BIOLOGY. The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance CAMPBELL. Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson

Transcription

1 CAMPBELL BIOLOGY TENTH EDITION Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson 15 The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance Lecture Presentation by Nicole Tunbridge and Kathleen Fitzpatrick

2 Locating Genes Along Chromosomes Mendel s hereditary factors were purely abstract when first proposed Today we can show that the factors genes are located on chromosomes The location of a particular gene can be seen by tagging isolated chromosomes with a fluorescent dye that highlights the gene

3 Figure 15.1

4 Figure 15.1a

5 Cytologists worked out the process of mitosis in 1875, using improved techniques of microscopy Biologists began to see parallels between the behavior of Mendel s proposed hereditary factors and chromosomes Around 1902, Sutton and Boveri and others independently noted the parallels and the chromosome theory of inheritance began to form

6 Figure 15.2 P Generation Y Y R R Yellow-round seeds (YYRR) y y r r Green-wrinkled seeds (yyrr) Meiosis Gametes R Y Fertilization y r F 1 Generation R r y R r y All F 1 plants produce yellow-round seeds (YyRr). Y Y LAW OF SEGREGATION The two alleles for each gene separate. 1 R r R Y r y Meiosis Metaphase I r Y R y r LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT Alleles of genes on nonhomologous chromosomes assort independently. R 1 Y y Anaphase I Y y R r Metaphase r R II 2 2 Y y Y y Y Y y y Y Y y y R R r r 1 1 YR yr Yr 4 yr r r R R F 2 Generation 3 Fertilization recombines the R and r alleles at random. An F 1 F 1 cross-fertilization 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 3 Fertilization results in the 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in the F 2 generation.

7 Figure 15.2a P Generation Yellow-round seeds (YYRR) Y Y R R y y r r Green-wrinkled seeds (yyrr) Meiosis Gametes R Y Fertilization y r

8 Figure 15.2b F 1 Generation LAW OF SEGREGATION The two alleles for each gene separate. Y R Y r y R r Y y Meiosis R Metaphase I 1 1 R r y r Anaphase I Y y Y r R y All F 1 plants produce yellow-round seeds (YyRr). r Y LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT Alleles of genes on nonhomologous chromosomes assort independently. R y 2 R Y r y Metaphase II r Y R y 2 Y Y y y Y Y y y R R r r r r R R YR 4 yr 4 Yr 4 yr

9 Figure 15.2c LAW OF SEGREGATION F 2 Generation 3 Fertilization An F 1 F 1 cross-fertilization 3 recombines the R and r alleles 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 at random. LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT Fertilization results in the 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in the F 2 generation.

10 Concept 15.1: Morgan showed that Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes: Scientific inquiry The first solid evidence associating a specific gene with a specific chromosome came in the early 20th century from the work of Thomas Hunt Morgan These early experiments provided convincing evidence that the chromosomes are the location of Mendel s heritable factors

11 Morgan s Choice of Experimental Organism For his work, Morgan chose to study Drosophila melanogaster, a common species of fruit fly Several characteristics make fruit flies a convenient organism for genetic studies They produce many offspring A generation can be bred every two weeks They have only four pairs of chromosomes

12 Morgan noted wild type, or normal, phenotypes that were common in the fly populations Traits alternative to the wild type are called mutant phenotypes

13 Figure 15.3

14 Figure 15.3a

15 Figure 15.3b

16 Correlating Behavior of a Gene s Alleles with Behavior of a Chromosome Pair In one experiment, Morgan mated male flies with white eyes (mutant) with female flies with red eyes (wild type) The F 1 generation all had red eyes The F 2 generation showed a 3:1 red to white eye ratio, but only males had white eyes Morgan determined that the white-eyed mutant allele must be located on the X chromosome Morgan s finding supported the chromosome theory of inheritance

17 Figure 15.4 Experiment Conclusion P Generation F 1 Generation Results F 2 Generation All offspring had red eyes. P Generation X X Eggs F 1 Generation w + w + w + w w + w X Y w + w Sperm Eggs F 2 Generation w + w + w + w + w w w + w + w Sperm

