with other scrap commodities, such as paper or metals, and who are interested in broadening their business to include plastics; 0 Entrepreneurs interested in entering the field of plastic recycling; 0 Investors considering the opportunities in the field of secondary materials processing and marketing; 0 Processors of municipal solid waste or industrial plastic reclaimers wishing to expand their operation to include sorting and handling activities; and 0 Local governments interested in expanding their recycling capabilities.

8 Typical Functions of Handlers and Reclaimers along with other recyclables) are delivered to the facility in able are loaded onto a conveyor. As they move down the r, materials are sorted, either mechanically or manually. are sorted from other recyclables and certain plastic types, into processing equipment, onto a conveyor that leads to equipment or into a storage bin until sufficient material ing is accumulated. Processing may involve cleaning and R.W. Beck and Associates, 1992 Post-Consumer Plastics Handlers &

9 About This Manual In developing a post-consumer plastics handling business, there are three basic issues to be addressed: sourcing plastic scrap, building and operating a facility and marketing processed material. This manual provides a thorough discussion of these issues and some of the ways that they can be addressed successhlly. It is likely that the post-consumer plastics handling industry will evolve dramatically in the next decade - becoming more complex and sophisticated. Although the information presented in this manual has been researched carefully, and is believed to be accurate as of September 1992, some data may become outdated. Therefore, use this manual as a tool in identifylng and thinking through the issues to be addressed in building a viable longterm business. The manual should not be interpreted as a warranty or guarantee that post-consumer plastics handling is a suitable business opportunity for any particular person. Who Should Read This Manual? This manual seeks to provide the basic tools for s arting up a pla: ics handling operation to anyone interested in pursuing the opportunity: Recycling companies who are familiar with other scrap commodities, such as paper or metals, and who are interested in broadening their business to include plastics; Entrepreneurs interested in entering the field of plastic recycling; Investors considering the opportunities in the field of secondary materials processing and marketing; Processors of municipal solid waste or industrial plastic reclaimers wishing to expand their operation to include sorting and handling activities; and Local governments interested in expanding their recycling capabilities.

10 1 -a Generalized Post-Consumer Plastics Recycling Flow Chart 1

11 Sorting Into Generic Stream Mechanical Sort Manual Sort I Densification t Baling Granulating I Operation Involved in Sorting of Generic Streams, Granulation, Washing and Pelletizing for End Product Manufacturing

12 Generalized Post-Consumer Plastics Recycling Flow Chart Curbside Pick-Up (Possible Compaction) Public Drop-off Buy-Back Centers I Operations Where Reclaimed Plastic Material is Transformed Into a Consumer Product

13 .

14 Finding ecuring a market for processed material not only provides a stream of income to a handling facility, but also dictates the type of sorting and processing measures that will be required and the quality standards to be met. J The effort to secure markets should be undertaken early in the development process - not postponed until material is ready for sale. The market will, to a large degree, dictate the configuration of the processing facility. Factors to Consider When Looking for a Market When establishing handling capabilities, it is important to keep the big picture in mind. The ultimate goal is to produce a material that, afker handling and reclaiming, will be marketable to an end-user. In considering the use of post-consumer plastics in its operation, an end-user is looking for a feedstock that has properties similar to virgin feedstock. If the recycled feedstock meets end-user specifications, the next consideration usually is the cost of recycled resin as compared to the cost of virgin resin. For some resin types, a manufacturer can realize significant savings by using recycled versus virgin resin. For other resin types, the cost of producing the recycled resin exceeds the cost of virgin resin. In these instances, an end-user s motivation to use recycled resin may be driven more by factors such as demand for recycled-content products than by resin cost. When defining the specific handling services to be provided by a new operation, keep in mind that the objective of the handler is to add value to the recycled plastics. The following considerations will affect the handling

15 and marketing of post-consumer plastics: Market needs; Demand for specific resins; Quality specifications; Market location; Resins reclaimed; and Market agreements. Matching capabilities with needs: Because of the wide variety of potential uses for recycled plastics, processing needs vary. As a result, handling capabilities should be matched to the needs of the targeted market or reclaimer, as well as to the needs of those collecting and delivering materials to the handler. For example, if a potential market will buy or accept mixed plastics, it may be most effective for the handler to simply bale plastic as it is delivered. On the other hand, a particular market may require product purity by resin type and color with little or no contamination. To meet these requirements, the handler may need to sort and bale materials. In making decisions on processing capabilities, the handler also will want to take into consideration the value of the materials and the costs associated with processing this material. Demand for particular resins: Contamination levels, material uniformity, and material characteristics such as heat tolerance and color can impact the demand for - and thus the value of - recycled plastics. For example, clear PET, which can be made into products of any color, has a greater value than green PET, which is limited in its reuse due to color. Similarly, the value of a bale of natural HDPE will be affected by the degree of contamination. If contamination is too great, the market simply may reject the bale. For a bale with slightly less contamination, the market may pay a lower price. For a bale with little or no contamination, the market may pay a premium price. Quality specifications of the reclaimer and/or end-user: Market quality specifications will have direct bearing on the processing capabilities required of the handler. Processed post-consumer plastics can be viewed within a product quality spectrum. At the high end of the spectrum are plastics that have been sorted, baled and/or custom-ground and are contaminant-free. At the low end of the spectrum are loose or baled mixed plastics with a relatively high level of contamination.

16 Location of the reclaimer and/or end-user: Market location and the means of transporting materials to the market also must be considered in defining processing capabilities and securing markets. The distance of the handling facility fkom the market, the type of transportation to be used and the volume of materials to be transported influence facility configuration and storage capacity, as well as the cost of the handling operation. Type(s) of resin reclaimed: Some reclaimers may work with only one resin type. Others may accept multiple resins. How many and which resins a reclaimer accepts will affect the handler s processing operation and storage and transportation requirements. Market agree men ts: Many handlers historically have marketed material simply based on longterm working relationships. Playing the market enables them to select the best market at any given time. However, handlers increasingly are signing contracts or, at a minimum, less-formal written agreements with markets. The decision to enter into a formal agreement with a market may be based on several factors. If a handler has operated in the past without contracts and sees no threat of competition, formal market agreements may not be necessary. Even if there is competition for markets, a handler still may not want to enter into formal agreements since maintaining flexibility may be to the handler s economic advantage. Another factor that might lead a handler to forgo material contracts is available storage space; if there is sufficient storage space to wait for optimal market conditions, a handler may not want to have market agreements. A handler may want to have a formal agreement with a market if there is more handled material available than markets for those materials. If efficient facility operation demands that processed material is removed quickly from the facility, it may be important to have a market contract. Also, local governments may favor a handler that has guaranteed contracts, even if that handler offers a lower lower price for the community s recyclables. If a formal agreement is called for, the agreement should address the types of issues defined in Negotiating a Contract on p. 27:

17 Quantity of material; Specifications; Quality of material (amount of contamination); Delivery requirements, including point of delivery; Price, including with what measure the price will fluctuate; and Payment terms. Reclaimers as a Market Traditionally, industrial scrap plastic reclaimers were located near the source of scrap material, eliminating the need for a separate handling operation. Today, with the increased emphasis on recycling post-consumer plastic, some sources of material are a long distance away from the reclaimer. Many reclaimers have expanded their operations to accept plastics from handlers located closer to the source (ix., plastics manufacturing plants). In addition, some larger handlers also reclaim post-consumer plastics. The reclaimer's job is to transform used plastics into a feedstock for manufacturing new products. The processes used in reclaiming post-consumer plastics include washing and drying, custom blending, extrusion and pelletizing. Shredding and granulating is almost always a component of a post-consumer plastics reclaiming operation, as well. Shredding and granulating: Plastic containers usually are reduced to a uniform particle size prior to cleaning. This often is done by the reclaimer but some handlers may grind sorted plastics rather than bale them. Grinding requires higher attention to quality, but ground material generally commands a higher price. (See p. 56 for more details.) Washing and drying: Cleaning processes typically have evolved through experience and are closely guarded by reclaimers for competitive reasons. Innovations in plastic sorting and cleaning are expected over the next decade. One commonly used cleaning technique involves hot water (160" to 180" F), a mild detergent or caustic agent and agitation. The detergent concentration must be controlled so as not to adversely affect the properties of the plastic. Most post-consumer plastics can be cleaned effectively with this technology.

