Study on Inter- Regional Economic Disparities in Rajasthan. Manish Tiwari Dr.M K Mathur

Transcription

1 Study on Inter- Regional Economic Disparities in Rajasthan Manish Tiwari Dr.M K Mathur Volume 2 September, 2010 Submitted by: Shiv Charan Mathur Social Policy Research Institute 5-D, Jhalana Institutional Area, Jaipur

2 Contents List of Abbreviations Executive Summary 1 Introduction 2 Methodology 3 Inter-District Sectoral Inequalities 4 Sectoral Description 6 Composite Ranking of Districts & Region-wise Scenario 7 Conclusion and Recommendation References Annexure 2

3 List of Abbreviations BPL CBR CDR Cm Gw Ha IMR Km Mfg. NER NRE NSDP PCA PCI PCO PTR Regd. RTE SDP Sq. Km. SSI TFR UEE Un-Regd. Below Poverty Line Crude Birth Rate Crude Death Rate Centimeter Groundwater Hectare Infant Mortality Rate Kilometer Manufacturing Net Enrolment Rate Net State Domestic Product Principal Component Analysis Per Capita Income Public Call Office Pupil Teacher Ratio Registered Right to Education State Domestic Product Square Kilometer Small Scale Industry Total Fertility Rate Universalization of Elementary Education Un- Registered 3

4 Executive Summary Rajasthan, with varied agro-climatic conditions shows inter-district economic inequalities. The districts of the state are covered under arid, semi-and and perhumid situation depending on rainfall and moisture index. They have different potential for development in different sectors of economy. This study on Inter- Regional Economic disparities was undertaken with the main objective to measure inter-district inequalities prevalent in various sectors of the economy and livelihood to take necessary measures to reduce inter-regional inequalities. A similar study was done by this Institute based on the year 2001 data whereas this study covers year 2005 to make a comparison also in the process of economic development of the state. The study covered all the 32 districts of the State (new district of Pratapgarh was included in Chittorgarh, as separate data for this district were not available for all parameters.) The sectors included Agriculture & Live-Stock, Industry, Power, Population & Demography, Water, Roads (Connectivity), Medical & Health, Banking, Communication, Net State Domestic Product & Per capita Income, Poverty and Education. The total number of Indicators were 91 pertaining to 12 sectors. There are number of methods that have been used so for to measure interregional economic disparities. These include: (i) (ii) (iii) Mehers Composite Index of Development. Shastri s Composite Index. Modified Principal Component Analysis Technique. These have been described in detail by Anon. in 2005 in earlier similar Study. That study used Composite Ranking Method, which has an advantage over other methods as it is simple and does not involve subjectivity. This study also adopted the same method as used by Anon. (2005). 4

5 All the 32 districts were assigned ranks between 1 and 32 in respect of every indicator in each sector and finally by assigning unequal weights. In all, 9 normative overall ranks from A to I were developed, representing the performance of a given district in descending order. Where a given indicator was assumed to have an inverse relationship with the development, ranks were assigned to the district in the reverse order. Composite Ranking was worked out in respect of all the indicators for all the districts and taking out their overall weighted average. Composite ranks for all the districts in respect of all the indicators were prepared to ascertain the overall place of each district among the 32 districts. In Agriculture and Live-stock sector, Alwar, Chittorgarh, Jaipur, Udaipur and Bhilwara had the first - five ranks whereas Churu, Barmer, Dungarpur, Jaisalmer and Dhaulpur were last five in ranks. In 2005 study also Alwar was ranked at No.1 but then Jaipur, Bhilwara and Ganganagar were next in ranks. Thus, Chittorgarh and Udaipur improved performance in this sector in a period of five years. Jalore, Banswara, Tonk, Baran, and Bundi improved their ranking to some extent. With respect to Industries & Minerals, Alwar, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Ajmer, Bhilwara and Nagaur ranked 1 to 7. A similar ranking was recorded in earlier study also with minor changes only as Jaipur was No. 1 in 2005 study, now Alwar came at No. 1 position. In Power sector Jaipur and Ajmer occupied first and second ranks followed by Jodhpur and Kota. In 2005 study also Jaipur and Ajmer were at the top followed by Ganganagar, Udaipur, Kota and Jhalawar. Thus, Kota showed much improved performance in this study. Based on seven indicators, the water resource situation was found comfortable in districts of Baran, Bharatpur, Ganganagar, Dungarpur, Banswara, Churu, Dhaulpur, Rajsamand, and Sirohi. Districts facing water resources problems included Jodhpur, Jhunjhunu, Nagaur, Jalore, Jaipur, Ajmer, Alwar, Sikar, Chittorgarh, Jaisalmer, Sikar and Pali. The present ground water balance shows that out of 32 districts, 21 districts have 5