18 Figure 15.4a Experiment P Generation F 1 Generation All offspring had red eyes. Results F 2 Generation

19 Figure 15.4b Conclusion P Generation X X w + w + X Y w Eggs F 1 Generation w + w w + w w + Sperm Eggs F 2 Generation w + w + w + w + w w w + w + w Sperm

20 Concept 15.2: Sex-linked genes exhibit unique patterns of inheritance Morgan s discovery of a trait that correlated with the sex of flies was key to the development of the chromosome theory of inheritance In humans and some other animals, there is a chromosomal basis of sex determination

21 The Chromosomal Basis of Sex In humans and other mammals, there are two varieties of sex chromosomes: a larger X chromosome and a smaller Y chromosome A person with two X chromosomes develops as a female, while a male develops from a zygote with one X and one Y Only the ends of the Y chromosome have regions that are homologous with corresponding regions of the X chromosome

22 Figure 15.5 X Y

23 Figure XY Parents 44 + XX 22 + X or Sperm 44 + XX 22 + Y or 22 + X Egg 44 + XY Zygotes (offspring) (a) The X-Y system (c) The Z-W system 76 + ZW 76 + ZZ 22 + XX 22 + X 32 (Diploid) 16 (Haploid) (b) The X-0 system (d) The haplo-diploid system

24 Figure 15.6a 44 + XY Parents 44 + XX 22 + X or Sperm 44 + XX 22 + Y or 22 + X Egg 44 + XY Zygotes (offspring) (a) The X-Y system 22 + XX 22 + X (b) The X-0 system

25 Figure 15.6b 76 + ZW 76 + ZZ (c) The Z-W system 32 (Diploid) 16 (Haploid) (d) The haplo-diploid system

26 Short segments at the ends of the Y chromosomes are homologous with the X, allowing the two to behave like homologues during meiosis in males A gene on the Y chromosome called SRY (sexdetermining region on the Y) is responsible for development of the testes in an embryo

27 A gene that is located on either sex chromosome is called a sex-linked gene Genes on the Y chromosome are called Y-linked genes; there are few of these Genes on the X chromosome are called X-linked genes

28 Inheritance of X-Linked Genes X chromosomes have genes for many characters unrelated to sex, whereas most Y-linked genes are related to sex determination

29 X-linked genes follow specific patterns of inheritance For a recessive X-linked trait to be expressed A female needs two copies of the allele (homozygous) A male needs only one copy of the allele (hemizygous) X-linked recessive disorders are much more common in males than in females

30 Figure 15.7 X N X N X n Y X n Y Sperm Eggs X N X N X n X N Y X N X N X n X N Y (a) X N X n X N Y X N X n X n Y X N Y Sperm X n Y Sperm Eggs X N X N X N X N Y Eggs X N X N X n X N Y X n X N X n X n Y X n X n X n X n Y (b) (c)

31 Some disorders caused by recessive alleles on the X chromosome in humans Color blindness (mostly X-linked) Duchenne muscular dystrophy Hemophilia

32 X Inactivation in Female Mammals In mammalian females, one of the two X chromosomes in each cell is randomly inactivated during embryonic development The inactive X condenses into a Barr body If a female is heterozygous for a particular gene located on the X chromosome, she will be a mosaic for that character

33 Figure 15.8 Early embryo: X chromosomes Allele for orange fur Allele for black fur Two cell populations in adult cat: Active X Black fur Cell division and X chromosome inactivation Inactive X Orange fur Active X

34 Figure 15.8a

35 Concept 15.3: Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located near each other on the same chromosome Each chromosome has hundreds or thousands of genes (except the Y chromosome) Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together are called linked genes

36 How Linkage Affects Inheritance Morgan did other experiments with fruit flies to see how linkage affects inheritance of two characters Morgan crossed flies that differed in traits of body color and wing size

37 Figure 15.9 Experiment P Generation (homozygous) Wild type (gray body, normal wings) b + b + vg + vg + F 1 dihybrid testcross Wild-type F 1 dihybrid (gray body, normal wings) b + + vg Double mutant (black body, vestigial wings) b vg Homozygous recessive (black body, vestigial wings) b vg Testcross offspring Eggs b + vg + b + vg + Wild type (gray-normal) Blackvestigial Grayvestigial Blacknormal Sperm b + + vg b vg b + vg b + vg PREDICTED RATIOS Genes on different chromosomes: Genes on the same chromosome: Results 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 1 : 1 : 0 : : 944 : 206 : 185

