Advances and Innovations in the Extraction of Aluminum, Magnesium, Lithium, and Titanium
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1 Advances and Innovations in the Extraction of Aluminum, Magnesium, Lithium, and Titanium Donald R. Sadoway Department of Materials Science & Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts
2 Outline of the lecture where do metals come from? needs of the current technology radical innovation
3 Selected Properties of Structural Metals Fe Al Mg m.p. (ºC) b.p. (ºC) ρ (g/cm 3 ) E (GPa) E /ρ
4 Selected Properties of Structural Metals Fe Al Mg Ti m.p. (ºC) b.p. (ºC) ρ (g/cm 3 ) E (GPa) E /ρ
5 Selected Properties of Structural Metals Fe Al Mg Ti Li m.p. (ºC) b.p. (ºC) ρ (g/cm 3 ) E (GPa) E /ρ
6 Selected Properties of Structural Metals Fe Al Mg Ti Be m.p. (ºC) b.p. (ºC) ρ (g/cm 3 ) E (GPa) E /ρ
7 Selected Properties of Structural Metals Fe Al Mg capacity (10 6 tpy ) price ($/kg) sales (10 9 $) abundance (%) (rank) f G Mx O y (kj/mol O 2 ) (kj/g M)
8 Selected Properties of Structural Metals Fe Al Mg Ti Li capacity (10 6 tpy ) * price ($/kg) sales (10 9 $) abundance (%) (rank) f G Mx O y (kj/mol O 2 ) (kj/g M)
9 Major Aluminum Producing Countries nameplate capacity (10 3 tpy) U.S.A China 3900 Russia 3400 Canada 2800 Australia 1900 Brazil 1300 Norway 1100
10 Where do metals come from? occur naturally as compounds beneficiated high-purity feed reducing agents: H, C, M, e - options for alumina reduction?
11 Where do metals come from? (ºC)
12 Hall-Héroult electrolysis electrolyte: Na 3 AlF 6 -AlF 3 -CaF 2 feed: Al 2 O 3 temperature: 970 C anode: carbon anodic reaction: 3 O C 1.5 CO e - cathode: carbon cathodic reaction: 2 Al e - 2 Al overall reaction: Al 2 O C 2 Al CO 2 standard potential: E = 1.2 V
13 Where it all began
14 Where it all began
15 Where it all began
16 needs of current technology drivers: cost environmental compliance
17 environmental drivers
18 Prospective changes: a wish list new electrode materials inert anodes & wettable cathodes new electrolyte chemistries low-ratio bath lower energy consumption reduced emissions 1000 ka cell: economy of scale?
19 Properties of an inert anode * physically stable at service temperature * resistant to attack by fluoride electrolyte * resistant to attack by pure oxygen * electrochemically stable * electronically conductive * resistant to thermal shock * mechanically robust * easy to deploy (electrical connection to bus, startup, power interruptions, ) * affordable
20 The Materials Menu * ceramics * cermets * metals * coatings
21 Ceramic Anodes advantages * fully oxidized stable with hot O 2 concerns * electronic conductivity * solubility in cryolite * thermal shock resistance * mechanical stability * operational challenges examples *SnO 2 * ferrites, spinels, perovskites
22 The Materials Menu * ceramics * cermets * metals * coatings
23 Cermet Anodes (ceramic/metallic composites) advantages * combine features of ceramics and metals, i.e., chemical inertness + high electronic conductivity concerns * phase boundaries * solubility in cryolite * thermal shock resistance * mechanical stability * manufacturing net shapes * operational challenges
24 Cermet Anodes (ceramic/metallic composites) examples * metal dispersion in a ceramic matrix, e.g., copper, nickel, silver in a nickel ferrite matrix, NiFe 2 O 4 ceramic provides bulk, offers chemical stability metal confers conductivity & toughness
25 Metal Anodes (ceramic/metallic composites) advantages * combine features of ceramics and metals, i.e., chemical inertness + high electronic conductivity * high electronic conductivity (more uniform current distribution) * thermal shock resistance * mechanically robust * easy to fabricate & deploy * self-repairing in service
26 Metal Anodes (ceramic/metallic composites) concerns * stability of surface film example * thin oxide film on surface of metal alloy, e.g., Al 2 O 3 on Cu Al (90:10 by mass) alloy provides bulk, confers high electrical conductivity surface film protects alloy from chemical destruction by reaction with Hall bath and oxygen
27 85% Cu Metal Anodes (ceramic/metallic 90% Cu composites) 93% Cu 96% Cu 99% Cu 100% Cu
28 Metal Anodes (ceramic/metallic composites)
29 Metal Anodes (ceramic/metallic composites)
30 Metal Anodes (ceramic/metallic composites)
31 attributes of dynamic surface film: reaction layer * reaction layer is self repairing, i.e., self forming in service * nca is dynamically stable in service: chemistry, electrochemistry, adhesion, * designed to thrive in Hall cell environment * reduced contact resistance of connections * superior conductivity ratio, κ th /κ el