18

19 This process can also be used to separate the various materials in granulated soft drink bottles. During washing, PET flakes from the container body and duminum flakes from bottle caps will sink while the HDPE flakes from the base cup and PP from closures float, providing a clean material separation. The HDPE is skimmed off the top. The PET and aluminum are separated, ofien through the use of electrostatic separators, which take advantage of the materials different electrical conductivity. Large centrihges and mechanical presses can then be used to remove excess water before the cleaned flake is dried in centrifugal or hot air dryers. - ~ ~ - Extrusion and pelletizing: Once dried, plastic flakes are forced mechanically through a cylindrical heated barrel and compressed, creating friction that melts the flakes. Next, the melt is homogenized and put through a series of filters or screens to remove remaining solid contaminants. This is a particularly important step Xthe reprocessed material is to be used in high-value applications. The melted plastic then is forced through a die consisting of a series of small holes in a steel plate. ryt this point in the reclamation process, the recycled plastic achieves characteristics similar to those of virgin plastic. Pelletizing is the process whereby the extruded plastic is cut into pellets. Basic pelletizing techniques include the following: Hot face pelletizers are perhaps the most commonly used and simplest to operate. The molten extruded material is forced through holes in a circular die. An attached blade at the discharge end cuts pellets of specific size. There are three types of hot face pelletizers: air, water spray and underwater. Air pelletizers often are used for PVC and polyethylene polymers. Air circulating through the cutting chamber initially cools the pellets and conveys the pellets to fluidized bed dryers for hrther cooling. Alternatively, the pellets are discharged directly into a water trough and later dried in fluidized beds or centrifugal dryers. These machines produce pellets at rates of up to 10,000 pounds per hour. Water spray pelletizers, also called water ring pelletizers, produce pellets at up to 30,000 pounds per hour and differ only in using a water-injected cutting chamber for the initial cooling of pellets. This type of pelletizer is limited in use to materials such as flexible PVC and ABS.

20 Many reclaimers use underwater pelletizers for LDPE and HDPE. As the name implies, the cutting blade is located under a stream of water. Recent developments in underwater pelletizing technology have made new machines simpler to operate than their forerunners. Today s systems can produce pellets at rates up to 50,000 pounds per hour. Underwater pelletizers cut strands of molten plastic, creating less noise and prolonging blade life. This type of machine requires less horsepower to operate and occupies less floor space because the pelletizer is coupled directly onto the extruder die face. Cold-cutting systems include dicers and strand pelletizers. Both differ from hot face pelletizers in that the pellets are cut after the plastic material has been extruded into a continuous strand, air or water cooled then dried. Cutting polymers in a solid form will increase noise and reduce blade life. These systems also require more floor space than hot face systems. End-Users as a Market In some cases, a handler may market plastics directly to an end-user. This is possible if the handler has the ability to prepare the plastics in a way that is acceptable to the end-user. This depends both on the end-user s specifications and the processing capability of the handler.

21

22 Sourci 0 nce markets have been identified, sourcing material is the next step in determining the viability of a post-consumer plastics handling business. The prospective handler must have a reliable, consistent flow of material. This can be accomplished by contracting with private sources, local governments or businesses who generate or collect scrap plastics. Identifying Scrap Plastics The sourcing process logically begins with an assessment of materials availability. Because end-users - firms that manufacture plastic products - seek particular types of plastics, it is important to identifjr available plastic scrap by resin type. Plastics can be categorized into four groups: commodity thermoplastics, engineering thermoplastics, thermosets and multi-component, or composite plastics. These categories are based on the plastics uses and physical properties. Commodity thermoplastics are the plastics category most commonly found in both the municipal and commercial/institutional solid waste streams. They are produced in high volumes at relatively low cost and account for approximately two-thirds of all plastics sales. These plastics are prime candidates for recycling because of the high volume of material available for capture and recycling, as well as their ability to be remolded. The following discussion on material sourcing is, therefore, limited to commodity thermoplastics. Com mod i ty Therm o p I asti cs There are five basic resins, or types of plastic, included in the category of commodity thermoplastics:

23

24 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET); Polyethylene (PE); Polyvinyl chloride (PVC); Polypropylene (PP); and Polystyrene (PS). Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET): / Polyethylene terephthalate is the most commonly recycled post-consumer plastic packaging material. Representing about 30 percent of the plastic bottle market, PET is used primarily for soft drink bottles; however, other PET packaging applications include edible oil, liquor, soap and shampoo bottles and peanut butter jars. While PET is a commodity thermoplastic, becadse of its physical properties, it also can be used as an engineering grade resin. PET is clear, tough and acts as a barrier to gases, particularly carbon dioxide. In 1991, approximately 807 million pounds of PET were converted into soft drink bottles. Nationally, this averaged to about one two-liter bottle per household per week. (About seven two-liter bottles weigh one pound.) Approximately 36 percent of PET soft drink bottles were recycled in Overall, approximately 293 million pounds of all post-consumer PET bottles were recycled in This represents 24 percent of the total virgin PET bottle sales of 1.2 billion pounds in Current end-uses for postconsumer PET include new soft drink and beverage bottles, carpet and fiber, household cleaner bottles, and insulation. Polyethylene (PE): Polyethylene is the most widely used consumer plastic. Polyethylene is divided by density into two primary families: high density polyethylene (HDPE) and low density polyethylene (LDPE). LDPE is used widely in applications requiring clarity, inertness, processing ease and a moisture barrier. It frequently is used as film in applications such as bread bags, grocery sacks, trash bags and shrink wrap. The recoverability of LDPE is affected by its diverse uses and difficulties associated with separating it out as a contaminant-free feedstock from the remainder of the waste stream.