38 Figure 15.9a Experiment P Generation (homozygous) Wild type (gray body, normal wings) b + b + vg + vg + F 1 dihybrid testcross Wild-type F 1 dihybrid (gray body, normal wings) b + + vg Double mutant (black body, vestigial wings) b vg Homozygous recessive (black body, vestigial wings) b vg

39 Figure 15.9b Experiment Testcross offspring Eggs b + vg + b + vg + Wild type (gray-normal) Blackvestigial Grayvestigial Blacknormal Sperm b + + vg b vg b + vg b + vg PREDICTED RATIOS Genes on different chromosomes: Genes on the same chromosome: Results 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 1 : 1 : 0 : : 944 : 206 : 185

40 Morgan found that body color and wing size are usually inherited together in specific combinations (parental phenotypes) He noted that these genes do not assort independently, and reasoned that they were on the same chromosome

41 Figure 15.UN01 F 1 dihybrid female and homozygous recessive male in testcross b + vg + b + vg + Most offspring or

42 However, nonparental phenotypes were also produced Understanding this result involves exploring genetic recombination, the production of offspring with combinations of traits differing from either parent

43 Genetic Recombination and Linkage The genetic findings of Mendel and Morgan relate to the chromosomal basis of recombination

44 Recombination of Unlinked Genes: Independent Assortment of Chromosomes Offspring with a phenotype matching one of the parental phenotypes are called parental types Offspring with nonparental phenotypes (new combinations of traits) are called recombinant types, or recombinants A 50% frequency of recombination is observed for any two genes on different chromosomes

45 Figure 15.UN02 Gametes from yellow-round dihybrid parent (YyRr) Gametes from testcross homozygous recessive parent (yyrr) yr YR yr Yr yr YyRr yyrr Yyrr yyrr Parentaltype offspring Recombinant offspring

46 Recombination of Linked Genes: Crossing Over Morgan discovered that genes can be linked, but the linkage was incomplete, because some recombinant phenotypes were observed He proposed that some process must occasionally break the physical connection between genes on the same chromosome That mechanism was the crossing over of homologous chromosomes

47 Figure P generation (homozygous) Wild type (gray body, normal wings) Double mutant (black body, vestigial wings) b + vg + b + vg + F 1 dihybrid testcross Wild-type F 1 dihybrid (gray body, normal wings) b + vg + Homozygous recessive (black body, vestigial wings) Replication of chromosomes Meiosis I b + vg + b + vg + Replication of chromosomes b + vg + b + vg + Meiosis I and II Meiosis II Recombinant chromosomes Eggs b + vg + b + vg + Testcross offspring 965 Wild type (gray-normal) 944 Blackvestigial 206 Grayvestigial 185 Blacknormal b + vg + b + vg + Parental-type offspring Recombination frequency Sperm Recombinant offspring = 391 recombinants 100 = 17% 2,300 total offspring

48 Figure 15.10a P generation (homozygous) Wild type (gray body, normal wings) b + vg + b + vg + Double mutant (black body, vestigial wings) Wild-type F 1 dihybrid (gray body, normal wings) b + vg +

49 Figure 15.10b F 1 dihybrid testcross Wild-type F 1 dihybrid (gray body, normal wings) b + vg + b + vg + Homozygous recessive (black body, vestigial wings) b + vg + Meiosis I b + vg + b + vg + Meiosis I and II Meiosis II Recombinant chromosomes Eggs b + vg + b + vg + Sperm

50 Figure 15.10c Meiosis II Recombinant chromosomes Eggs b + vg + b + vg + Testcross offspring Wild type Black- Gray- Black- (gray-normal) vestigial vestigial normal b + vg + b + vg + Sperm Parental-type Recombinant offspring offspring Recombination 391 recombinants = 100 = 17% frequency 2,300 total offspring

51 Animation: Crossing Over

52 New Combinations of Alleles: Variation for Natural Selection Recombinant chromosomes bring alleles together in new combinations in gametes Random fertilization increases even further the number of variant combinations that can be produced This abundance of genetic variation is the raw material upon which natural selection works