6 negative balance with highest for Jaipur, followed by Nagaur, Jodhpur, Alwar, Jalore, Jhunjhunu, Chittorgarh, Karauli, Ajmer and Kota. In earlier study Kota and Sawai Madhopur occupied top position. Jalore and Rajsamand showed lowest ranking in earlier study. The overall composite ranking for roads shows Jhunjhunu at No. 1 followed by Sikar and Sirohi at No. 2 and No. 3, respectively. The study showed that top five districts were desert districts and state capital Jaipur was way behind at No. 17. The poor road connectivity have been seen in districts of Hanumangarh, Baran, Tonk, Chittorgarh, and Ganganagar. In 2005 study Ajmer, Pali, Jodhpur, Sirohi, and Rajsamand occupied first five rankings. With regard to Communication sector, Alwar ranked No.1 followed by Udaipur, Ajmer, Nagaur, Ganganagar, Jhunjhunu and Jodhpur. Districts like Rajsamand, Dhaulpur, Baran, Jaisalmer, Jalore, Bundi and Tonk ranked low in this sector. This situation was almost similar to earlier study with minor changes. With regard to medical and health, according to 2005 study economically advanced districts like Jaipur, Ajmer, Jodhpur, Kota, Ganganagar, Sikar, Alwar and Jhunjhunu had a satisfactory network of medical facilities and this extended even to Baran and Sirohi. Contrary to this, 2010 study, based on 12 indicators for composite ranking, showed that Dungarpur, Banswara, Udaipur, Rajsamand, Bhilwara and Pali occupied first five rankings. Jaisalmer and Dhaulpur ranked at No.31 followed by Bharatpur and Karauli. In banking sector, Jaipur and Jodhpur ranked at No.1 followed by Ajmer and Udaipur (at No.3) and Alwar and Kota at No.5 Jaisalmer came at No.32 followed by Karauli and Dhaulpur (No.30), Baran and Dausa. These results were more or less like earlier study. A comparison of 2005 and 2010 scenario shows interesting changes. Districts like Banswara, Barmer, Bharatpur, Nagaur and Sawai Madhopur showed improved ranking in 2010 as compared to 2005 in their Composite rankings. Jaipur remained at No.1 ranking in 2010 also as was in Other 6

7 districts had minor changes. The study also made comparison in development, region-wise and suggested potential districts for development in sectors like Agriculture & Live stock (17 districts), Water Resources (15 districts), Power (19 districts) and Industries (15 districts). 7

8 Chapter 1 Introduction Economic development of a region depends on a number of factors like geography, natural resources, political and social parameters. Rajasthan is the largest state of India with a total geographical area of 3.42 lakh Km 2 of which 61 percent is under arid and rest is semi-arid zone. Such areas like west of Aravali hills with low level of precipitation, which is much lower to state average of 58 cm. Rainfall is not only low but also erratic and uncertain resulting in frequent droughts in the state. In fact, State experienced 19 droughts between and and the recent one of The intensity of the drought situation varied in different regions of the state and created setback to development process. Although state is quite rich in mineral resources but not in essential water resources as there is no perennial river system except Mahi and Chambal and they also have to depend on rainfall in their catchment areas. Over and above these, state has to depend on the neighboring states for its water resources, which is also a cause of concern. Even though the mineral wealth of the state has rather less inter-regional concentration, minerals found in the southern and eastern regions of Rajasthan have been exploited optimally and very little or no attempt has been made to fully use the lime stone, lignite, gas and other resources which are available in plenty in the western districts of the state. Only recently some efforts have been made to exploit petroleum from some of the western districts like Barmer. There could be a number of factors or reasons for regional or district inequality in the development like physical and natural barriers, economic barriers, social barriers, administrative barriers, etc. In order to attempt to 8

9 minimize and bridge the gap between developed and under-developed areas, since last 60 years planned development process has been in place through five year plans. A number of area specific schemes or programmes have been implemented and are being implemented for over all development of the state to strengthen economic base and improve standard of living of the people. In 2005, the SCM Social Policy Research Institute Jaipur made a study on Inter-Regional Economic Inequalities in Rajasthan, by adopting a Composite Ranking Method based on district data. The study reveled that Jaipur had the highest rank followed by Ajmer, Jodhpur and Kota and were termed as Extremely developed districts. The second category of Highly Developed districts like Pali, Bikaner, Bhilwara and Nagaur were categorized as Developed Ones. Districts with Moderate Development came out to be Udaipur, Hanumangarh, Churu and Bharatpur. The Average districts in development were Chittorgarh, Rajsamand, Sirohi and Tonk. The study also analyzed sector wise performance of districts and suggested some measures to reduce inter-district inequalities. Present Study The present study is not only an extension of earlier study but would also make a region wise comparison with respect to sectoral development, districtwise. The study will bring out constraints in development and potential areas requiring focus for sustainable development of district or a region to enhance the livelihood opportunities. This would help planners and administrators to formulate plan, modify existing programme and dovetail programmes and resources for overall sustainable development of each district of the state. 9

10 Chapter 2 Methodology Source of Data The secondary data has been taken from publication of the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Rajasthan. The information for has been taken from earlier publication. Some information has also been collected from concerned state departments. Sectors and Indicators Selected for Rajasthan s Economy selected. For the purpose of this study, following sectors and indicators have been Sectors Table Indicators 1. Agriculture and Live-stock 1. Production of Food Crops- Wheat, Bajra, Maize, Arhar and Gram, Production of Non- Food Crops- Rapeseed &Mustard, Chillies, Coriander, Cumin seeds, Soybean and Groundnut. 2. Consumption of fertilizers. 3. Total Irrigated area. 4. Number of Tractors 5. Percentage area under Forest 6. Density of Livestock Population 7. Total Hospital per 1000 livestock population. 8. Total milk production. 2. Industry 1. Number of Registered Industrial Units 2. Number of Sick and Closed Units 3. Investment in Small Scale Units 4. Industrial Investment in Medium and Large Industries 5. Percent Female participation in SSI sector 6. Number of Registered SSI Units 10