25 HDPE is characterized by its stiffhess, low cost, ease of forming and resistance to breakage. Products commonly made from HDPE include containers of all sizes and shapes, such as milk, water and juice bottles; bleach and detergent bottles; motor oil bottles; margarine tubs; and bulk food and ice cream containers. It also is used in grocery sacks. HDPE use represents 60 percent of the plastic bottle market. In 1991, approximately 2.3 bitlion pounds of household bottles were made from HDPE. Approximately 950 million pounds of natural, or unpigmented, HDPE bottles (i.e., milk and water jugs) are discarded each year. This represents a significant source of material for a plastics handle;. In 1991, approximately 133 million pounds of natural HDPE bottles were recycled. For pigmented bottles, 1.3 billion pounds were sold in 1991, of which 92 million pounds were recycled. Total HDPE bottles reclaimed in 1991 equaled 225 million pounds, or approximately 10 percent of all HDPE bottles. Natural postconsumer HDPE, such as milk and water jugs, currently commands a premium price over pigmented HDPE because it can be remanufactured into a greater vhiety of end-products. Common end-uses for recovered HDPE include products such as detergent and motor oil bottles, garbage cans, pails, buckets, recycling bins, irrigation and drain pipe, crates, nursery containers and toilet partitions. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): Polyvinyl chloride, often called vinyl, is one of the most versatile plastics because of its blending capability. It can be made into products ranging from credit cards to heavy-walled pressure pipes to crystal-clear food packaging, the latter most often for cooking oils, household chemicals, automotive care products, and health and beauty aids. The properties of vinyl include good clarity and chemical resistance. Vinyl bottles make up approximately five percent of the plastic bottles found in an average household. About 2 million pounds of post-consumer PVC bottles were recycled in In September 1989, Occidental Chemical Corporation announced a nationwide commercial program to buy back vinyl bottles. Baled bottles are purchased in lots of more that 5,000 pounds at prices equivalent to or higher than comparable grades of baled PET bottles. I

26 Polypropylene (PPI: Polypropylene is resistant to chemicals and fatigue and has good heat resistance. It has gained wide acceptance in applications ranging from fibers and films to appliance parts, and from hrniture to food packaging, such as screw-on caps and lids, some yogurt and margarine tubs and syrup bottles. For the last 30 years, PP also has been used as the primary material for automotive batteries because it is lightweight, durable and recyclable. PP often is used for long-life items. According to the plastics industry s 1991 Annual Post-Consumer Plastics Recycling Survey, 144 million pounds of PP from used automotive batteries are recycled each year in the United States, accounting for a large percentage of all spent batteries. About 40 percent of the recovered PP is used in the next generation of batteries. The balance is used for other automotive applications and in consumer products, including wheels for barbecue grills and lawn mowers. Polystyrene (PS): Polystyrene is a versatile resin with physical properties that include clarity, the ability to foam and relative ease of processing. While it is one of the least-used plastics for household packaging, it is used in some yogurt containers, egg cartons, meat trays, rigid disposable drinking cups, plates, cutlery and foam cups. Both rigid and expanded polystyrene (EPS), or foamed polystyrene, are used extensively as packaging material, including compact disk and cassette cases, foamed foodservice clamshells, loose fill packaging and electronic component packaging. A growing amount of PS now is being recycled: 13 million pounds were collected in 1990 and 24 million pounds were collected in Initial efforts to recycle both non-foodservice and foodservice PS in hospitals, schools, distribution centers and quick service restaurants are proving successful. PS collection programs also are underway at school cafeterias and businesses. The National Polystyrene Recycling Company (NPRC) was formed by the nation s largest polystyrene manufacturers to establish a nationwide postconsumer PS recycling infrastructure. The NPRC has opened several regional reprocessing facilities to handle post-consumer PS. Each facility has the capability to recycle 13 million

27

28

29 pounds per year, when fully operational, The NPRC estimates that it will have recycled roughly 20 million pounds of post-consumer PS in 1992, equivalent to 2.3 billion 12-ounce cups Another significant component of the PS recycling infrastructure is represented by a group called the Association of Foam Plastics Recyclers (AFPR). AFPR represents a network of PS foam converters across the country that act as collection and processing sites for material that oftentimes is destined for an NPRC facility. (For the recycling rates of post-consumer commodity plastics, see Appendix A.) Estimating Quantities Available There are several factors to consider when estimating the quantities of plastic scrap available to support a potential handling operation. These include the size of the geographic area likely to use the services, the generators of material, the competition for post-consumer plastic in the area and legislative programs or incentives - in place or anticipated - that may enhance or inhibit recycling efforts. Estimating the amount of plastic scrap available in a given service area requires some careful research. Determine the size of the service area: In general, most handlers receive material from within a 50-mile radius of their facility. The handler must determine at what distance post-consumer plastics can be collected realistically and cost-effectively. The handler either can collect plastics directly from the sources or can require delivery to the handling facility. Either way, long hauling distances mean high transportation costs. This is even more of a consideration for plastics than for other recyclables since most post-consumer plastic products have a high volumeto-weight ratio. Demographic factors may determine how large the service area needs to be in order for a potential handling operation to be profitable. If the population is high and there is considerable commercial activity in the area, more post-consumer plastic will be generated within a smaller service area. The presence of commercial businesses can also impact the availability of plastic materials. Therefore, population estimates and estimates of the economic

30 activity in an area, from the Census Bureau or other sources, are important to determine service area. If the size of the service area needed to make a plastics handling operation viable is so large that hauling costs become prohibitive, a potential handler may want to explore the possibility of strategically located transfer stations, where the material could be collected and aggregated for transport to the handling facility. stimate the number of waste generators and categorize them by type: In general, waste generators can be divided into two types: commercial and residential. Commercial generators include manufacturing operations, wholesale and retail establishments, malls, hospitals, schools and the like. It is particularly important to identify potential commercial/institutional stream generators,of plastic scrap because commercial waste plastic is often cleaner and more homogeneous than that found in the residential waste stream. In addition, a firm manufacturing plastic products within the service area may be able to provide a handler with large amounts of clean processing scrap of a particular resin type. Sourcing industrial and manufacturing scrap plastics is an excellent way to supplement a post-consumer plastics handling business. Residential generators include families living in single and multi-family dwellings. The plastic scrap generated by residents will include household products and food packaging. This material may be contaminated by household trash, residual plastics (resin types or applications that are not marketable) and other materials, such as paper, glass and metals. Estimate tne potentiai quaniiiy of piasiic scrap avaiiabie: In some locations, the city, county or state may have conducted a waste composition study that will provide estimates of the quantity and types of materials disposed of in the service area. If these data are not available, or if the data are out of date, estimates can be made using the EPA s Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste (See Estimating Plastics Feedstock in the Waste Stream worksheet beginning on p. 34.)

31 Estimate the amount of potentially available material that will actually be collected and delivered to the processing facility: No recycling program can recover 100 percent of the recyclable materials available in the waste stream. The amount that actually can be recovered will depend on the willingness of the waste generators to participate. In terms of residential scrap plastics, the service area may already be served by a recycling collection program that is considering adding some types of plastics to its list of targeted materials, or it may be developing a wholly new program that will include plastics from the outset. An existing program should have developed participation and capture rates for its targeted materials, as these rates mark a program s success. These rates can be applied to plastics to estimate the quantity of recoverable material. For a new program, it may be best to consider several possible recovery rates. (!See Estimating Plastics Feedstock from Municipal Programs worksheet, p. 38.) Factors that may affect sourcing material from residential programs include the following: Is the program voluntary or mandatory? An enforced mandatory program tends to have higher diversion rates than a voluntary program. 0, How convenient is the collection method? Programs that collect at the source tend to have higher recovery rates than drop-off programs. Weekly, multi-material curbside collection, including the widest possible range of plastics, provides the best results. Collecting recyclables on the same day that the regular garbage is set out has a favorable impact on quantities collected. Is there an economic incentive to participate, such as a buy-back program or reduced rates for the disposal of less waste? Is the program accompinied by sound public education? Programs that are clearly and continually promoted to the public tend to have higher recovery rates. Promotional materials clearly explaining which plastics are and are not currently being collected - and why - improve the quality of the plastics collected. What kind of recycling container is used? A household set-out container, specifically intended for recyclables, boosts participation. Larger set-out containers permit the collection of a larger volume of recyclables, and one

