Switching to AQA from Edexcel

Transcription

1 Switching to AQA from Edexcel If you re thinking of switching to AQA from Edexcel GCSE Biology (2Bl01) for teaching from September 2016, this resource will provide a helpful comparison of the subject content and assessment for each awarding body. It directly compares the current Edexcel GCSE Biology specification, with our new Biology specification (8461) for 2016 onwards. Comparison overview The content of the two specifications is similar but is organised differently. AQA Our specification contains more detail on the brain and eye, historical background on genetics, evolution and classification systems, predator-prey cycles, decay and farming techniques. The content can be delivered in a variety of ways. Suggestions for learning activities are given in the scheme of work. These provide many opportunities to develop practical, working scientifically and mathematical skills. There is flexibility to co-teach the Biology and Combined Science: Trilogy (8464) courses. Edexcel The Edexcel specification is set out for three examination papers. In addition to the coursework requirements, there are some additional investigations. This specification contains more detail on protein synthesis, sex-linked disorders, vertebrate groups, behaviours, the nitrogen cycle, fieldwork techniques, indicator species and food biotechnology. Assessment Two externally assessed written papers (1 hour 45 minutes). 'Fundamental biological concepts and principles', listed at the beginning of the subject content, highlights knowledge that could be used in either paper. Eight required practicals should be carried out by students and may be Three externally assessed written papers (1 hour) + controlled assessment(s) to internally assess practical skills.

2 examined in the written papers to assess practical skills. The content is organised into seven topics: Topics 1-4: Cell biology, Organisation, Infection and response, Bioenergetics (assessed in Paper 1). Topics 5-7: Homeostasis and response, Inheritance, variation and evolution, Ecology (assessed in Paper 2). The content is organised into three units of assessment, each covering three topics. Unit B1: Influences on life Topics: Classification, variation and inheritance, Response to a changing environment, Problems of and solutions to a changing environment. Unit B2: The components of life Topics: The building blocks of cells, Organisms and energy, Common systems Unit B3: Using biology Topics: Control systems, Behaviour, Biotechnology Content Practicals The required practicals are clearly listed, as are opportunities for development of skills identified in the right-hand column of the specification. These should encourage more practical work which will motivate students and encourage the transfer of skills across the subject. Each of the three units includes practical investigations which may be externally examined, as well as further suggestions for practical work. Internally assessed controlled assessment tasks are taken from these investigations.

3 Working scientifically WS 1.1 to WS 4.6 'Working scientifically' encompasses all the activities that scientists do. It is woven throughout the specification and written papers. There are cross-references to relevant activities in the content. Specification references: How Science Works This is subdivided into: Data, evidence, theories and explanations. Practical and enquiry skills. Communication skills. Applications and implications of science. Cell biology Cell structure to B2 Topic 1 Cell structure and microscopy: 1.1 to 1.5 B3 Topic 1 Bacterial growth and aseptic techniques: 1.26 to 1.28 Both specifications contain similar content on plant and animal cell structure and microscopy. More detail is given about the functions of cell components, cell differentiation and cell specialisation. Comparison of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Culturing microorganisms is covered in more detail. Required practical investigates the effect of antiseptics or antibiotics on bacterial growth. Some references to cell adaptations are found in B1 Topic 2: 2.20 and 2.23, B2 Topic 2: 2.19 and Topic 3: 3.8. Eukaryotic cells are not mentioned in the specification. A similar investigation is referred to in B1 Topic 3. B3 Topic 1 covers growth of bacteria, aseptic techniques and the

4 work of Pasteur. There is also an investigation into conditions affecting the growth of bacteria Cell division to Mitosis is covered in more detail, however, stages aren t described. The specification doesn t reference haploid and diploid cells. Stem cells in plants and animals. Therapeutic cloning and the uses of stem cells are covered in more detail. B2 Topic 1 Mitosis: 1.13 and 1.14 Stem cells: 1.20 and 1.21 Mitosis is covered only in terms of chromosomes and daughter cells. The terms haploid and diploid. There is a brief reference to stem cells and differentiation, including advantages, disadvantages and risks of adult and embryonic stem cell research. Edexcel doesn t cover stem cells in plants or therapeutic cloning Transport in cells to B2 Topic 2 Diffusion: 2.2 and 2.3 Active transport: 2.18 Osmosis: 2.19 to 2.21 Both specifications cover diffusion, osmosis and active transport. Factors affecting the rate of diffusion. The need for specialised exchange surfaces in multicellular organisms.

