DNA and RNA
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1 DNA and RNA
2 GENETIC MATERIAL In the middle of the 1900 s scientists were asking questions about genes. What is a gene made of? How do genes work? How do genes determine characteristics of organisms?
3 DO PROTEINS CARRY THE GENETIC CODE? At the time most scientists believed that proteins had to be the molecules that made up genes. There were so many different kinds proteins and DNA seemed to be too monotonous... repeating the same 4 subunits.
4 SEE GRIFFITH s EXPERIMENT 1928 Frederick Griffith looked at pneumonia bacteria trying to figure out what made people die S (SMOOTH) strain - killed mice R (Rough) strain -mice lived Images from:
5 If he heated the LETHAL strain first... mice lived. The heat killed bacteria were no longer LETHAL. Images from:
6 Images from: BUT... If he mixed heat-killed LETHAL bacteria with live harmless bacteria... mice DIED! When he looked inside dead mice, he found LIVE LETHAL bacteria! Somehow the heat killed LETHAL bacteria passed their characteristics to the harmless bacteria.
7 Griffith called this process TRANSFORMATION because one strain of bacteria had been changed permanently into another. But what was the factor that caused the transformation? A protein? A lipid? A carbohydrate? A nucleic acid?
8 1944- Oswald Avery s team of scientists repeat Griffith s experiments looking for the transforming molecule. After heat killing the LETHAL Pneumonia bacteria, he treated them with digestive enzymes that destroy specific kinds of molecules. If proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, or RNA s were destroyed... Transformation still occurred!
9 But when they treated the heat-killed LETHAL bacteria with enzymes to Proteins destroy there was NO transformation!... the mice lived! DNA was the molecule that caused the genetic change.
10 GRIFFITH EXPERIMENT (PNEUMONIA-RAT) Showed genetic material could be passed between bacteria & cause a change. AVERY EXPERIMENT (Digestive enzymes) showed that the genetic material DNA was
11 Scientists are skeptical it takes more than one experiment to convince them Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase experimented with viruses that infect bacteria = bacteriophages Knew bacteriophages were made of proteins and DNA
12
13 HERSHEY-CHASE BLENDER EXPERIMENT Showed only DNA not protein entered cell during infection. Conclusion: Genetic material in virus was DNA not protein
14 BACTERIAL VIRUSES
15 DNA is a DOUBLE HELIX X-ray experiments by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins led James Watson and Francis Crick to the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953
16 Section 12-1 Figure 12 7 Structure of DNA Nucleotide Hydrogen bonds Sugar-phosphate backbone Key Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)
17 NUCLEIC ACIDS are built from subunits called NUCLEOTIDES Image by: Riedell SUGAR in DNA is deoxyribose
18 NITROGEN BASES in DNA ADENINE = A = G GUANINE CYTOSINE = C = T THYMINE No URACIL
19 DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID DOUBLE STRANDED Image from: Backbone (sides of ladder) made of PHOSPHATES and sugars
20 Nitrogen bases = Steps of ladder Phosphate group A G Purines (2 rings) Deoxyribose sugar C T Pyrimidines (1 ring) Pearson Education Inc, publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved
21 CHARGAFF S RULES A = T G = C At the time no one knew why now we know its because Adenine always bonds across with THYMINE Guanine always bonds across with CYTOSINE Image from:
22 DOUBLE HELIX Hydrogen bonds between nitrogen bases hold the two strands together. Image from:
23 CHROMOSOMES & DNA REPLICATION 12-2
24 Chromosome Structure in Prokaryotes Approximately 5 million base pairs 3,000 genes Chromosome E. coli bacterium Pearson Education Inc, publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved Bases on the chromosome DNA molecule in bacteria is: SINGLE CIRCULAR Found in CYTOPLASM (NO nucleus)
25 DNA in EUKARYOTES is packaged into chromosomes Humans have approximately 3 billion base pairs (1 m long) 60,000 to 100,000 genes If the diameter of the DNA (2 nanometers) was as wide as a fishing line (0.5 millimeters) it might stretch as far as 21.2 km (or 13.6 miles) in length which would all have to be packed into a nucleus, the equivalent size of 25 cm in diameter. That is some packaging!