32 large container holding mixed recyclables is more effective than several smaller containers, each holding a specific material. Among rigid set-out containers, box-shaped containers are preferred to round containers. Negotiating a Contract* Once an assessment of post-consumer plastic availability has been made and potential markets have been identified, the plastics handler is in a position to define how materials will be secured. Obtaining an adequate quantity of materials may involve contracting with several parties, such as local governments, private collectors, commercial businesses or other entities involved in the collection of recyclables in the service area. Before beginning any negotiations, it is important to establish who owns the recyclables. Some municipalities have established flow-control of their waste through ordinance or law. This gives the municipality ownership and con.trol of the waste. This control can be contracted or franchised to a private hauler. Potential handlers need to understand who has the legal right to the recyclables, and under what conditions, before negotiating for the feedstock. Drafting a contract that assures a reliable, consistent stream of post-consumer plastic of a known type and quality is critical for the development of a successll handling operation. However, a variety of issues must be addressed in material supply contracts: Type(s) of plastic to be delivered: Clearly define the type of plastics to be accepted. For example, don t speci@ all 1 s and 2 s if you actually mean soft-drink and milk bottles. Be sure to specfi bottles as opposed to containers ; soft-drink PET vs. custom PET ; clear vs. pigmented. Knowing what you can market is impbrtant. Getting what you want is imperative to making your business viable. Markets for recycled plastics fluctuate - as they do for all commodities. Every contract should include a mechanism for adding or deleting types of recyclable material and adjusting fees to reflect changes in operating costs and market conditions. This will eliminate the need to renegotiate a contract every time a change is required. * This section should not be considered a substitute for lgal advice with respect to the terms and conditions of specific contracts, nor does it purport to be a comprehensive list of all contractual terms that may be necessary or appropriate in pavticular circumstances. En

33 Amount of plastics to be delivered: It is critical to know what quantity, types and in what form (compacted or loose) material will be coming to the facility and what type of equipment will be used to deliver the material. In addition, it is helpful to know the frequency and timing of deliveries in order to develop and maintain a smooth-running operation. Delivery specifications: There are three general forms in which plastic feedstock can be delivered to the handler: commingled, mixed and sorted. Commingled commonly refers to plastics that are collected together with other recyclables - aluminum cans, glass bottles, or other materials. Mixed implies that the handler will receive loads containing several types of plastics separated from other recyclables. Shipments received sorted indicate that the handler will receive plastic sorted by resin type and perhaps by color as well. If the incoming plastics are commingled or mixed, the handler will need sorting equipment and personnel in the facility. If the plastics are to be delivered sorted, negotiations should define the standards to be used. What degree of sorting can the plastic handler demand from the material source? How much mixing will be allowed in a sorted load? Generally, the less stringent the specifications of the handler, the higher the handling costs. The pricing system should be structured to reflect the degree to which the material must be handled. For example, the price paid or amount charged for sorted materials should be higher (or the amount charged should be lower) than that for commingled or mixed materials. When establishing delivery specifications, it is extremely valuable to keep in mind the specifications of the reclaimer or end-user. In existing handling operations, most plastics are received mixed. Consequently, sorting is required at the handling facility if it is not provided by the reclaimer or end-use market. Quality standards fer delivered plastics: Regardless of whether plastics are being delivered to the facility commin- ~ gled, mixed or sorted, there will be some contamination. Establish allowable limits of contamination and define the consequences of delivering materials that exceed these limits. A pricing structure can serve as an incentive for delivery of clean material. The handler may want to retain the right to refuse -- - any shipment that does not meet the agreed-upon specifications. This

34 reduces the risk of receiving material that will ultimately need to be disposed of. It also reinforces the message to a supplier that quality is essential to securing high-value markets for its material. Being very specific about the types of plastic acceptedwill assist the handler in obtaining fairly clean material. Entities responsible for the collection of such recyclables normally identify minimum standards to which a participant must prepare plastics. For instance, PET bottles may be accepted without removing labels and rinsing, and colored lids may be accepted with natural HDPE containers. While these allowances can increase recovery rates, they will decrease the overall quality and possibly the marketability of the material. The increased rate may not offset the cost incurred to the handler to remove this type of contamination - which often is an expensive proposition. Payment schedule and method: The method and frequency of payment should be outlined clearly in a contract. Although it can be tedious, it may be equitable for both the plastics handler and the collector to index prices paid for materials to prices published in periodicals such as Plastics News or Recycling Times. These publications list current market prices for certain plastic recyclables on a periodic and regional basis. Indexing allows the price of collected scrap plastics to reflect demand for the material. If a fixed commodity price is more desirable, a handler must determine a price for the collected material that will reflect required profit levels. Contracts that include a fixed commodity price should also require a minimum quantity of incoming material in order to guarantee supply. A manual called How to Implement a Plastics Recycling Program outlines issues and questions to be addressed when collectors of post-consumer plastics are seeking a market or handler for collected materials. Topics addressed include long-term versus short-term contracts, material conditions, provision of containers, transportation and scheduling, fee structure, and experience and past performance. Potential handlers may wish to review this publication and address these questions and issues in draft contracts prior to presentation to potential suppliers of post-consumer plastics. Call the American Plastics Council at HELP-90 for more information about this manual and other available materials and services.

35 Working with Private Haulers Private haulers traditionally have serviced the vast majority of the commercial and indus&ial sector waste and recycling streams. Therefore, they represent the biggest source of recyclable material for handlers. In addition, as municipalities attempt to reduce their financial and environmental burdens through alternative residential waste management, they increasingly are turning to private sector waste haulers to perform curbside collection of recyclable materials. To private haulers, time is money. The time spent driving to and unloading at a handling facility is looked upon as unproductive, or non-revenueproducing time. It is incumbent upon a handler to do everything within reason to minimize a private hauler s unloading time. Revenues received from the sale of recyclables will be offset rapidly by unnecessary unloading delays. Presented with a choice, a private hauler is likely to choose a handling operation that results in the lowest off-route time over one with a higher price. A hauler s revenue for providing the collection service will typically far exceed revenues received for materials. Handlers also should take into consideration that private haulers typically want to deliver compacted materials in order to maximize payloads. Handlers should be prepared to accommodate large loads of compacted plastics from private firms. It is advisable for a potential plastics handler to identifjr and meet with the private haulers collecting plastics in their designated service area before finalizing the handling facility design. Truck body types, gross vehicle weights, unloading height requirements and maneuverability constraints associated with haulers vehicles should be taken into account in developing the handling operation. Meeting with local private haulers can also provide the opportunity for a handler to clearly communicate material specifications and requirements. This effort can go a long way toward assuring the quality of material being delivered to the facility and establishing a good customer relationship right from the start. Finally, prompt payment at the unit price promised for delivered materials can also go a long way toward cementing a long-term, mutually beneficial relationship with a private hauler. And it can help assure that, in the event your facility has to charge a tipping fee for materials delivered, prompt payment by the hauler will be returned in kind.

36 Working with Local Governments The reasons driving local governments participation in recycling are their need to solve part of their solid waste disposal problem and their desire to respond to strong public demand for recycling. It is the local government s objective to divert material from the waste stream, while it is the handler s objective to consolidate material for sale. Local governments are in the recycling business to reduce the need for disposal capacity, while the handler is in the business because the diverted materials, or the processing services, have value that offers the opportunity for profit. These divergent motivations may result in misunderstandings between recyclers and government entities. Addressing this issue in the program-design phase may reduce the risk of either party misunderstanding the costs and benefits of waste reduction through recycling. As local governments develop their recycling programs, many decide to fill the role of plastics handler themselves. A local government may construct its own Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) and operate the facility itself or hire a private operator. This may result in a lost business opportunity for the potential plastics handler. Therefore, a business interested in handling plastics must offer a service that has advantages over municipal handling of the plastics. A handler that has been recycling other commodities or industrial scrap plastics can offer a local government more than just handling services; it can offer knowledge about markets, market specifications, commodity pricing, recovery techniques and costs and recycling business fluctuations, pitfalls and stren gths. In addition, reclaimers and end-users may have more confidence in a handler s ability to deliver materials that meet specifications in a timely manner. However, local governments and private handlers may have some differences in the way they do business that must be overcome to ensure a successful relationship. A handler may have no firm contracts for the sale of material but rather play the market or work through a network of reclaimers and end-users. This may be of concern to local governments, which traditionally require long-term contractual relationships. If the local government will not accept a contract based on prices set in an industry publication, a handler can offer a set price that is lower than market value for a length of time.