11 3. Power 1. Power Consumption per Capita. 2. Electricity consumption in various sectors. (Domestic, commercial, industries) 3. Percentage villages electrified. 4. Population and Demography. 1. Density of Population 2. Decadal Growth Rate 3. Urban Population 4. Crude Birth Rate (CBR) 5. Life Expectancy at Birth 6. Total Fertility Rate (TFR) 7. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) 8. Crude Death Rate (CDR) 5. Water 1. Percentage Coverage of Safe Drinking Water 2. Net Annual Ground Water Availability 3. Gross Ground Water Draft for Irrigation 4. Allocation of Water for Domestic and Industrial uses as on Net Ground Water Availability for Future Irrigation Development 6. Ground Water Draft for Domestic and Industrial use 7. Present Ground Water Balance 6. Roads 1. Road Length per 100 sq. km 2. Percentage of Village Connected 3. Percentage of Villages not Connected with Pucca roads 7. Medical and Health 1. Number of Hospitals/1lakh population 2. Number of Beds /1lakh population 3. Numbers of Doctors /1lakh population 4. Percentage of Current users of Family Planning Methods 5. Complete Immunisation 6. Percentage of Institutional Births 7. Sex Ratio (Rural) 8. Sex Ratio (Urban) 9. Sex Ratio (0-6) Rural 10. Sex Ratio (0-6) Urban 11. Percentage of girls married below 18 years of age 11

12 12. Access to toilet facilities 8. Banking 1. Number of Bank Offices 2. Deposits per Bank 3. Credit per Bank 9. Communication 1. Number of Post Offices 2. Number of Telegraph Offices 3. Number of PCOs 10. Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) and per Capita Income 1. Sectoral Composition of NSDP 2. Per Capita Income 11. Poverty 1. Ratio of BPL families over non-bpl families. 12. Education 1. Net Enrolment Rate (NER) 2. Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) 3. Percentage of Out of school children 4. Drop out rate 5. Percentage of Never enrolled 6. Single teacher school 7. Common toilets 8. Drinking water 9. Gender gap in enrolment 10. Passed > 60% marks 11. Percentage of Male Literacy 12. Percentage of Female Literacy In the past a number of method have been used to measure inter-regional economic disparities as (a) Rajkishore Meher s Composite Index of Development (1999), (b) Shastri s Composite Index (1997), (c) Modified Principal Component Analysis Technique of Debroy and Bhandari (2002). There are briefly described as under. (a) Rajkishore Meher s Composite Index of Development (1999) Meher used a composite index of development to measure the levels of development and to identify the backward and advanced status on the basis of inter-temporal data collected for early 1970 s, early 1980 s and early 1990 s. 12

13 Two methods were tried by Meher for measuring inter-state disparities. They were (i) Equal Weightage Index Method and (ii) Deprivation Method (b) Shastri s Composite Index (1997) Shastri disagreed with the equal weightage method because different indicators depicting the development process have varying levels of importance and use of such method actually ignores the magnitude of variation. He preferred to use the multivariate statistical technique like the Factor Analysis. Following the technique of principal component analysis (PCA) he analyzed inter-teshil (taluka) disparities in Rajasthan. Methodology used for the present Study For the purpose of this study, 91 development indicators were identified pertaining to 12 sectors. All the 32 districts were assigned rank between 1 and 32 in respect of every indicator, each sector and finally by assigning unequal weights. In all, nine normative overall ranks from A to H were developed, representing the performance of a given district in descending order. For instance the district showing highest per capita NSDP was assigned the normative rank A, while the district recording the lowest per capita NSDP was assigned H. However, where a given indicator was assumed to have inverse relationship with development, ranks were assigned to the districts in the reverse order. Steps Taken (1) At the first stage, for each indicator, districts were ranked from 1 to 32 depending on the value of the indicator concerned. (2) Under the second step, weights were assigned to each rank, within the given sector. 13

14 (3) The sectoral rank for the 1 st district was computed by taking an arithmetic mean of the weights assigned to different indicators pertaining to the sector concerned. Thus, if there were four indicators in j th sector and all districts were assigned weights according to the values of respective parameters, simple arithmetic mean of such weights would help in assigning rank to each district concerned. Thus, the present study assigned unequal weights to all indicators. (4) Finally, Composite Ranking was worked out in respect of all the indicators for all the districts and taking out their overall weighted average. Composite ranks for all the districts in respect of all the indicators were prepared to ascertain the overall place of each district among the 32 districts. Table 1.2 shows the details of weights assigned for each parameter on the basis of ranking done 32 districts. Table Ranking and Weights used for Identified Indicators Range of Ranking of Districts Weights Normative Rank A B C D E F G H This method is based on assigning unequal weights, since performance of different districts in relation of each parameter is different. The Composite Ranking of all districts obviously considers indicator-wise ranks culminating into sectoral ranking on the basis of weights assigned. This helps in identifying advancement or backwardness of the given district in relation to all the identified indicators. This method was considered to have an edge over others described above. It was simple and did not involve subjectivity. Wherever the overall (aggregated) weighted average was found to be above 70, the district was termed 14