26 THINK ABOUT IT How could you get this piece of string into the container?
27 Chromosome Structure of Eukaryotes Chromosome Nucleosome Pearson Education Inc, publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved DNA double helix Coils Supercoils DNA is: in multiple chromosome bundles nucleus Found in Histones
28 Chromosome Structure of Eukaryotes Pearson Education Inc, publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved Eukaryotic chromosomes are made of DNA & PROTEINS called HISTONES Nucleosome DNA double helix Histones Together the DNA & histone proteins forms a bead-like structure called a NUCLEOSOME
29 Pearson Education Inc, publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved Chromosome Structure of Eukaryotes Chromosome Nucleosome Coils DNA double helix Supercoils Histones Nucleosomes pack together to form thick coiled fibers. When cell is NOT dividing, these fibers are spread out in nucleus as. CHROMATIN (Allows reading of code)
30 Chromosome Structure of Eukaryotes Chromosome Nucleosome Pearson Education Inc, publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved DNA double helix Coils Supercoils Histones When cell gets ready to divide, the fibers pack even more tightly to form.(makes chromosomes it easier to move DNA during mitosis)
31 Image from: HOW IS DNA COPIED? The structure of DNA explains how it can be copied. Each strand has all the info needed to construct the other matching half. If strands are separated, base-pairing rules allow you to fill in the complementary bases.
32 Section 12-2 Figure DNA Replication New strand Original strand DNA polymerase DNA polymerase Growth Growth Replication fork Replication fork Nitrogenous bases New strand Original strand Sites where strand separation and replication occur are called replication forks
33 REPLICATION STEPS 1.Enzymes unzip molecule by breaking Hydrogen bonds that hold the strands together and unwind it. 2. DNA polymerase joins nucleotides using original strand as template and for spell checks errors. 3. Copying happens in opposite directions along the two strands & in multiple places at once.
34 Play See a video clip about DNA REPLICATION
35 RNA and PROTEIN SYNTHESIS 12-3 Pearson Education Inc, publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved
36 RNA- the Other Nucleic Acid Also made of NUCLEOTIDES Sugar is RIBOSE instead of deoxyribose. RNA is SINGLE stranded Contains URACIL instead of thymine.
37 3 KINDS OF RNA HELP WITH INFO TRANSFER FOR PROTEIN SYNTHESIS RIBOSOMAL RNA (rrna) Combines with proteins to form ribosomes TRANSFER RNA (trna) Matches m-rna codon to add correct amino acids during protein synthesis MESSENGER RNA (mrna) carries code from DNA to ribosomes rrna and t-rna images from Pearson Education Inc, publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved mrna image from
38 Section 12-3 Figure Transcription Adenine (DNA and RNA) Cystosine (DNA and RNA) Guanine(DNA and RNA) Thymine (DNA only) Uracil (RNA only) RNA polymerase RNA Enzyme called RNA POLYMERASE separates strands, then uses one strand as a template to assemble an RNA copy. DNA
39 How does RNA POLYMERASE know where a gene starts and stops? Enzyme binds to places with specific DNA sequences called. PROMOTERS PROMOTERS tell RNA POLYMERASE where to start. Signals at the end of the gene code cause transcription to stop.
40 Video 3 Play See a video clip about TRANSCRIPTION (12C)
41 ACTIVITY TRANSCRIPTION of DNA
42 RNA s require EDITING before use Image by Riedell
43 WHY WASTE IT? Why spend energy making a large RNA and then throw parts away? May allow same gene to be used in different ways in different kinds of cells. May have a role in evolution allows small changes in genes to have a big effect.
44 MASTER PLAN DNA stays safe in nucleus Pearson Education Inc, publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved TRANSCRIPTION (DNA RNA) & PROCESSING takes place in nucleus TRANSLATION (RNA proteins) takes place in ribosomes in cytoplasm Blueprints of master plan are carried to building site
45 HOW CAN JUST 4 BASES GIVE DIRECTIONS TO MAKE 20 AMINO ACIDS? Message is read in groups of 3 = CODON UCGCACGGU UCG-CAC-GGU Serine - Histidine - Glycine Codons represent different amino acids
46 Section 12-3 The m-rna Code 64 possible codons Some amino acids have more than one codon. AUG START= 3 codons for STOP
47 ANTICODON on trna EACH trna carries only one kind of amino acid matches up with CODON on mrna Images modified from Pearson Education Inc, publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved
48 Section 12-3 Figure Translation
49 Section 12-3 Figure Translation (continued)
50 Video 4 See a video clip about PROTEIN SYNTHESIS (12D) TRANSLATION VIDEO (Choose Large video)
51 Mendel/flower images from: Blood cell by Riedell GENES & PROTEINS Proteins are the connection between the gene code in the DNA and how that gene is expressed. A gene that codes for an enzyme (protein) to make a pigment can control the color of a flower. A gene that codes for an enzyme (protein) adds carbohydrates to glycoproteins to produce your blood type. Enzymes catalyze and regulate chemical reactions so proteins build and operate all cell components.
52 Play McGraw Hill animation You-tube animation
53 MUTATIONS 12-4
54 REMEMBER! MUTATIONS are changes in the genetic material. Mutations can happen when cells make mistakes in copying their own DNA or be caused by radiation or chemicals in the enviroment.