37 Local governments also may be uncomfortable with a handler s unwillingness to share proprietary information. Local governments may want to know exactly how materials are processed, information that a handler may not wish to make public for competitive reasons. If this is the case, a handler may suggest that arrangements between the local government and the handler be based on performance and incentives rather than specific processing requirements. However, some local governments may insist upon reporting requirements for handlers because they, in turn, are required to report to someone else, often the state, on their recycling efforts. There needs to be a clear delineation by the local government of what will be required for program reporting and open discussions with the handler about how this information can be compiled and reported. ~- A local government is much more likely to incorporate a plastics handler into its program if the handler is involved in planning the recycling program. A handler should demonstrate interest in working with local governments through active participation in local and regional solid waste planning groups. This will make local leaders and recycling program planners more aware of your capabilities as a handler. Competition: Competition for recyclable materials within a region may affect the price and availability of post-consumer plastic scrap for a potential handler. When sizing up the competition, try to get the answers to the following questions: If plastics currently are collected for recycling, where are they going? What plastics are being accepted, and is there an opportunity to broaden the list of marketable materials? Is there a contract that commits those materials? Can the existing plastics handling and reclaiming infrastructure absorb more post-consumer plastics than currently are collected? If the post-consumer plastic currently is delivered to a reclaimer or enduser, would it prefer to receive a material that has been upgraded by sorting or baling? Would your operation have advantages over other operations, such as a higher price paid for material, less-stringent delivery specifications, shorter hauling distance or a greater variety of materials accepted?

38 How Can I Identify Uncoded Resins? As the SPI resin code is not present on a large variety of post-consumer plastic products found outside of the residential waste stream, the following chart can assist you in identifying those mystery resins that could end up being a valuable source of material foryour handling operation. Works he rr Waste Stri In the absencc waste stream1 emphasized tt vary significa fi-om nationa sheet below 11 plastic feedstrl The source d Protection A United State:: Quantity of The EPA estii Total MSW pounds/pers;, tons/person,, * Generation bejl To calculate 11 of the propos (See Resin Identification Chart Inside)

39 ~~ ~ H D PE Natura I HDPE Colored PET (without color) Appearance translucent opaque transparent with matte finish matte finish high gloss (not shiny) (not shiny) can be clear or colored no seams bottom has injection molding nub (see below) PVC can be transparent, translucent, or opaque (colored, usually high gloss) bottles have seams I clear bottles sometimes have faint blue tint bottom has blow molding smile (see below) Touch slightly waxy to slightly waxy to tough tough touch touch slick surface very smooth surface semi-rigid to flexible semi-rigid to flexible highly resilient forms opaque white does not crack when does not crack when semi-rigid line when bent bent bent semi-rigid Density floats in water floats in water sinks in water sinks in water Can It Be Transparent? No No Yes Yes SPI Code Typical Products milk jugs cider jugs distilled & spring water jugs juice bottles (not clear) rubbing alcohol bottles large vinegar bottles small, single-serving juice or punch drink bottles Visine bottles coffee can lids laundry detergent carbonated beverage bottles bottles dish detergent bottles Pepto Bismol bottles hbric softener bottles Ocean Spray juice saline solution bottles bottles bleach bottles honey jars skin and baby lotion (look for nubs) bottles plastic liquor bottles auto motor oil bottles Palmolive dishwashauto antifreeze bottles ing liquid peanut can lids liquid Spic ik Span dental floss dispensers Pine cleaner bottles dispensers for baby other clear, tough wipes bottles or jars with nubs salad dressing bottles cooking oil bottles most imported mineral water bottles some translucent pharmaceutical bottles (e.g., cough syrup - look for smile) blister pack bubble for batteries, hardware supplies, etc. Full Name High Density High Density Polyethylene Polyvinyl Chloride I of Plastic Polyethylene Polyethylene Terephthalate

40 ~ P LPDE PS EPS Other ransparent, can be nearly transparent or opaque only varies ranslucent, or transparent, ( eg, opaque smooth to grainy opaque dry cleaning bags) clear or colored finish, lear or colored or opaque high gloss foamed, thick-walled an have shiny or low can be colored gloss finish low to high gloss nooth surface slightly waxy to touch slick, smooth surface smooth surface varies :mi-rigid flexible cracks easily on cracks easily on )ugh. stretches before bending bending tearing when pulled brittle to semi-rigid lightweight and flu@ oats in water floats in water sinks in water floats in water varies es Yes Yes No varies lost lids for bottles ropicana frozen orange juice cans me yogurt cups and lids (those that do not crack easily when bent) usually appears in flexible film such as dry cleaning bags, bread bags, produce bags, etc., but some rigid items such as food storage containers and flexible lids most yogurt cups and tubs cookie and muffin trays clear carry-out containers most fast-food cutlery vitamin bottles crystal clear, rigid juice bottles with seams carry-out containers (clamshells, etc.) meat and produce trays hot cups egg cartons products made of other plastics resins besides the 6 most common, or products made of multiple resins in layers, blends, or different P* examples: microwavable serving ware, brick pack juice boxes, water cooler bottles, most snack bags (potato chips, etc.) olypropylene Low Density Polystyrene Expanded Polyethylene (or Foamed) Polystyrene

41 How Can I Identify Uncoded Resins? I As the SPI resin code is not present on a large variety of post-consumer plastic products found outside of the residential waste stream, the following chart can assist you in identifying those mystery resins that could end up being a valuable source of material for your handling operation.

42 Sample Calculation: Estimating the quantity and composition of solid waste for a service area involves three steps. The calculations below use EPA data for 1990 and assume a service area population of 100,000: I Quantity of Solid Waste in the Service Area Population x tons/person/year = tons per year r loo,ooo your town s population from page 34 I Composition of Solid Waste in the Service Area Take the weight percentages listed below and multiply them by the tons per year figure obtained above. (E+, for durables, multiply 14.3 x 78,000 = 11,154 tons per year of durables.*) 0.78 = 78,000 tons per year Material Weight Percentage Durables 14.3 Nondurables Plastic Plates and Cups Disposable Diapers Other Nondurables Plastic Packaging Plastic Soft Drink Bottles Milkflugs Other Plastic Containers, Bags and Sacks Wraps Other Plastic Packaging I o Other Packaging 29.3 Other Wastes 26.1 Total Discards * See p. 36 for more specific subcategories.

43 Composition of Solid Waste: The EPA estimates that the percentage composition of the products generated by weight (*) in 1990 was as follows: Material Durable Goods: Total Durables Major Appliances Furniture and Furnishings Carpets and Rugs Rubber Tires Lead-Acid Batteries Miscellaneous Durables Percentage Nondurable Goods: Paper Products Plastic Plates and Cups Disposable Diapers Clothing and Footwear Miscellaneous Nondurables Total Nondurables Containem and Packaging: Glass Packaging Steel Packaging Aluminum Packaging Paper & Paperboard Packaging Plastic Packaging Soft Drink Bottles Milk/Jugs Other Containers Bags and Sacks Wraps Other Plastic Packaging Wood Packaging Other Misc. Packaging Total Packaging Other Wastes: Food Wastes Yard Wastes Other Inorganic Wastes Total Other Wastes Total Discards o o * Befbre materials recovey and combustion.