53 Mapping the Distance Between Genes Using Recombination Data: Scientific Inquiry Alfred Sturtevant, one of Morgan s students, constructed a genetic map, an ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome Sturtevant predicted that the farther apart two genes are, the higher the probability that a crossover will occur between them and therefore the higher the recombination frequency

54 A linkage map is a genetic map of a chromosome based on recombination frequencies Distances between genes can be expressed as map units; one map unit, or centimorgan, represents a 1% recombination frequency Map units indicate relative distance and order, not precise locations of genes

55 Figure Results Chromosome Recombination frequencies 9% 9.5% 17% b cn vg

56 Genes that are far apart on the same chromosome can have a recombination frequency near 50% Such genes are physically linked, but genetically unlinked, and behave as if found on different chromosomes

57 Sturtevant used recombination frequencies to make linkage maps of fruit fly genes He and his colleagues found that the genes clustered into four groups of linked genes (linkage groups) The linkage maps, combined with the fact that there are four chromosomes in Drosophila, provided additional evidence that genes are located on chromosomes

58 Figure Short aristae Maroon eyes Mutant phenotypes Black body Cinnabar eyes Vestigial wings Downcurved wings Brown eyes Long Red aristae eyes (appendages on head) Gray body Red eyes Normal wings Wild-type phenotypes Normal wings Red eyes

59 Concept 15.4: Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders Large-scale chromosomal alterations in humans and other mammals often lead to spontaneous abortions (miscarriages) or cause a variety of developmental disorders Plants tolerate such genetic changes better than animals do

60 Abnormal Chromosome Number In nondisjunction, pairs of homologous chromosomes do not separate normally during meiosis As a result, one gamete receives two of the same type of chromosome, and another gamete receives no copy

61 Figure Meiosis I Nondisjunction

62 Figure Meiosis I Nondisjunction Meiosis II Nondisjunction

63 Figure Meiosis I Nondisjunction Meiosis II Nondisjunction Gametes n + 1 n + 1 n 1 n 1 n + 1 n 1 n n Number of chromosomes (a) Nondisjunction of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I (b) Nondisjunction of sister chromatids in meiosis II

64 Video: Nondisjunction in Mitosis

65 Aneuploidy results from the fertilization of gametes in which nondisjunction occurred Offspring with this condition have an abnormal number of a particular chromosome

66 A monosomic zygote has only one copy of a particular chromosome A trisomic zygote has three copies of a particular chromosome

67 Polyploidy is a condition in which an organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes Triploidy (3n) is three sets of chromosomes Tetraploidy (4n) is four sets of chromosomes Polyploidy is common in plants, but not animals Polyploids are more normal in appearance than aneuploids

68 Alterations of Chromosome Structure Breakage of a chromosome can lead to four types of changes in chromosome structure Deletion removes a chromosomal segment Duplication repeats a segment Inversion reverses orientation of a segment within a chromosome Translocation moves a segment from one chromosome to another

69 Figure (a) Deletion A B C D E F G H A B C E F G H (b) Duplication A deletion removes a chromosomal segment. A B C D E F G H A duplication repeats a segment. A B C B C D E F G H (c) Inversion A B C D E F G H (d) Translocation An inversion reverses a segment within a chromosome. A D C B E F G H A B C D E F G H M N O P Q R A translocation moves a segment from one chromosome to a nonhomologous chromosome. M N O C D E F G H A B P Q R

70 Figure 15.14a (a) Deletion A B C D E F G H A B C E F G H A deletion removes a chromosomal segment. (b) Duplication A B C D E F G H A duplication repeats a segment. A B C B C D E F G H

71 Figure 15.14b (c) Inversion A B C D E F G H An inversion reverses a segment within a chromosome. A D C B E F G H (d) Translocation A B C D E F G H M N O P Q R A translocation moves a segment from one chromosome to a nonhomologous chromosome. M N O C D E F G H A B P Q R

72 Human Disorders Due to Chromosomal Alterations Alterations of chromosome number and structure are associated with some serious disorders Some types of aneuploidy appear to upset the genetic balance less than others, resulting in individuals surviving to birth and beyond These surviving individuals have a set of symptoms, or syndrome, characteristic of the type of aneuploidy