32 these reaction layers are not coatings there are only two kinds of coatings: * made imperfect * become imperfect in service only a self repairing coating is acceptable reaction layer
33 status report: taking the pulse * what are the prospects for delivery of the inert anode? Prediction is very difficult, especially about the future. - Niels Bohr
34 Radical innovation remember the menu of reducing agents assume that alumina is the feed assessment options: laboratory curiosity (not scalable) technical success (economic failure) disruptive technology (new era )
35 Ellingham diagram: oxides H 2 reduction carbothermic reduction
36 Ellingham diagram: oxides (ºC)
37 Radical innovation carbothermic metallothermic electrochemical plasma
38 Government response
39 Government response
40 Government response
41 Government response
42 Government response
43 Government response
44 Government response
45 Government response
46 Government response
47 carbothermic reduction of alumina Al 2 O C 3 CO + 2 Al ( ) (T>2000ºC)
48 Ellingham diagram: oxides H 2 reduction carbothermic reduction
49 carbothermic reduction of alumina Al 2 O C 3 CO + 2 Al ( ) (T>2000ºC) attractiveness: lower energy consumption improved economy of scale technical issues: materials of construction temperature back reaction (losses & impurities)
50 electrolytic-calciothermic reduction Al 2 O 3 CaO (ºC)
51 electrolytic-calciothermic reduction electrolyte: CaO - CaCl 2 cathode: 3 Ca e - 3 Ca 3 Ca + Al 2 O 3 3 CaO + 2 Al anode: 3 O C 1.5 CO e - 3 O O e - (preferably)
52 electrolytic-calciothermic reduction attractiveness: improved economy of scale lower energy consumption technical issues: materials of construction CHCs inert anode
53 metallothermic reduction conventional wisdom: strictly a chemical reaction rate limited by mass transfer our hypothesis: not strictly a chemical reaction electron transfer is involved metallothermic red n is an electronically mediated reaction (EMR)
54 metallothermic reduction
55 metallothermic reduction 3 Ca + Al 2 O 3 3 CaO + 2 Al from an EMR perspective: reaction medium or melt : CaO - CaCl 2 which is a mixed conductor (e - & M n+ ) oxidation: 3 Caº(melt) 3 Ca 2+ (melt) + 6 e - (melt) reduction: 2 Al 3+ (oxide) + 6 e - (melt) 3 Alº(liquid)
56 metallothermic reduction 3 Ca + Al 2 O 3 3 CaO + 2 Al from an EMR perspective: reaction medium or melt : CaO - CaCl 2 which is a mixed conductor (e - & M n+ ) oxidation: 3 Caº(melt) 3 Ca 2+ (melt) + 6 e - (melt) reduction: 2 Al 3+ (oxide) + 6 e - (melt) 3 Alº(liquid) very fast kinetics
57 molten oxide electrolysis electrolyte: MgO - CaO - BaO - La 2 O 3 feed: Al 2 O 3 temperature: 1800 C anode:??? anodic reaction: 3 O O e - cathode:??? cathodic reaction: 2 Al e - 2 Al overall reaction: Al 2 O 3 2 Al O 2 standard potential: E = 1.74 V
58 schematic of prototype cell
59 molten oxide electrolysis attractiveness: improved economy of scale environmentally sound technical issues: materials, materials, materials
60 molten oxide electrolysis
61 molten oxide electrolysis
62 database is incomplete physical chemistry of electrolytes materials science of electrodes
63 feasibility assessment: electrical conductivity measurements transference number measurements modeling electrical properties applicability to iron production
64 conductivity measurements inventing two new techniques for aggressive melts at high temperatures: moveable coaxial cylinders 4-point crucible
65 moveable coaxial cylinders
66 solvent compositions FeO additions to S1
67 effect of FeO addition: σ = σ(t, c) -0.5 T(ºC) Ducret ln σ / S cm % 15% S1 10% 5% /T (K) σ / S cm -1
68 electrowinning experiments galvanostatic electrolysis at 1450 C (-) Cu ( ) FeO MgO CaO SiO 2 Pt (+) electrolytic generation of iron metal and oxygen gas confirmed
69 laboratory-scale electrolysis cell 2 µm
70 laboratory-scale electrolysis cell 2 µm
71 observations electrolysis products anode : oxygen cathode : iron Faradaic efficiency (anodic) measured value 39% theoretical limit 85% (t e )
72 observations
73 applicability to lunar oxygen generation daily oxygen requirement = 2.75 kg Faradaic efficiency = 85% (based on t ionic ) current = 452 A cell voltage = 2 V (2.5 H FeO ) power supply = 904 W current density = 5 A cm -2 electrode area = 90 cm 2
74 plasma processing 2 approaches: thermochemical electrolytic attractiveness: avoids certain materials problems environmentally sound technical issues: poor energy efficiency
75 So, what have we learned today? I ve learned a lot in sixty-three years. But, unfortunately, almost all of it is about aluminum The New Yorker Magazine, Inc.