44 I Factors that May Influence the Estimate - The last step in determining the availability of plastic feedstock in the service area is to adjust this estimate for local conditions. This estimate is based on national data and should be refined for known area conditions. Information that will be useful in refining this estimate includes: Information on manufacturing firms or other businesses in the area that generate significant amounts of plastic feedstock. Information on local recycling programs that may already be diverting plastic scrap - recovery will be much lower for drop-off depots compared to curbside collection programs, but drop-offs have proven to be an effective way to collect material, especially in a rural service area. Information on existing plastics handlers in the area. If a beverage bottle deposit ordinance is in effect, very few PET soft-drink bottles will be recovered by other means. Poor quality of local drinking water will likely result in greater generation of post-consumer HDPE from the disposal of purchased water containers. It also is important to remember that no collection program will capture 100 percent of the material available in the waste stream. Some households and businesses will not participate and some material will be contaminated or lost before the collection system can recover it. As a general estimate, it may be concluded that a curbside collection program will recover between 5 and 11 pounds of PET soda bottles (clear and colored) per household per year, and a similar amount of natural HDPE milk and water jugs. Obviously, significant amounts of other plastic feedstock is generated. However, much of this is not curbside-collected at the present time and thus has not been targeted for plastics handling facilities in this report.,

45 ~~ Worksheet: Estimating Plastics Feedstock from Municipal Programs Now that you have a general idea of the total amount of material ~ available in your service area, you can calculate the potential amount available &om a municipal curbside program. A. How to Calculate Estimated Weight: Look at the Estimated Recovery Levels chart on p. 39. Find the RECOVERY LEVEL (lbs./household/year) of the collected resins. Write that number below. X - RECOVERY LEVEL # of households to be Estimated lbs./yr. (lbs./household/yr.) served by program Estimated lbs./yr Estimated lbs./weekly collection B. How to Calculate Estimated Volume: From the Estimated Recovery Levels Chart, find the DENSITY for the resins to be collected. - - Estimated DENSITY Estimated lbs./weekly collection vol./weekly collection - - Estimated # of truckloads/wk. Estimated vol./truck vol./weekly collection

46 Recovery Levels of Plastic Resin ide Program: Resins Collected Estimated Recovery Level (lbs./household/yr.) Estimated Density (lbs./cu. yds.) withstep-on-it ProJram * Milk jugs PET natural HDPE PET, natural HDPE PET, natural HDPE, clear PVC colored HDPE PET, natural HDPE colored HDPE PVC, PP multilayer * Step-on-it programs encourage consumers to flatten plastic bottles as a means of saving space in recycling bins.

47 \

48 , Designing Operation a A successful plastics handling operation can be started from scratch, or it can evolve from an existing plastics collection or plastics reclaiming operation. A plastics handling operation can also evolve from an operation that handles other material, such as scrap paper or metals. Most handlers of post-consumer scrap plastics use one of four handling methods to prepare plastics for market. The two most common handling methods are: to receive mixed plastics, sort them, and aggregate and bale for shipment; or to receive pre-sorted plastics and aggregate and bale for shipment. Less fiequently, handlers may: receive mixed plastics, sort them, and granulate them for shipment; or receive pre-sorted plastics and granulate them for shipment. Regardless of procedures to be performed, any handling operation must be designed to provide for: storage of incoming and finished goods; smooth flow of materials and traffic; I efficient operations; ongoing maintenance and servicing of equipment; business administration; and value-added materials handling. Site Requirements There are four issues to address when choosing a site for a plastics handling ficility. Location: The cost of transportation can be a significant economic factor in operating a handling facility. Minimize transportation costs and maximize long-term

49 economic benefits by locating as near to identified plastic scrap generators and markets as possible. Access: Ideally, the site should be accessible by major road and rail arteries. Also, access to necessary utilities is a must to avoid the costs of making those utilities available. Utility requirements for a plastics handling facility include electricity - three-phase power usually is required - water and wastewater discharge. Limited amounts of washdown water are required for maintenance, as well as dust and odor control. Sufficient space must be provided for all-aspects of the business, including vehicular traffic (such as truck queuing, weighing and dumping and movement of materials on site), material processing and storage, and buffer areas. If outside storage of materials is anticipated, the impact on site requirements and surrounding land uses needs to be considered. Site size, shape and topography affect the size and arrangement of the facility and operation, including the placement of buildings and roads. Other factors such as drainage, visual impacts, geological conditions and slopes can also impact the desirability of a particular site. The arrangement of the facility and on-site operations should be situated so that noise and glare are directed away from neighboring properties. The facility site should also provide enough flexibility to allow for future expansion and changes in materials or traffic flow. Permits: The requirements for air, water and other permits vary widely from state to state and community to community. Overall, the regulations for facilities handling solid waste have been tightened over the past few years. The cost of securing permits can range from several hundred dollars for a site and facility in an area that already comes under industrial use, to many thousands of dollars for an environmentally sensitive site. The permitting process often is long and complicated, involving several state -~ regulatory agencies. It often is beneficial to hire a consultant familiar with the permitting process to assist in the preparation and filing of applications and to help expedite permit applications through the proper channels. Normally, permits required for a handler are minimal compared to a reclaimer. _. -~

50 There are two likely scenarios for the development of a plastics handling facility. The first is that an existing facility will be retrofitted to handle plastics. The second is that a completely new facility will be developed. There are advantages and disadvantages to each of these scenarios. Building Requirements Buildings should be designed to accommodate the flow of materials and the configuration of the processing equipment. This will depend on: the volume of material to be handled; the types of material to be handled; the degree of processing that is to take place; the types of vehicles used to deliver plastic scrap to *e facility; and the methods used to transport processed plastics from the facility to market. The building receiving area must be compatible with the vehicles delivering material and be sized adequately to hold material awaiting processing. This requires an understanding of the frequency and size of deliveries, as well as the type of equipment to be used. For example, if materials are to be dumped or tipped inside the facility, doors and ceilings must be high enough to allow vehicles to enter and unload and there must be adequate room to maneuver vehicles, move loads and keep source-separated materials segregated. The building arrangement should facilitate the smooth and efficient movement of materials. For example, if materials are to be moved from the delivery area by conveyor, it may be advantageous to have the conveyor slightly below grade to allow materials to be pushed directly - rather than lifted - onto the conveyor. A truck scale and scale house should be built into the design of the site and building. Accurate weighing of materials being delivered and shipped will be a critical cost factor. The location of the scale will dictate the flow of trucks on and off the site. A loading dock or ramp to allow loading finished bales or gaylords onto trucks for shipment also should be considered.