5 Factors affecting the effectiveness of exchange surfaces. There is a required practical to investigate the effect of salt or sugar solutions on plant tissue. Active transport is linked to mineral ion absorption, kidney function and absorption of sugar from the gut. The Edexcel specification includes an open investigation into osmosis. Active transport and mineral uptake in roots. Organisation Principles of organisation B2 Topic 3 Organisation: 3.9 Villi: 3.16 Organisation is included in both specifications, but the AQA specification includes definitions of cells, tissues and organs Animal tissues, organs and organ systems to B1 Topics 2 and 3 Enzymes: 2.2 Type 2 diabetes: 2.11 to 2.13 B2 Topics 1 Smoking, alcohol and obesity: 3.4 to 3.7 Enzymes: 1.24, 1.26 to 1.32 B2 Topic 3 Blood: 3.8 Heart and circulatory system:

6 3.10 and 3.11 Digestive system: 3.12 to 3.17 Functional foods: 3.18 AQA specification covers digestive system and enzyme activity, the heart and circulatory system, non-communicable diseases such as CHD, Type 2 diabetes, cancer and some lung and liver diseases and their associated risk factors. Both specifications cover properties of enzymes and an understanding of the 'lock and key theory', including the investigation of enzyme activity. Coverage of the role of digestive enzymes and bile is also similar. Both specifications cover the structure and functions of the heart, blood vessels and the blood. The effects of smoking and alcohol are common to both specifications, as is the link between obesity and Type 2 diabetes. The AQA specification assumes knowledge of the digestive system from KS3. The focus is on the properties of enzymes and the role of enzymes in digestion. There is a required practical to investigate the effect of a factor on the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction. The relationship between the heart and lungs, the role of coronary arteries. There is much more focus on heart disease and treatments including pacemakers, stents, valves, artificial hearts, transplants and drugs. The Edexcel specification includes the functions of the parts of the digestive system and peristalsis. The use of probiotics, prebiotic oligosaccharides and plant stanol esters in the diet. Edexcel doesn t cover lungs, coronary arteries or treatments for heart diseases.

7 There is greater focus on factors affecting physical and mental health. The effects of smoking and alcohol on unborn babies and risk factors associated with cancers. There is a section about cancers and how they spread in the body. There are just a few sections related to the effect of lifestyle on health and non-communicable diseases. Edexcel covers the effects of chemicals in smoke and the short term effects of alcohol abuse. There is also a section about the ethics of liver and heart transplants Plant tissues, organs and systems to B2 Topics 2 and 3 Leaf structure: 2.13 Transpiration: 2.17 Xylem and phloem: 2.18 Root hair cells: 2.19 Growth: 3.6 Both specifications cover how root hair cells are adapted for their function. Leaf structure, including the names of tissues, is covered in more detail. Meristem tissue in relation to differentiation and growth. Structure of xylem and phloem is covered in detail. The term translocation. Factors affecting the rate of transpiration. There are several investigations and activities to develop skills in transpiration. Leaf structure: a large surface area, chloroplasts and stomata. No reference to meristems, just how cell division, elongation and differentiation contribute to growth and development. Only the role of xylem and phloem is mentioned. How the loss of water vapour from leaves drives transpiration.

8 Infection and response Communicable diseases to and B1 Topics 1 and 3 Classification: 1.1 to 1.3 Pathogens and defence: 3.8 to 3.10 B3 Topic 1 Antiseptics and antibiotics: 3.12 to 3.15 Vaccines and immunity: 1.20 to 1.23 Bacterial growth and aseptic techniques: 1.26 to 1.28 Both specifications cover pathogens as organisms that cause infectious disease, vaccinations and how the body defends itself against the entry of pathogens. Only the structure of bacteria is covered, but in more detail than in the Edexcel specification. The AQA specification includes the causes, transmission, symptoms and prevention or treatment of several viral, bacterial, fungal and protist diseases of humans and plants. These include: The structure of fungi, protoctista and prokaryota are briefly covered in the section on classification, as well as why viruses are not classified into any of the five kingdoms. Edexcel mentions only the spread of some diseases. These include cholera, salmonella, influenza, athlete's foot, HIV, dysentery and malaria. measles HIV tobacco mosaic virus salmonella gonorrhoea rose black spot malaria.