76 magnesium chloride electrolysis electrolyte: NaCl - KCl - CaCl 2 feed: MgCl 2 temperature: 740 C anode: carbon anodic reaction: 2 Cl - Cl e - cathode: mild steel cathodic reaction: Mg e - Mg overall reaction: MgCl 2 Mg ( ) + Cl 2 standard potential: E = 2.5 V
77 challenges and opportunities * new electrode materials (inert): reduce C loss in Dow cell enable longer-lived bipolar cell * new route to anhydrous MgCl 2 * new electrolyte chemistries * lower energy consumption * reduced emissions * higher space/time yield
78 paradigm shifts * electrolysis of MgO from a melt of NdCl 3 * carbothermic reduction to metal * electrolytic-calciothermic redn * electrolysis of MgO from an oxide melt
79 electrolysis of MgO from a melt of NdCl 3 2 MgO + 2 NdCl 3 2 NdOCl + 2 MgCl 2 electrolyte: 65% MgCl 2-10% NdCl 3-25% NdOCl cathode reaction: 2 Mg e- 2 Mg anode reaction: C + 2 OCl 3-2 Cl - + CO e - -R.A. Sharma, General Motors
80 carbothermic reduction MgO + C Mg (g) + CO (T > 1854ºC) separation of Mg and CO, both gases alloy Mg into solvent melt?
81 electrolytic-calciothermic reduction electrolyte: CaO - CaCl 2 cathode: 3 Ca e - 3 Ca 3 Ca + 3 MgO 3 CaO + 3 Mg anode: 3 O C 1.5 CO e - 3 O O e - (preferably)
82 molten oxide electrolysis electrolyte: CaO - La 2 O 3 feed: MgO temperature: 1900 C anode:??? anodic reaction: ½ O 2- O e - cathode:??? cathodic reaction: Mg e - Mg (g) overall reaction: MgO Mg (g) + ½ O 2 standard potential: E = 1.47 V
83 lithium chloride electrolysis electrolyte: LiCl - KCl eutectic feed: LiCl temperature: C anode: carbon anode reaction: Cl - ½Cl 2 + e - cathode: mild steel cathode reaction: Li + + e - Li ( ) overall cell reaction: LiCl Li ( ) + ½ Cl 2 standard potential: Eº = 3.6 V at 427 C
84 carbothermic reduction (lithia feed, carbon reductant) Li 2 O + C 2 Li (g) + CO (LiOH feed, carbon reductant) 6 LiOH + 2 C 2 Li (g) + 2 Li 2 CO H 2 (LiOH feed, iron carbide reductant) 3 LiOH + FeC 2 3 Li (g) + Fe + 3/2 H 2 + CO + CO 2
85 electrolytic-calciothermic reduction electrolyte: CaO - CaCl 2 cathode: Ca e - Ca Ca + Li 2 O CaO + 2 Li anode: O 2- + ½ C ½CO e - O 2- ½O e - (preferably)
86 metallothermic reduction oxide feed: 2 Li 2 O + 2 CaO + Si 4 Li (g) + Ca 2 SiO 4 (Pidgeon) 3 Li 2 O + 2 Al 6 Li (g) + Al 2 O 3 hydroxide feed: 2 LiOH + 2 Mg 2 Li (g) + 2 MgO + H 2 2 LiOH + Al Li (g) + LiAlO 2
87 molten oxide electrolysis electrolyte: CaO - MgO - SiO 2 -Al 2 O 3 feed: Li 2 O temperature: 1400 C anode:??? anodic reaction: ½ O 2- O e - cathode:??? cathodic reaction: 2 Li e - 2 Li (g) overall reaction: 2 Li 2 O 2 Li (g) + ½ O 2 standard potential: E = 1.9 V
88 molten oxide electrolysis electrolyte: CaO - MgO - BaO - Al 2 O 3 feed: TiO 2 temperature: 1700ºC anode:??? anodic reaction: 2 O 2- O e - cathode:??? cathodic reaction: Ti e - Ti ( ) overall reaction: TiO 2 Ti ( ) + O 2 standard potential: Eº = 1.53 V
89 in summary lithium and titanium prices out of line situation ripe for innovation: - new chemistry - fewer unit operations
90 in summary lithium and titanium prices out of line situation ripe for innovation: - new chemistry - fewer unit operations
91 in summary lithium and titanium prices out of line situation ripe for innovation: - new chemistry - fewer unit operations shift away from C + Cl 2 thermochemistry electrochemistry sustainable metallurgy requires paradigm shifts major major role for research in molten salts!
92 Acknowledgments National Aeronautics & Space Administration National Science Foundation Department of Energy
93 acknowledgments Environmental Protection Agency Electric Power Research Institute
94 Towards sustainability through better technology
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