51 Building costs: Building costs depend on the size and complexity of the structure required. A pre-engineered metal building may cost as little as $5 to $8 per square foot. However, a custom-designed building can easily cost more than 50 times that much. Building costs will also depend on factors such as geographical location, climate conditions and accessibility. Excluding the cost of the land and equipment, a good rule of thumb for estimating facility development costs is $80 to $100 per square foot. In some cases, an existing industrial facility can be bought for less than the cost of constructing a new building, leaving some funds for renovation. Retrofitting an existing facility: Advantages: The site is secured. There is no need to locate and permit a site. Most, if not all operational permits are in place. There is operational experience, including procurement of recyclables, equipment operation and maintenance and sale of processed material. Building and construction costs may be reduced. Disadvantages : The location of the site may not be convenient to plastics generators, end-users or transportation systems. The size and shape of the site or existing buildings may not lend themselves to modification or expansion. e The building configuration may make operational inefficiencies unavoidable. Building a facility from the ground up: Advantages : The site location can be selected for proximity to plastics generators and /or end-markets. The site and building can be designed for maximum efficiency. Disadvantages: Purchasing and permitting of the best sites may be difficult due to regulatory restrictions or public opposition.

52 The cost to design and build from the ground up may exceed a potential handler s resources. Lack of operational experience may affect the efficiency and profitability of the business. Equipment Requirements Plastics handling operations need at least three types of equipment: materials handling equipment, sorting equipment and processing equipment. Materials handling equipment: Materials handling equipment includes conveyors, forklift trucks, front-end loaders and storage containers. Plastics delivered to the facility must be off-loaded and moved to a sorting or processing area. In the course of processing and storing materials, it may also be necessary to move materials from one area of the facility to another. Again, if material is to be moved by conveyor, the feed end of the conveyor should be slightly below ground level to eliminate lifting. Bins, boxes or heavy wire cages may be needed to store materials before and after processing. Storage containers will be extremely important to low-volume operations or any type of operation where a single piece of equipment, such as a baler, is used to batch process several types of plastic scrap. Sorting equipment: For recycling, post-consumer plastics need to be sorted from: non-recyclables (the waste stream); other recyclables such as glass, metal, or paper; and one another by resin and/or by color. Although sorting can be done at any stage of the recycling process, most sorting of post-consumer plastics from other recyclables, as well as sorting by resin type is commonly done by the handler. Determining who performs each of these sorting steps can have tremendous impact on the design and,hnction of a handling operation. It may also be a factor in whether or not the operation is considered to be solid waste management or materials handling. Perhaps the most important element of creating a successful sorting operation is building in the flexibility that allows quick and efficient reactions to changes in market specifications.

53 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ A handler s end-market may favor materials that are sorted by color, as well as resin type. For many end uses, unpigmented plastic can be made into products of any color, while pigmented plastic can only be made into a color similar to the pigment. Unpigmented, homogeneous scrap plastics consistently have the greatest market value, followed by color-separated material and, finally, mixed colored material. The more thorough the sorting process, the more valuable the plastics will be in the marketplace. ~ ~- Basic equipment needed to perform macro sorting - sorting bottles and containers or other large or bulky plastic items into a homogeneous resin and/or color stream - includes conveyors with sorting or picking stations and, possibly, vibratory screens to classify materials by size and reduce contamination. Also, bins or boxes are needed to store the sorted material until processing. Commercially available technology and equipment to perform an automated micro sort (that is, sorting plastic flakes or pellets by resin and/or color type) is discussed on p. 47. Post-consumer plastic sorting operations are labor-intensive since most sorting is performed by hand. A sorting system designed to minimize manual labor and separate plastics efficiently will reduce overall operating expenses. The number of laborers required depends on operational factors such as the volume of plastics being processed, the various operations performed and the degree of automation present. In general, however, the more complex the manual sorting requirements, the lower the efficiency and productivity of the operation and the more automated sorting should be considered as an alternative. Separating resin types by color requires additional separation efforts. Most handlers accomplish such separation using manual labor and a sorting conveyor. Positive versus negative sorting: Positive sorting, or directly removing a desired resin or color from other materials, normally is preferred over negative sorting where the desired resin or color is what remains after the other materials have been removed. For example, the most common sorting scenario for post-consumer plastics today involves the separation of PET soft drink bottles and HDPE milk, juice and water jugs. Many facilities positively sort the PET and negatively sort the HDPE. This means the soft drink bottles are picked from a conveyor belt and what remains falls off the end of the belt and is shipped or processed as unpigmented HDPE.

54 The quality of the HDPE could be improved through positive sorting. A positive sort provides a higher level of quality because the desired item is selected. In a negative sort, unwanted materials often are left in the final product. When multiple sorts are required from a mix of plastic bottles or rigid plastic containers, it is advisable to positively sort all desired resins and to allow only the tailings - materials of insufficient quantity or quality - to fall off the end of the belt. The obvious disadvantage to positive sorting is the increased amount of labor required. A handler must weigh the added labor costs against the benefit of producing higher quality material, understanding that quality is essential to establishing and maintaining long-term markets. Automated sorting: The current reliance on manual labor to sort plastics by resin type is a major cost barrier to realizing economies of scale in plastics recycling. Ideally, automated sorting lines will be able to yield the high volume, pure resin streams that cannot be realized through manual labor. Currently, there are several automated sorting systems commercially available. Magnetic Separation Systems (MSS). Their BottleSortTM7 technology is an integrated high-speed sorting system for the separation of the four most commonly collected packaging plastics: PET, PVC, HDPE, and PP. Commercialized with plastics industry assistance, a version of this automated plastic sorting system was sold to Eaglebrook Plastics in Chicago and started up in late December The Eaglebrook-installed system was designed to sort 5,000 pounds per hour of mixed plastic bottles and consists of four parallel lines fed by a bale breaker and singulator system. The process works with either whole or baled bottles. The MSS system employs a primary detector to separate the bottles into three streams: PET and PVC; unpigmented HDPE and PP; and mixed color opaque. The process can be designed to stop at this point or separate the three primary streams into subcategories with additional sensor and eject modules. Four other modules are available: PVC Module - separates PVC from PET bottles; 0 PET Module - separates green and amber PET from clear PET; PP Module - separates unpigmented PP from unpigmented HDPE; and Color Module - separates mixed color opaque into seven individual colors or combinations of colors.

55 ~~ The beauty of this system lies in the flexibility to add as few or as many modules as required to handle the incoming material. It can be purchased as a hand-fed single line handling 1,250 pph (pounds per hour) using only the primary detector, or as a multi-line system, integrated with a bale breaker and singulator, employing all of the modules and diverting the separated streams directly into individual granulators. Costs for these systems can range from $65,000 for a basic hand-fed detector to $750,000 for a 5,000 pph system with all the options. MSS is based in Nashville, TN. Automation Industrial Control (AIC). AIC developed PolySortTM, a second system for sorting baled bottles, also with funding assistance from the plastics industry. Their system uses a pair of detectors at a single station - one for determining resin type and one for identifylng color - to control the separation. The system is capable of detecting and separating all of the common packaging resins (PET, HDPE, LDPE, PVC, PP, PS) plus polycarbonate (PC). A demonstration line currently is operating at North American Plastics Recycling in Ft. Edward, NY. It is designed to process three bottles per second (approximately 1,500 pph). The bottles are carried to the detector by a singulator developed by Chamberlain MRC of Hunt Valley, MD. The prototype line, completed in August 1992, separates bottles into specific categories of resin/color combinations with one pass, providing for separation into categories such as clear PET, natural PP, HDPE, PVC, etc. The categories may be changed by modifylng the computer programs. The cost of the AIC/MRC system will not be determined until after the completion of the prototype demonstration, but it is anticipated that a basic 1,500 pph system (singulator, detectors and diversion system) will cost between $350,000 and $400,000 and a 3,000 pph system between $425,000 and $475,000.. Both the MSS and AIC/MRC systems have been designed to maximize quality. In initial testing, these systems have demonstrated accuracy between 96 and 98 percent. If the detector is not 100 percent sure that the resin is positively identified, the cqntainer will be diverted to the other category. The accuracy of the detectors is such that the majority of the errors are expected to result from material handling errors, such as two bottles going through the detector at one time. While the detectors are very precise, material handling is still somewhat of an art since the variety of shapes, sizes and states of incoming bottles is almost unlimited. In spite of this, the automated systems are expected to yield very high quality streams.