55 KINDS OF MUTATIONS Mutations that produce changes in a single gene = GENE MUTATIONS Mutations that produce changes in whole chromosomes = CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS
56 GENE MUTATIONS Mutations involving One or a few nucleotides = Point mutation because they occur at a single point in the DNA sequence. TYPES OF POINT MUTATIONS: substitutions deletions insertions
57 SUBSTITUTION Changes one base for another A T T C G A G C T A T T C T A G C T
58 SICKLE CELL ANEMIA CAUSE: (autosomal recessive) A changed to T (glu to val) gene on chromosome #11 that codes for part of hemoglobin protein (carries oxygen in blood)
59 GENE MUTATIONS Substitutions usually affect no more than a single, Amino acid but deletions and insertions can have a more dramatic effect. IMAGE FROM BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing 2006
60 FRAME SHIFT MUTATIONS Change multiple bases in code thefatcatatetherat the fat cat ate the rat INSERTION thefatcatateateateatetherat the fat cat ate ate ate ate the rat DELETION thefatcatatetherat the fat ata tet her at
61 Frame shift mutations change every Amino acid FRAME SHIFTS in the that follows the shift. protein Frame shifts can alter a protein so function much it is unable to
62 CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS Mutations involving changes in the Number or structure of whole chromosomes TYPES OF CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS: deletions duplications See a Video (deletions & duplications inversions translocations See a Video (inversions & translocations
63 DELETION Piece of chromosome is lost Image from:
64 DUPLICATION Piece of chromosome is copied too many times Image from:
65 INVERSION Segment flips and reads backwards Image from:
66 TRANSLOCATION Segment breaks off and joins a different non-homologous chromosome Image from:
67 MUTATIONS Most mutations are neutral meaning they have little or no effect on gene. function Mutations that cause defective proteins are usually HARMFUL Harmful mutations are associated with many genetic disorders and can cause cancer
68 Mutations are also a source of Genetic variability and can be beneficial MUTATIONS Can help an organism Survive and reproduce Provide variation in population for natural selection to act upon
69 Condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes POLYPLOIDY = LETHAL in humans, but beneficial in some. 3N Triploid ( ) or tetraploid ( ) plants are often than diploid plants. POLYPLOIDY plants 4N larger and stronger
70 GENE REGULATION
71 Only a fraction of genes in a cell are expressed (made into RNA) at any given time. How does the cell decide which will be turned on and which will stay silent? PROMOTER You already know about regions that show RNA polymerase where to start. REGULATORY SITES There are other that control whether a gene is ON or OFF.
72 Typical Gene Structure Section 12-5 Regulatory sites Promoter (RNA polymerase binding site) DNA strand Start transcription Stop transcription
73 E. Coli lac operon See a MOVIE choose animation/narrated Group of genes that operate together are called an OPERON Genes code for enzymes needed to digest lactose sugar. Only needed if glucose is not available
74 Most of time glucose is available so lac operon is turned OFF by a REPRESSOR molecule that sits on a regulatory site next to the promoter called the OPERATOR
75 What if there s NO GLUCOSE? Cells need to get rid of the repressor and turn the ON lac genes to digest lactose instead. The presence of lactose causes a change in the REPRESSOR molecule so so it can t bind the operator site. Image modified from:
76 Cells turn genes ON & OFF as needed Many genes are regulated by REPRESSOR proteins that keep them turned off until needed. Others use proteins/transcription factors that speed up transcription or affect protein synthesis - Eukaryotes use transcription factors
77 EUKARYOTES are more COMPLEX Additional regulatory sequences: 1. ENHANCER regions upstream from promoters bind many different regulatory proteins 2. TATA box (TATATA or TATAAA) helps position RNA POLYMERASE Image by Riedell
78 DEVELOPMENT & DIFFERENTIATION Gene regulation is also important in shaping way organisms develop How does a zygote become a multi-cellular organism? How does it know what kind of cell to be?
79 DEVELOPMENT & DIFFERENTIATION DIFFERENTIATE Cells by turning different genes on and off. BUT How does a cell know where it is in the body? and what genes it should turn on? and when?
80 In the 1980s, researchers discovered a series of genes in fruit flies called Hox genes These genes control the organization of the developing embryo and tell parts where to grow and when. Mutations to Hox genes can cause a leg to grow where an antenna should sprout.
81 Since that time, HOX genes with almost identical sequences have been found in a variety of organisms including HUMANS Pearson Education Inc, publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved
82 HOX GENES Similar genes controlling the eyes of insects and our own eyes have also been discovered. Our version of the gene can be inserted in a fly and still trigger the building of an insect eye!
83 SO WHAT? The similarities between HOX gene sequences in very different organisms and the ability of these genes to trade places and still function in different species suggests that these organisms share a common ancestor
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