15 as highly developed. Those having an overall weightage average between 50 and 70 were assumed to be medium developed, whereas the overall weightage average (or score) below 50 implied that such districts were backward in respect of all sectors. 15

16 Chapter 3 Inter-District Sectoral Inequalities Introduction Economic inequalities generally emanate from physical and natural factors, but they are ultimately supported by biases shown in allocating funds by the concerned State Government. As a result, not only the regions or districts have economic inequalities, but such disparities also get perpetuated. An attempt has been made to identify various parameters pertaining to important sectors of the economy of Rajasthan and then measure the interdistrict disparities with respect to such sectors, via normative ranks assigned to each. Sectors selected for Rajasthan s Economy For the purpose of this study, the state economy was divided into following sectors. Table Agriculture and Livestock 7. Medical and Health 2. Industry 8. Banking 3. Power 9. Communication 4. Population and Demography 10. Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) and per capita income 5. Water 11. Poverty 6. Roads 12. Education One may conveniently visualize that delineation of the state economy in these sectors represents the levels of economy as well as infrastructural development, although social development indicators like gender might also be 16

17 considered. However, in the present context district-wise data on various parameters related to women are not available. Identification of Sector-Wise Indicators of Development Data were collected from official sources on various indicators relating to the sectors mentioned above. Initially 91 such indicators were identified. In order to obtain optimum results for all the indicators, and ascertain inter-district disparities in a meaningful manner, therefore, most relevant information was collected in respect of all indicators. Table 1.4 shows sector-wise indicators that were actually used for compilation of sectoral ranks for all the districts of Rajasthan. Table Sectoral Indicators Selected for Measuring Inter-District Disparities in Rajasthan S.No. Sector No. of Indicators 1. Agriculture & Livestock Industry 6 3. Power 5 4. Population & Demography 8 5. Water 7 6. Roads 3 7. Medical & Health Banking 3 9. Communication Sector-wise and Per Capita NSDP Poverty Education 12 Total 91 Chapter 4 Sectoral Description 17

18 (I) AGRICULTURE & LIVESTOCK 1. Production Inspite of increasing contribution of secondary and tertiary sectors as an indication of economic transformation of a region, in a predominantly agricultural State like Rajasthan, levels of crop production may be considered as important parameters for measuring the performance of agriculture in different districts. Data on production of various crops were collected in respect of almost all the important food-crops as well as non-food crops. Ranks were assigned to all districts according to the level of production measured in tonnes. Following crops were selected: Food Crops Arhar, (1) Bajra (Pearl Millet), (2) Maize, (3) Wheat, (4) Gram (Bengal Gram), (5) Non-food Crops (1) Rapeseed & Mustard (2) Chillies (3) Coriander (4) Cumin seed (5) Soybean and (6) Groundnut It may be pointed out in this context that the area and production of rice, fruits, vegetables, medicinal plants etc. in Rajasthan are limited to only very small number of districts, albeit production of arhar and soybean is also confined to districts. The purpose of putting ranks for districts on the basis of production of these crops was to ascertain whether some districts show more advancement over others in agricultural production. It may also be argued that districts having 18

19 high production of some food and / or non-food crops have a distinct comparative advantage in producing such crops. 2. Total Irrigated Area This input is supposed to have a positive impact on production, especially in view of the drought prone character of the State s economy. 3. Number of Tractors Mechanization is also considered as an input for agricultural transformation. Data on number of tractors are available for all the districts of Rajasthan. In fact, studies undertaken in Punjab have revealed that use of tractors has facilitated in expanding the gross cropped areas besides reducing time and drudgery experienced in some of the farm operations. 4. Fertilizer Consumption Per ha. With a transition of traditional agriculture towards a dynamic or advanced agricultural system, the package of inputs used by farmers is also changed. Chemical fertilizers replace the use of farm-yard manure. Consumption of fertilizers can, therefore, be termed as an indicator of agricultural development in a region. 5. Percentage area under forests Districts of Rajasthan were, inter alia, ranked according to the percentage of area under forests to the total geographical area. 6. Density of Livestock Population 19

20 Animal husbandry is an important source of supplementary income to rural households in Rajasthan. In western districts, however, this is a major source of income, as large number of people in villages of these districts is engaged in production of milk, wool and such animal products. Density of animal heads per km 2 was thus used as an important indicator while ranking all the districts. 7. Production of Milk As stated above, production of milk is an important source of supplementary income to majority of rural households. Although cows and buffaloes both are reared for dairying purpose, it was considered appropriate to consider the total production of milk. Price differentials in milk, were thus, not considered. 8. Animal Health Cover Data on number of veterinary hospitals and dispensaries are available for all the districts. For the purpose of this study, number of such units per 1000 livestock population was used while ranking districts for this indicator. (II) INDUSTRY In Development Economics, modernization and industrialization are generally used synonymously. In order to ascertain the extent of industrial development in a given region, numerous parameters may be used. They include number of industrial units (including SSI (Small Scale Industries) units), level of investment, percent female participation etc. In this sector, district-wise data were collected for all these indicators. 1. Number of Registered industrial units 20