56 At the end of 1992, other companies, including National Recovery Technologies, Inc., of Nashville, were developing commercial systems for automatically sorting the post-consumer plastic bottle stream. PET/PVC Sorting. The ability to automatically distinguish PVC from PET increases the value of both resins significantly, thereby improving a handler's ability to produce greater volumes of higher-quality material. Commercially available units that accomplish an automated PVC/PET sort include: the VinylCycleTM from National Recovery Technologies, Inc., and a system from Magnetic Separation Systems. Over.25 systems for automaticallyally sorting PET and PVC were installed at commercial plastics recycling facilities by the end of These systems are operating With an accuracy rate in excess of 99.5 percent. To determine the cost-efficiency of plastic processing systems, the plastics industry initiated a comparison of automated versus manual plastics sorting at various throughput levels. This study focused on three types of automated sorting technology: Air classifiers that use air currents to separate lighter materials (plastics and aluminum) from heavier materials (glass); Trommels that separate larger plastic containers from smaller aluminum and plastic containers; and Eddy current separators that can be employed to remove aluminum from plastics. On the basis of this research, the industry has determined benchmark operating criteria for cost-efficient automated sorting of plastics from other recyclable materials: The maximum sustainable rate for manual sorting is 500 pounds of plastics per hour per worker; however, when manually sorting several resin types from a mixed plastic stream, this benchmark sorting rate will be somewhat lower. Air classifiers were typically found to be more cost effective in sorting aluminum and plastics from other materials than hand sorting. 0 The use of trommels and/or eddy current separators is more cost effective than manual sorting at plastics throughput levels of more than 600 pounds hour. There is a positive correlation between higher levels of throughput and automation and lower sorting costs. SOURCE: RW. Beck &Associates

57

58 Processing: Processing post-consumer pl stics - upgrading the qu lity of the ma erial and preparing it for further processing - is a relatively new venture, with technology continually evolving. Consequently, dedicated plastics processing equipment can be quite capital intensive. This is why many plastic handlers, especially those in areas with low volumes of post-consumer plastics, use equipment originally designed for other materials, such as a paper or aluminum baler, to process plastics. In many instances, this practice is reported to be working quite well, as long as the quality of the plastics is not significantly compromised by cross-material contamination. One of the biggest challenges facing plastics handlers is the low weight-tovolume ratio of plastics. A critical component of the handling business - from the standpoint of efficiency and economic incentive - involves reducing the volume of plastics prior to long-term storage and/or shipping to market. The most common way to do this is baling the material, although a handler may also granulate the plastics. The following discussion of baling and granulating methods and equipment is based on operational and economic data supplied to the plastics industry by more than 400 post-consumer plastics handlers. Baling: Baling is the mechanical compression of a large volume of material into smaller, denser packages that are secured to maintain compaction. Baling increases the weight-to-volume ratio of the material and produces uniform, easy to handle units. Most importantly, baled material requires significantly less storage and transport space than loose material, thus reducing overall costs. There are three basic types of balers, which are distinguished by the directional movement of the compressing ram: vertical downstroke, vertical upstroke, and horizontal. Many handlers seek a great deal of flexibility in their baling system. Manufacturers have responded to this need by custom-designing balers with modular components. Through this technology, handlers are able to conserve one of their most valuable resources: plant production floor space. The most-favored balers are flexible - composed of modular components, and produce high-quality dense bales. Prompt and knowledgeable service for the machines is also vital. Balers with interchangeable spare parts and off the shelf components reduce downtime.

59 Bale characteristics: Bales of plastics can vary in size and weight, depending on the type of baler used and the type of plastic being baled. Average dimensions for plastic bales are approximately 30 I' x 48 'I x 60 ". To facilitate standardization, the Institute for Scrap Recycling Industries (ISRI) has developed guidelines for baled plastic bottles and is working to expand those guidelines to include baled PS foam and flexible plastics as well. (For a complete list of ISRI baled bottle guidelines, see Appendix B.) A bale must be of a configuration that allows for maximizing truck loads and makes handling easy. The bale density must be high enough to provide a cost-effective load. (Target truck load weight should be as close to 40,000 pounds as possible without going over.) On the other hand, an overly densified bale makes it difficult to separate and subsequently, to sort the plastics. Target densities range between 10 and 15 pounds per cubic foot. The bale must maintain its integrity through unloading and storage. Bales that "open" or fall apart are another potential cause of rejection. Finally, bales should be held together with non-rusting materials. The rust will stain the plastic and make it unusable for some applications. Uniformity of bales is especially important for overseas shipment due to the rigid specifications set for shipment in export containers. Vertical Upstroke and Downstroke Balers. In a typical vertical downstroke baling system materials are loaded through an opening on the front of the machine. This system can be highly labor intensive as the baler must be hand-fed; When activated, the compressing ram compacts the contents in the enclosed chamber. This procedure is repeated for several cycles. An operator then loops wire or strapping through the grooves in the platen. The bale is tied off and either manually or mechanically ejected from the chamber and the ram is retracted. A typical upstroke baler is recessed in a 10- to 15-foot pit that the downstroke baler does not require. Material is loaded into the pit and then compressed upwards to floor height. At full compression, the bale is tied off and ejected in the same manner as the downstroke baler. Baler designs for some upstroke and downstroke balers require handfeeding, which is highly labor intensive.

60 , Vertical upstroke balers tend to produce tighter and longer bales, and the machines are generally capable of higher capacity than downstroke balers. Downstroke balers are especially troublesome in baling LDPE and acrylic film plastics. The acrylic tends to require additional labor for tucking and stuffing the sheets into the baler. The LDPE plastic is inclined to squeeze out of the baling chamber of some downstroke balers as the bale is released before tying. Vertical balers historically have been unable to cope with plastic memory - the tendency for compressed plastics to re-expand to their original shape. Perforators and flatteners can be helpful in this area. Small-volume handlers in particular may find that vertical balers, equipped with perforators and flatteners, are most useful for their operations. In general, if a handler is baling less than 3,200 pounds of plastic a day, or an average of four or fewer bales, the low capital costs of a vertical baler may outweigh the increased speed realized with a horizontal baler. Horizontal Balers. In general, horizontal balers are more efficient in baling plastics than vertical upstroke or downstroke balers. Horizontal balers have the ability to vary bale dimensions, particularly the length of the bale, to help meet purchaser specifications or to accommodate shipping requirements. Hydraulically powered horizontal balers permit the highest production rates. Large volume, post-consumer plastics handling operations require the production speed of a hydraulically powered horizontal baler. An automatic bale tier, while adding to equipment costs, may be required because of the plastic memory phenomenon. Plastic bales often need three to four times the number of retaining bands than is necessary for bales of other recyclables. Due to increased labor costs, manual tying becomes very unattractive. Horizontal balers can be semi- or fully automatic, and can allow bale tying before ejection from the chamber. Fully automated programmable balers can be operated by as few as one operator and one assistant. The fewer employees necessary to operate the machine the better, for both economic and safety reasons. Programmable horizontal balers offer the ability to automatically pre-set the machine specifications for baling different types of plastics. A simple turn of the switch allows the baler to operate under the optimal conditions for each specific material.

61 I

62