9 Methods to reduce the spread of diseases. More detail on the role of white blood cells in defence against pathogens, reference to antitoxins and phagocytosis. Vaccinations, antibiotics and painkillers. Antibiotic resistance is covered in detail in section to include how resistant strains evolve and how to reduce the rate at which they develop. Lysozymes in tears. The advantages and risks of immunisations. There is slightly more detail on antigens and memory lymphocytes in immunisation. Vaccinations, antiseptics, antibiotics to include antibacterials and antifungals. Antibiotic resistance is only covered in relation to the misuse of antibiotics. The discovery of drugs from plants and microorganisms, the synthesis of new drugs. Detail on the processes and purposes of drug testing and clinical trials. The work of Fleming. Drug testing is not covered. The work of Pasteur and Jenner Monoclonal antibodies to B3 Topic 1 Production: 1.24 Uses: 1.25 Both specifications cover the production and uses of monoclonal antibodies. A definition, which includes the purpose of monoclonal antibodies. Side effects of monoclonal Edexcel only refers to the advantages of monoclonal antibodies to target specific cells.

10 antibodies. Uses include pregnancy testing, detection of chemicals and pathogens, location of specific chemicals and the treatment of cancer. Uses include pregnancy testing, but without reference to HCG, diagnosis and locating blood clots and cancers and the treatment of cancer Plant disease to B1 Topic 3 Antibacterial chemicals: 3.11 Nitrates: 3.27 B3 Topic 1 and Topic 3 Plant defences: 1.29 Impact on food supply: 1.30 Pest management: 3.18 The use of nitrate ions in plants to make proteins for growth. The production of chemicals to defend against attack from pests and pathogens. How plant diseases can be detected and identified. In addition to the diseases covered in section 4.3.1, specification includes aphids as a pest and nitrate and magnesium ion deficiencies. Examples of physical and chemical plant defence responses and mechanical adaptations of plants. There is a reference to the effect of plant pests and pathogens on human food supply. There is a short reference to chemicals produced by plants, some of which can be used to treat human diseases, disorders or to relieve symptoms.

11 Bioenergetics Photosynthesis to B2 Topic 2 Word equation: 2.14 Limiting factors: 2.15 to 2.16 Both specifications cover the word equation for photosynthesis and some factors affecting and limiting its rate. There is a required practical in the AQA specification about the effect of a factor on the rate of photosynthesis. A similar investigation is suggested in the Edexcel specification. AQA specification covers both word and symbol equations. Only the word equation is required. Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction. Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis also include the amount of chlorophyll. There is more focus on the interpretation of graphs to identify limiting factors and the use of the inverse square law in relation to light intensity. The economics of enhancing conditions in a greenhouse, while maintaining a profit. A variety of glucose uses. How limiting factors affect the rate of photosynthesis only refers to light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. The only use of glucose mentioned is for respiration Respiration to B2 Topic 2 Definition 2.1

12 Exercise: 2.2, 2.5 to 2.8, 2.11 and 2.12 Word equations: 2.4 and 2.9 Aerobic vs anaerobic: 2.10 B3 Topic 1 Metabolism: 1.1 Comparison on aerobic and anaerobic respiration in animal cells, related to the circulatory and breathing systems. Word equations for these two reactions are included. Investigating the effect of exercise on heart and breathing rate. Both the word and symbol equations for aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration in yeast and plants. The word equation for anaerobic respiration in animals is included, as well as reference to the reactions being exothermic. The economic importance of fermentation is covered in relation to bread and alcohol production. The section on exercise also includes reference to lactic acid build up and breakdown of lactic acid in the liver, oxygen debt and muscle fatigue. There is a summary section on metabolism. Aspects of metabolism are covered in more detail in topic , , , Edexcel includes only the word equations for aerobic and anaerobic respiration in animals. The only reference to anaerobic respiration in yeast is an optional investigation into the effect of glucose concentration on the rate. The section on exercise also includes use of the equation: cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate Edexcel refers to excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) instead of oxygen debt. Only the waste products carbon dioxide and urea are referred to in terms of metabolism.