21 Number of registered industrial units in a district was considered as an indicator of development. All districts were ranked accordingly. 2. Number of sick and closed units Sick and closed units have inverse relationship with industrial development. For this reason, higher ranks were assigned to districts having low ratio of such units. It may be pointed out that rather than actual number, such ratios were worked out on the basis of percentage of sick units to their total number. 3. Industrial Investment in small units It was used as an independent indicator, especially with a view to analysing the preference given by small entrepreneurs who generally do not feel constrained by the level of infrastructure development. 4. Industrial Investment Various research studies have revealed that for entrepreneurs, Rajasthan has not been a favourite destination. However, whatever investment has been made in industries across the State, it appears, relatively advanced districts have benefited largely due to infrastructure development already achieved. Investment in industries made in all the districts was, therefore, used as an indicator while ranking the districts. 5. Female Participation in SSI Sector It is an important indicator showing the development of a district. Active female participation in industries has a positive relation with the development of the region as it shows the women empowerment there. 6. Number of Registered SSI units 21

22 Indian economy has predominance of small industrial units. Districts of Rajasthan were also ranked on the basis of the number of such units. (III) POWER Uninterrupted and cost-effective supply of power is regarded as the basic need for agricultural, as well as industrial development. Three indicators were used to ascertain the availability of power in the districts of Rajasthan. 1. Power Consumption Per Capita It is not the total consumption, but per capita consumption of power which is widely used to compare the inter-regional disparities. Accordingly, on the basis of available data, all the districts were ranked on the basis of average consumption of power. 2. Electricity consumption in various sectors Power consumers are generally categorized as domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural and other users. For all the districts of Rajasthan data on the total electricity consumption by each category of users were collected and ranks assigned to districts accordingly. 3. Percentage of Villages Electrified Majority of farmers in Rajasthan irrigate their rabi crops from the ground water sources. Even where canal water is used, conjunctive use of water is prevalent. Wells are fitted with electric or diesel pumpsets. One indicator of agricultural development across the districts (for which data are available) was the percentage of villages electrified. (IV) POPULATION AND DEMOGRAPHY 22

23 Rajasthan is among those states where growth rate of population has been considerably high, albeit different districts have shown wide variations in such growth rates. Taking Census, 2001 data as the basis, decadal growth rates among different districts were compared. Besides, other demographic parameters were also reviewed. 1. Density of Population This parameter is important, because the cost of delivering services is inversely related to population density per km 2. Thus, as an indicator of development, districts were ranked according to density of population in Decadal Growth Rate It was assumed that high decadal growth rate of population dampens the process of economic development. Therefore, such districts which recorded higher growth rate in the decade , were assigned lower ranks and vice-versa. 3. Total Fertility Rate (TFR) TFR also acts negatively in the process of development. A region showing a very high TFR generally experiences a high population growth rate and a low level of economic development. For this reason, districts experiencing low TFR were assigned higher ranks and vice-versa. 4. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) Like TFR, high IMR also depicts relative backward character of a region. Districts showing low levels of IMR were, therefore, assigned higher ranks than the ones where IMR was high. 5. Crude Birth Rate (CBR) and Crude Death Rate (CDR) 23

24 In the process of economic development generally Crude Birth Rate (CBR) and Crude Death Rate (CDR) serve as important indicators. It needs to be pointed out that in extremely backward as well extremely advanced regions across the world both CBR and CDR are low, but in a transitional economy while CBR remains high, CDR records a secular fall. For the purpose of this study, both these parameters were assumed to have an inverse relationship with development. Accordingly, districts having high levels of CBR and CDR were assigned lower ranks than the ones where both have low levels. 6. Life expectancy at birth All the economically advanced societies depict relatively very high life expectancy at birth. All districts were ranked according to the level of life expectancy, for which data are available for the year Urban Population Conventionally, it was assumed that urbanization is an indication of a society s economic advancement. For the purpose of this study, therefore, the ratios of urban to total population in all the districts of Rajasthan were worked out and ranks assigned to them accordingly. (V) WATER Rajasthan shares only 1.2 per cent of the surface as well as ground water available in the country. However, availability of water across the districts shows wide variation. Eight parameters were identified in this sector. 1. Percentage Coverage of Safe Drinking Water 24

25 The status of water is generally categorized into safe, semi-critical, critical and over-exploited zones. District-wise data were obtained in respect of percentage coverage of safe drinking water, since the level of water availability for various purposes gets directly reflected only on the basis of such parameter. 2. Net Annual Ground Water Availability Ground water is a major source for irrigation and human / animal use. Its net annual availability depicts the confidence level with which irrigation and drinking water programmes can be designed. Districts of Rajasthan were ranked according to such net availability of water. 3. Existing Gross Ground Water Draft for Irrigation Irrigation is an important input for development, especially for a State like Rajasthan where precipitation rate is not only uncertain and erratic, but is also distributed unevenly. Ground water draft for irrigation, however, eventually results in depletion of water table. This parameter was, therefore, assumed to have an inverse relationship with development. 4. Allocation of Water for Domestic and Industrial uses as on 2025 These projections would depict the demand for water in these uses for District-wise projections were used and ranks assigned accordingly. 5. Net Ground Water Availability for Future Irrigation Development These data show district-wise availability of ground water for irrigation in future. Obviously, if adequate water is available for agriculture, it is expected to increase agricultural productivity and production. 6. Present Ground-water Balance 25