73 Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) Down syndrome is an aneuploid condition that results from three copies of chromosome 21 It affects about one out of every 700 children born in the United States The frequency of Down syndrome increases with the age of the mother, a correlation that has not been explained

74 Figure 15.15

75 Figure 15.15a

76 Figure 15.15b

77 Aneuploidy of Sex Chromosomes Nondisjunction of sex chromosomes produces a variety of aneuploid conditions XXX females are healthy, with no unusual physical features Klinefelter syndrome is the result of an extra chromosome in a male, producing XXY individuals Monosomy X, called Turner syndrome, produces X0 females, who are sterile; it is the only known viable monosomy in humans

78 Disorders Caused by Structurally Altered Chromosomes The syndrome cri du chat ( cry of the cat ), results from a specific deletion in chromosome 5 A child born with this syndrome is severely intellectually disabled and has a catlike cry; individuals usually die in infancy or early childhood Certain cancers, including chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), are caused by translocations of chromosomes

79 Figure Normal chromosome 9 Normal chromosome 22 Reciprocal translocation Translocated chromosome 9 Translocated chromosome 22 (Philadelphia chromosome)

80 Concept 15.5: Some inheritance patterns are exceptions to standard Mendelian inheritance There are two normal exceptions to Mendelian genetics One exception involves genes located in the nucleus, and the other exception involves genes located outside the nucleus In both cases, the sex of the parent contributing an allele is a factor in the pattern of inheritance

81 Genomic Imprinting For a few mammalian traits, the phenotype depends on which parent passed along the alleles for those traits Such variation in phenotype is called genomic imprinting Genomic imprinting involves the silencing of certain genes depending on which parent passes them on

82 Figure Paternal chromosome Maternal chromosome Normal Igf2 allele is expressed. Normal Igf2 allele is not expressed. Normal-sized mouse (wild type) (a) Homozygote Mutant Igf2 allele inherited from mother Mutant Igf2 allele inherited from father Normal-sized mouse (wild type) Normal Igf2 allele is expressed. Dwarf mouse (mutant) Mutant Igf2 allele is expressed. Mutant Igf2 allele is not expressed. (b) Heterozygotes Normal Igf2 allele is not expressed.

83 It appears that imprinting is the result of the methylation (addition of CH 3 ) of cysteine nucleotides Genomic imprinting is thought to affect only a small fraction of mammalian genes Most imprinted genes are critical for embryonic development

84 Inheritance of Organelle Genes Extranuclear genes (or cytoplasmic genes) are found in organelles in the cytoplasm Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and other plant plastids carry small circular DNA molecules Extranuclear genes are inherited maternally because the zygote s cytoplasm comes from the egg The first evidence of extranuclear genes came from studies on the inheritance of yellow or white patches on leaves of an otherwise green plant

85 Figure 15.18

86 Some defects in mitochondrial genes prevent cells from making enough ATP and result in diseases that affect the muscular and nervous systems For example, mitochondrial myopathy and Leber s hereditary optic neuropathy

87 Figure 15.UN03a Offspring from testcross of AaBb (F 1 ) aabb Expected ratio if the genes are unlinked Expected number of offspring (of 900) Observed number of offspring (of 900) Purple stem/short petals (A B ) Green stem/short petals (aab ) Purple stem/long petals (A bb) Green stem/long petals (aabb)

88 Figure 15.UN03b Testcross Offspring (A B ) (aab ) (A bb) (aabb) Expected (e) Observed (o) Deviation (o e) (o e) 2 (o e) 2 /e 239 χ 2 = Sum

89 Figure 15.UN03c Cosmos plants

90 Figure 15.UN04 Sperm P generation gametes D C B A F E d c b a f e Egg This F 1 cell has 2n = 6 chromosomes and is heterozygous for all six genes shown (AaBbCcDdEeFf ). Red = maternal; blue = paternal. Each chromosome has hundreds or thousands of genes. Four (A, B, C, F ) are shown on this one. F D C B A E c b a e d f The alleles of unlinked genes are either on separate chromosomes (such as d and e) or so far apart on the same chromosome (c and f ) that they assort independently. Genes on the same chromosome whose alleles are so close together that they do not assort independently (such as a, b, and c) are said to be genetically linked.

91 Figure 15.UN05