13 Homeostasis and response Homeostasis B1 Topic 2 Overview: 2.1 and 2.2 Thermoregulation: 2.3 and 2.4 Both specifications define the term homeostasis and refer to blood glucose regulation, body temperature regulation and osmoregulation. AQA covers these topics in detail in Thermoregulation ( ), Osmoregulation ( ). Edexcel covers Osmoregulation in B3 Topic 1: 1.1 to 1.8. Description of automatic control systems in terms of receptors, coordination centres and effectors. Nervous and chemical examples The human nervous system to B1 Topic 2 CNS: 2.19 Neurones and synapses: 2.20 to 2.22 Reflex arc: 2.23 B1 Topic 3 Thermoregulation: 2.3 and 2.4 Drugs and their effects on the CNS: 3.1 to 3.3 Both specifications cover the structure and functions of the nervous system, including reflex arc, and include investigations into reaction time. Thermoregulation is covered, but in slightly more detail in the Edexcel specification.

14 There is a section about the basic structure and function of the brain, including the techniques used by neuroscientists to map regions of the brain. There is detailed content relating to the structure of the eye, including accommodation, the treatment of eye defects and ray diagrams. The thermoregulatory centre in the brain. Negative feedback mechanisms are only mentioned for adrenaline, thyroxine and ADH. The structure and function of dendrons, axons and the myelin sheath. Description of the effects of painkillers, narcotics, hallucinogens, stimulants and depressants. There is reference to the hypothalamus regulating body temperature, including negative feedback. The structure and role of the dermis is covered in more detail Hormonal coordination in humans to B1 Topic 2 Hormones: 2.5 B3 Topic 1 Glucose and diabetes: 2.6 to 2.13 Kidney: 1.2 to 1.6 ADH: 1.7 and 1.8 Reproduction and control of fertility: 1.9 to 1.16 Both specifications define hormone and cover control of blood glucose levels, Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes (their causes, treatments and risk

15 factors). They also cover kidney function in relation to excretion of urea and osmoregulation, the negative feedback mechanism of ADH and treatments for kidney failure. Hormonal controls of the menstrual cycle and IVF treatment. More detail about the position of endocrine organs. There is an overview of the role of the lungs, skin and kidneys in relation to the loss of water, ions and urea. Formation of urea is covered in detail. The new specification includes development of secondary sexual characteristics and hormonal and non-hormonal methods of contraception. Negative aspects of fertility treatment. The roles of adrenaline and thyroxine as negative feedback systems. More detail about the structure of the urinary system and nephron. How the menstrual cycle is controlled by a negative feedback mechanism. Reference to the corpus luteum. Detail on how the egg and sperm are adapted to their functions. Egg donation and use of surrogate mothers, hormones and IVF Plant hormones and B1 Topic 2 Auxin and tropisms: 2.14 to 2.17 Use of plant hormones: 2.18 Both specifications cover phototropism and gravitropism and have similar investigations. AQA required practical investigates the effect of light on

16 shoots. Auxins and gibberellins. Some uses of plant hormones common to both specifications: weed killers, rooting powders and fruit ripening. More detail is included about the effects of gibberellins and ethene. Production of seedless fruits. Other uses of hormones: auxins promote growth in tissue culture gibberellins end seed dormancy, promote flowering and increase fruit size. Inheritance, variation and evolution Reproduction to B1 Topic 1 B2 Topic 1 Genetic inheritance and inherited disorders: 1.20 to 1.26 DNA structure: 1.6 to 1.10 B3 Topic 1 Mitosis, meiosis and fertilisation: 1.13 to 1.16 Protein synthesis: 1.22 to 1.25 Enzymes and DNA replication and protein synthesis: 1.27 Sex determination: 1.17 and 1.18 Sex-linked genetic disorders:

17 1.19 B3 Topic 2 Human migration and evolution: 2.16 and 2.17 Descriptions of mitosis and meiosis are covered in relation to asexual and sexual reproduction, the restoration of the normal number of chromosomes at fertilisation. Both specifications describe the structure of DNA in terms of base pairs and how the sequence of bases codes for amino acids and proteins. The implications of sequencing the human genome. Mutations and their potential effects. Genetic inheritance is covered in a similar way, including the terminology associated with genetic crosses. Both specifications require analysis and calculations of outcomes of crosses. Inherited disorders are considered, including the analysis of family trees. Sex determination is covered in both specifications. Sexual and asexual reproduction are described and compared in terms of their advantages. The content includes some organisms that can use both sexual and asexual reproduction. Description of the structure of a nucleotide, examples of the functions of proteins. The functions of non-coding parts of DNA. The importance of the human genome in linking genes to particular diseases, treatment of inherited disorders and tracing migration patterns. AQA covers polydactyly and cystic fibrosis as examples of inherited disorders. Embryo screening is also covered. The work of Watson, Crick, Franklin and Wilkins. Investigation into how DNA can be extracted from cells. The functions of mrna and trna. Enzymes catalyse DNA replication and protein synthesis. The use of mitochondrial DNA in the African Eve theory and for tracking human migration and evolution. Edexcel covers sickle cell disease and cystic fibrosis. Inheritance of the sex linked genetic

18 disorders haemophilia and colour blindness Variation and evolution to B1 Topic 1 Darwin's theory: 1.12 Variation: 1.13 to 1.16 Speciation: 1.17 B2 Topic 1 B3 Topic 3 Genetic engineering: 1.11 and 1.12 Cloning: 1.17 to1.19 Recombinant: DNA 3.12 GM plants: 3.15 to 3.18 Genetic and environmental variations, including the effect of mutations. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. The process of genetic engineering with examples. The advantages and disadvantages of the process. A definition of clone and description of the process of adult cell cloning. The risks and benefits of cloning. The process of selective breeding with examples and the problems of in-breeding. Genetic engineering examples include disease, pest and pesticide resistance in plants, human insulin production and research exploring Continuous and discontinuous variation, including an investigation. Normal distribution curves should also be interpreted. Genetic engineering examples include golden rice, herbicide resistant crops and human insulin production.

19 the use of genetic modification to overcome some inherited diseases. Golden rice is referred to in topic AQA specification names and describes examples of cloning in plants (tissue culture, cuttings) and animals (embryo transplants, adult cell cloning). Agrobacterium tumefaciens used as a vector; the use of genes from Bacillus thuringiensis. There is more detail regarding restriction enzymes, ligase and sticky ends. The term recombinant DNA technology. Edexcel specification describes but doesn t name adult cell cloning. The description includes reference to diploid cells. There are links with section Stem cells The development and understanding of genetics and evolution to B1 Topic 1 Darwin's theory: 1.12 Speciation: 1.17 Resistant organisms: 1.18 B1 Topic 3 MRSA: 3.14 B2 Topic 3 B3 Topic 2 Evidence for evolution: 3.1 to 3.3 Co-evolution: 2.13

20 Evidence for evolution: 2.14 to 2.17 Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and evidence for evolution, including development of resistant bacteria. Explanation why there are gaps in the fossil record and the process of speciation. Much of the content of this section relates to: Darwin, evolution ( to ), Mendel ( to ) and resistant bacteria ( and ). The focus here is, however, on a historical background. Edexcel specification refers to Darwin only. The work of Darwin, Lamarck, Wallace and Mendel. Evidence for evolution includes genetic inheritance, the fossil record and antibiotic resistant bacteria. How fossil can be formed. The causes of extinction. How we could reduce the rate of development of resistant strains of bacteria and why we do not have antibiotics to treat them. Evidence for evolution includes resistant organisms, the fossil record, the anatomy of the pentadactyl limb and stone tools. Reference to mitochondrial DNA. Co-evolution of plants and animals, linking flower structure with insect behaviour, and plant defence with animal metabolism. Edexcel specification refers only to the misuse of antibiotics Classification of living organisms B1 Topic 1 Classification into five kingdoms: 1.1 to 1.2

21 Viruses: 1.3 Chordata: 1.4 to 1.6 Species and binomial classification: 1.7 to 1.8 Problems: 1.9 Keys: 1.10 Classification using Linnaeus system and the binomial system to name organisms. There is more focus on why and how new models of classification have been developed. The three-domain system developed by Woese. How evolutionary trees are used to show how organisms are related. There is more detail about the five kingdoms and how vertebrates are classified. Why the definition of a species as organisms that produce fertile offspring may have limitations. The problems in making an accurate classification. The construction and use of keys to identify organisms. Ecology Adaptations, interdependence and competition to B1 Topic 1 Adaptations: 1.11 B1 Topic 3 Interdependence: 3.16 B3 Topic 2 Parasitism and mutualism: 3.19 Behaviour: 2.1 to 2.12 and 2.18 How organisms are adapted to survive in their habitats, including