26 District-wise data on ground water balance are available. Districts were ranked accordingly. 7. Ground water Draft for Domestic and Industrial Use With economic development, it is expected to have an increase in such uses of water. Districts were accordingly ranked on the basis of data collected on ground water draft for these uses. (VI) ROADS Road network and connectivity of producing centres with the market are considered to be an important linkage for economic development. District-wise data about roads were collected in respect of the following parameters: 1. Road Length per 100 km 2 This parameter is supposed to have a direct and positive relationship with development. It is interesting to note that some districts of Rajasthan which have otherwise registered low or middle level of performance in economic sectors have better average road length than the ones showing high level of industrial or agricultural development. 2 Percentages of Villages Connected Data on the percentage of villages connected with any type of road were collected, and ranks were assigned accordingly. 3. Percentage of villages not connected with pucca road 26

27 Data on villages connected with B.T. or pucca road are available for all districts in Rajasthan. Accordingly, districts were ranked. (VII) MEDICAL & HEALTH Indicators relating to medical and health, especially those for which district-wise data are available are given below: 1. Number of hospitals / 1 Lakh Population These data are available for an average population of one lakh. Districts having better health care facilities (average) were obviously assigned high ranks. 2. Number of Beds / 1 Lakh Population Like (1) above, number of beds per one lakh of population was considered as a positive indicator while assigning ranks to districts. 3. Number of Doctors / 1 Lakh Population Average number of doctors available in districts per one lakh of population was worked out, and accordingly ranks were assigned to districts. 4. Complete Immunization One important indicator of awareness of a society towards health issues is immunization of children against some of the fatal diseases. District-wise information on immunization was collected from various sources. 5. Percentage of Current Users of Family Planning Methods 27

28 The coveted goal of small family can be achieved only when family planning devices are used by increasingly large number of men and women. District-wise data on the percentage of people using such devices were collected from various reports and ranks were assigned accordingly. 6. Percentage of Institutional Births One of the important indicators for maternal health is number of institutional deliveries. This is the percentage of birth conducted at health institutions and are supervised by skilled health personnel (doctors, nurses and midwives). Traditional birth attendants, even if they receive a short training course, are not included. It is presumed that higher the number of institutional deliveries better would be the maternal health indicators. 7. Sex Ratio Sex ratio is the ratio of males to females. It is considered to be an important indicator for assessing any kind of bias towards a particular sex. The ideal sex ratio is 1.06: 1. The study has taken sex ratio for rural, urban, 0-6 years rural and 0-6 years urban separately as indicators to assess the situation at different levels. It is taken that a higher sex ratio nullifies any kind of bias towards a particular sex. 8. Percentage of Girls Married below 18 years of age This is an important indicator for women s empowerment, particularly effecting women s health. An early marriage is expected to lead to conception at younger age when the girls body is not fully mature for child bearing resulting in all kind of health problems for the girl. It is generally seen that areas where there are higher number of child marriages generally the maternal health indicators are poor and is considered to be a negative indicator. 28

29 9. Access to Toilet Facilities One of the key health determinants is access to toilet and sanitation facilities. A better access means lesser chances of diseases, infections, etc. It is considered as a positive indicator with a positive effect on related health indicators. (VIII) BANKING Banking services provide an important support to the development of trade and industries. District-wise data on the availability of these services are available is respect of three parameters: 1. Number of banking offices 2. Amount of deposits per bank 3. Amount of credit advanced per bank All these parameters were assumed to have positive relationship with development. (IX) COMMUNICATION Communication plays a very important role in the process of economic development. Three indicators were identified for this sector: 1. Number of Post Office 29

30 This indicator is generally inversely related with development of communication system. Districts were assigned ranks on this basis. 2. Number of Telegraph Office This parameter too, has inverse relationship with process of development. Accordingly, districts having low average were accorded high ranks. 3. Number of PCOs This parameter has a positive relationship with development of communication system in a region. Thus, districts having higher number of PCOs were assigned higher ranks. (X) NET STATE DOMESTIC PRODUCT (NSDP) AND PER CAPITA INCOME Economists generally argue that growth rate of NSDP is perhaps the most important indicator of development. Sectoral levels of NSDP, however, have different connotations for development. The data available to depict levels of NSDP in different districts are: (a) (b) Sectoral Composition of NSDP Per Capita NSDP (a). Sectoral Composition of NSDP 1. Agriculture and Livestock District-wise data on NSDP ( ) from agriculture and livestock are included. However, a very high contribution of primary sector in a region cannot be 30

31 adjudged as a positive indicator. Accordingly, districts having low contribution of agriculture and livestock were assigned high ranks, and vice versa. 2 (i) Mining / Manufacturing Units (Registered) (ii) (iii) (iv) Manufacturing Units (Unregistered) Construction Electricity, Gas & Water Supply (v) Railways (vi) Other Transport Services (vii) Storage (viii) Communications (ix) Trade, Hotels and Restaurants (x) Banking and Insurance High contribution from the secondary and tertiary sectors positively relates to level of development. For this reason, districts with high contribution from these sources to NSDP were assigned high ranks. (b). Per Capita NSDP Per Capita NSDP is positively related to development. Obviously, the higher the level of per capita in a given district, the higher will be its place in development ranking. (XI) POVERTY 1. Ratio of BPL Families over Non-BPL Families Rajasthan is considered among those states where the ratio of families living below the poverty line is extremely low, notwithstanding a very high drought-prone character of almost all the western districts. However, while 31

32 conducting BPL Survey, enumeration of BPL families inter alia was done in respect of people living above the poverty line. (XII) EDUCATION 1. Net Enrolment Rate (NER) NER is the percentage ratio of enrolled children in Class I-VIII of the age group of 6-14 years to the total number of children in this age group. NER is an indicator of a state in the universalization of elementary education. Greater is the NER; nearer is the goal of universalization. 2. Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) The ratio between the pupil and the teacher plays a significant role for ensuring quality in classroom transactions. Ideally, the ratio should be one teacher for 30 children as per the Right to Education Act. This ratio is, however, subject to various factors viz., the availability of financial and human resources and infrastructural development, etc. 3. Out of school children Out of school children are those children who are in the eligible age group for enrolment, but have not been enrolled in a school. Such children are targeted under the Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) programme. 4. Drop out Drop out continues to be a big problem adversely affecting the objective of universalizing elementary education. Children enrolled in a school drop out in mid session, for which multiple factors are responsible. Children, if they find school environment not interesting, refrain from attending classes and ultimately drop out from the school. Domestic factors are also responsible for drop out. It is for the school and educational administration at large to see that conditions are created in schools for child s retention therein, thus minimizing the incidence of drop out. 5. Never enrolled Never enrolled children are those who have not seen the face of a school at all. There are areas where educational facilities are non-existant, and children 32

33 in such areas, have no opportunities to get into a school. It is for this reason, the RTE becomes significant, but its operationalization is possible only when the eligible child gets educational facilities within his/her easy reach. 6. Single teacher school Single teacher school is ideally an acceptable situation, but unfortunately there are quite a few such schools which cannot transmit quality education to children. At least two teachers in a school is a minimal requirement and the phenomenon of single teacher school should be eliminated. 7. Common toilets Toilets are a necessary facility in a school. Though separate toilets are needed for girls, even common toilets do fill the need to some extent. It may be stated that toilet facility does create congenial environment in a school conducive for retention and reducing absenteeism among children. 8. Drinking water Drinking water is the most essential facility in a school. Though, generally speaking this facility is now available in a majority of schools, yet there are some schools which still remain bereft of this facility. 9. Gender gap in enrolment While sincere efforts have been made to enhance enrolment of girls in schools, yet considerable gap continues to perish between the enrolment of boys and girls in a school. Under the RTE, no girl should be left out and the gender gap should not only be minimized but eliminated altogether. 10. Passed > 60% marks Sixty per cent or more marks are an indication of the cognitive level of a child and also a hallmark of quality education. More students crossing this mark provide a basis for assessing the academic characteristics of a school. UEE is not merely a programme for universalization in terms of enrolment, but its objective is to raise the academic skills of a child as reflected in the attainment of a place beyond 60 per cent marks in examination. 11. Percentage of Male Literacy 33

34 Literacy is reflective of human resource development. Higher is the percentage of literacy, better is the quality of human resource, which plays a prominent role in the development of a nation. Percentage of literacy among male is indicative of this segment of human resource s capability to play the required role in developmental process. 12. Percentage of Female Literacy Literacy among female in a society provides this victim of gender discrimination a respectable status vis-à-vis her male counterpart. Percentage of female literacy is, therefore, an indicator of the level of progress that a woman has attained on the scale of social development. The narrower is the gap between the percentage of male and female literacy, higher is the level of social progress in a society. A list of parameters of all the sectors and their relationship with the process of development recorded for the districts of Rajasthan is enumerated in Table

35 Chapter 5 Relationship between Sectoral Indicators and Development As explained above, most of the indicators identified for this study have a positive relationship with development. In case of the indicators that are likely to dampen the development process, inverse ranking method is used. For instance, high level of TFR in district A would be assigned a lower rank than district B or C where TFR is low. Table 1.5 presents the list of indicators used in this Study and the nature of their relationship with development. This relationship determined the ranks assigned to districts of Rajasthan for measuring inter-district disparities in relation to the concerned indicator. Later in this Chapter, sector-wise disparities have been measured with the help of composite index constructed for each sector. Table Indicators and Their Relationship with Level of Development S.N Sector Indicator Having Positive Relationship 1 Agriculture All Indicators 2 Industry & Mining Major and Medium (i) Industrial units (ii) SSI units (iii) Industrial investment in major and medium units (iv) Investment in SSI units (v) Female participation in SSI Sector Indicators Having Inverse Relationship (i) Sick Units 3 Power All Indicators 4 Population and Demography (i) Density (ii) Urban Population (iii) Life Expectancy (i) Decadal growth rate (ii) TFR (iii) IMR (iv) CBR 35