22 extremophiles, and the interdependence of organisms. A wider range of terms related to ecology. The effect of changes in biotic and abiotic factors on communities. Definition of stable community. Parasitism and mutualism with examples. A large section of the specification covers behaviours related to mating and rearing of young (innate behaviour, imprinting, habituation, classical and operant conditioning). The use of conditioning when training animals. Investigating animal behaviour using choice chambers. Communication using sound, chemical and visual signals in animals. Using chemicals in plants. The work of ethologists Tinbergen, Lorenz, Fossey and Goodall. The impact of climate change on human behaviour Organisation of an ecosystem to B1 Topic 3 Carbon cycle: 3.26 Nitrogen cycle: B2 Topic 2 Fieldwork techniques: 2.22 and 2.23 Feeding relationships, use of quadrats and the carbon cycle. There is a required practical to investigate the population size of a common species in a habitat. The use of transects is referred to, but other techniques are not specified in detail. A range of fieldwork techniques: pooters, sweep nets/pond nets, pitfall traps and quadrats. Measurement of environmental factors.

23 Interpreting predator-prey cycles. AQA covers the carbon, water and decay cycles, but not the nitrogen cycle. Factors affecting decay. Anaerobic decay to produce methane and the use of biogas generators. There is a required practical to investigate the effect of a factor on the rate of decay. Evaluating the effect of environmental changes on the distribution of species (links to to and ). The carbon and nitrogen cycles. Decomposers are only referred to in the nitrogen cycle Biodiversity and the effect of human interaction on ecosystems to B1 Topic 3 Population growth: 3.20 Pollution: 3.21 to 3.23 Indicator species: 3.24 B2 Topic 2 Recycling waste materials: 3.25 Fieldwork techniques: 2.22 and 2.23 The impact of an increasing human population. The effect of an increasing population on waste management in order to reduce pollution from a range of sources. Land use and maintaining peat bogs and other habitats. Deforestation and global warming, including how they impact on Phosphates, nitrates and sulfur dioxide are the only pollutants covered. Eutrophication. There is an investigation about the effect of pollutants on seed germination and plant growth.

24 biodiversity. Programmes to maintain biodiversity. Indicator species with named examples Trophic levels in an ecosystem to Terminology associated with food chains. The construction and interpretation of pyramids of biomass, including why biomass is lost at each trophic level. B1 Topic 3 Energy transfer through a food chain: 3.17 Pyramid of biomass: 3.18 Energy transfers between each trophic level in a food chain. How this affects the shape of a pyramid of biomass Food production to B3 Topic 1 B3 Topic 3 Plant pests and pathogen: 1.30 Biotechnological techniques: 3.1 to 3.5 Fusarium: 3.6 and 3.7 Yogurt: 3.8 and 3.9 Enzyme technology: 3.10 to 3.12 Food security: 3.14 GM crops: 3.15 to 3.18

25 Biofuel: 3.19 The impact of human population growth on global food security. The role of biotechnology in food production. The use of vats/fermenters to cultivate microorganisms for the production of biomolecules on a large scale. How mycoprotein is produced using Fusarium. Factors that have led to food security threats in some countries. The need to develop sustainable methods of food production. Modern farming techniques such as factory farming, fish grown in cages and sustainable fishing by controlling net sizes and fishing quotas. GM crops are covered in more detail in section Conditions in fermenters that affect growth rates. The advantages of using microorganisms for food production. There is an investigation into factors affecting the growth of yeast. How bacteria are used to produce yogurt, with an investigation into the effect of different factors on yogurt making. Enzyme technology includes the production of chymosin, used to manufacture vegetarian cheese and invertase used in the manufacture of sweets. Investigations include the use of immobilised lactase to produce lactose-free milk and the use of enzymes in food production. Creating transgenic plants, the use of GM crops, plant breeding programmes and pest management strategies are evaluated in relation

26 to increased food production. The use of land to grow plants for biofuels is covered in the section on Deforestation, The effect of growing plants to produce biofuels on land availability for food crops.