36 (v) CDR 5 Water Resources (i) % coverage of safe drinking water (ii) Annual groundwater availability (iii) Domestic & Industrial requirement for (iv) Net Groundwater availability for future irrigation. (v) Present Groundwater Balance. 6 Roads All the indicators 7 Medical & Health (i) Number of hospitals/ 1 lakh pop. (ii) Number of beds/ 1 lakh pop. (iii) Number of doctors/ 1 lakh pop. (iv) Complete Immunization (v) Current users of Family Planning Methods (vii) % of Institutional deliveries (i) Gross groundwater draft for irrigation. (ii) Ground water draft for industrial & domestic use. (i) Girls getting married below 18 years (ii) Deprivation of Toilet facility 8 Banking All Indicators 9 Communication All Indicators 10 State NSDP (i) Share of NSDP from manufacturing units (Regd.) (ii) Share of NSDP from manufacturing units (Un-Regd.) (iii) Construction (iv) Electricity, Gas and Water supply (v) Railways (vi) Other Transport (vii) Storage (viii) Communication (ix) Trade, Hotels & Restaurants (x) Banking (xi) Mining & Insurance (xii) Per Capita NSDP (i) Share of NSDP from Agriculture & Allied Sectors 11 Poverty None All Indicators 12 Education (i) NRE (ii) > 60% marks (iii) Male literacy rate (iv) Female literacy rate (v) Drinking water (i) PTR (ii) Out of School (iii) Drop out (iv) Single Teacher (v) Gender Gap in enrolment (vi) Common Toilets (vii) Never enrolled. 1. AGRICULTURE AND LIVE-STOCK SECTOR The production of crops has been assumed to have a direct and positive relationship with development and overall economy of rural people. Annexure-I shows the level of output of different crops in agriculture and livestock density/ Km 2, veterinary services and milk production (as per latest available data). Based on their values, normative ranks, weight and actual ranks for all the 36

37 districts have been given. On this basis, composite ranks for the sector were worked out and given in Table Table-1.6 Composite Ranks Assigned to Districts for Agriculture & Livestock Sectors Districts Average Rank Ajmer Alwar Banswara Baran Barmer Bharatpur Bhilwara Bikaner Bundi Chittaurgarh Churu Dausa Dhaulpur Dungarpur Ganganagar Hanumangarh Jaipur Jaisalmer Jalor Jhalawar Jhunjhunun Jodhpur Karauli Kota Nagaur Pali Rajsamand S. Madhopur Sikar Sirohi Tonk Udaipur Alwar, Chittorgarh, Jaipur, Udaipur and Bhilwara occupy first five ranks under this major sector. It is interesting that in total irrigated area, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh are at the top followed by Alwar and Jaipur. Sikar was 8 th and Jhunjhunu 13 th, which ranked high in Bajra, Rapeseed and mustard, Gram, 37

38 Coriander and Cumin production as well as in number of tractors and veterinary services. Dausa had composite rank of 27 whereas stood 1 st in fertilizer consumption per ha. This needs to be curbed as higher use of this costly input is not reflected in production of crops with lower irrigated area (No. 20 rank). Lowest ranks were recorded for Dungarpur, Churu, Barmer, Jaisalmer and Dhaulpur, in that order. These districts showed low ranks in all the indicators for agriculture and livestock development. 2. INDUSTRY For the study of industrial scenario of the state six parameters were selected, out of which one indicator of sick units facing incipient sickness and closed units (as on March 2009), is a negative one. Details of indicators analysis is given in Annexure-II and composite ranks of districts are given in Table-1.7 below. Table Composite Ranks of Districts in Industry Sector 38

39 Districts Average Rank Ajmer Alwar Banswara Baran Barmer Bharatpur Bhilwara Bikaner Bundi Chittaurgarh Churu Dausa Dhaulpur Dungarpur Ganganagar Hanumangarh Jaipur Jaisalmer Jalor Jhalawar Jhunjhunun Jodhpur Karauli Kota Nagaur Pali Rajsamand S. Madhopur Sikar Sirohi Tonk Udaipur On the basis of composite ranking, Alwar at No.1 is most industrially developed district of Rajasthan, followed by Jaipur and Jodhpur (both at No.2), Udaipur and Ajmer. Number of registered industrial units is highest in Jaipur but it also has highest number of sick and closed units, whereas Alwar is second in number of registered units but sick and closed units are far less than Jaipur. Because of this difference, Jaipur lost to Alwar for number 1 ranking as all other parameters in both are very close to each other. The least industrially developed district is Jaisalmer which greatly lacks industrial investment. 39

40 3. POWER Power is a core sector for industrial sector development closely linked with commercial and domestic sectors for development. For this, five parameters like per capita domestic consumption, total domestic consumption, commercial consumption, industrial consumption and percentage of villages electrified were identified. Details of each of the parameter are given in Annexure-III. Composite ranks of districts are presented in Table 1.8. Table Composite Ranks of Districts in Power Sector Districts Average Rank Ajmer Alwar Banswara Baran Barmer Bharatpur Bhilwara Bikaner Bundi Chittaurgarh Churu Dausa Dhaulpur Dungarpur Ganganagar Hanumangarh Jaipur Jaisalmer Jalor Jhalawar Jhunjhunun Jodhpur Karauli Kota Nagaur Pali Rajsamand S. Madhopur Sikar Sirohi Tonk Udaipur