AIR QUALITY IN IRELAND Key Indicators of Ambient Air Quality

Transcription

1 AIR QUALITY IN IRELAND 2010 Key Indicators of Ambient Air Quality

2 Environmental Protection Agency The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is a statutory body responsible for protecting the environment in Ireland. We regulate and police activities that might otherwise cause pollution. We ensure there is solid information on environmental trends so that necessary actions are taken. Our priorities are protecting the Irish environment and ensuring that development is sustainable. The EPA is an independent public body established in July 1993 under the Environmental Protection Agency Act, Its sponsor in Government is the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government. REGULATING IRELAND S GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS Quantifying Ireland s emissions of greenhouse gases in the context of our Kyoto commitments. Implementing the Emissions Trading Directive, involving over 100 companies who are major generators of carbon dioxide in Ireland. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Co-ordinating research on environmental issues (including air and water quality, climate change, biodiversity, environmental technologies). OUR RESPONSIBILITIES LICENSING We license the following to ensure that their emissions do not endanger human health or harm the environment: waste facilities (e.g., landfills, incinerators, waste transfer stations); large scale industrial activities (e.g., pharmaceutical manufacturing, cement manufacturing, power plants); intensive agriculture; the contained use and controlled release of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs); large petrol storage facilities. waste water discharges NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ENFORCEMENT Conducting over 2,000 audits and inspections of EPA licensed facilities every year. Overseeing local authorities environmental protection responsibilities in the areas of - air, noise, waste, waste-water and water quality. Working with local authorities and the Gardaí to stamp out illegal waste activity by coordinating a national enforcement network, targeting offenders, conducting investigations and overseeing remediation. Prosecuting those who flout environmental law and damage the environment as a result of their actions. MONITORING, ANALYSING AND REPORTING ON THE ENVIRONMENT Monitoring air quality and the quality of rivers, lakes, tidal waters and ground waters; measuring water levels and river flows. Independent reporting to inform decision making by national and local government. STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT Assessing the impact of plans and programmes on the Irish environment (such as waste management and development plans). ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING, EDUCATION AND GUIDANCE Providing guidance to the public and to industry on various environmental topics (including licence applications, waste prevention and environmental regulations). Generating greater environmental awareness (through environmental television programmes and primary and secondary schools resource packs). PROACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT Promoting waste prevention and minimisation projects through the co-ordination of the National Waste Prevention Programme, including input into the implementation of Producer Responsibility Initiatives. Enforcing Regulations such as Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) and substances that deplete the ozone layer. Developing a National Hazardous Waste Management Plan to prevent and manage hazardous waste. MANAGEMENT AND STRUCTURE OF THE EPA The organisation is managed by a full time Board, consisting of a Director General and four Directors. The work of the EPA is carried out across four offices: Office of Climate, Licensing and Resource Use Office of Environmental Enforcement Office of Environmental Assessment Office of Communications and Corporate Services The EPA is assisted by an Advisory Committee of twelve members who meet several times a year to discuss issues of concern and offer advice to the Board.

3 Key Indicators of Ambient Air Quality Dr. Micheál O Dwyer National Ambient Air Quality Programme Office of Environment Assessment

4 Published by Environmental Protection Agency An Ghníomhaireacht um Chaomhnú Comhshaoil PO Box 3000 Johnstown Castle Estate County Wexford, Ireland Telephone: Lo Call: Fax: Web site: ISBN: Environmental Protection Agency 2011 Although every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the material contained in this publication, complete accuracy cannot be guaranteed. Neither the Environmental Protection Agency nor the author(s) accept any responsibility whatsoever for loss or damage occasioned or claimed to have been occasioned, in part or in full, as a consequence of any person acting or refraining from acting, as a result of a matter contained in this publication. Parts of this publication may be reproduced without further permission, provided the source is acknowledged. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of his colleagues, Barbara O Leary, Kevin Delaney, Lin Delaney, Colman Concannon, Mícheál Lehane, Robin Hogan and Tina Davern in the National Ambient Air Quality Programme. Additional support in monitoring and analysis is provided by EPA staff in Dublin, Castlebar, Monaghan and Limerick. The input of personnel from local authorities, the Health Service Executive, Met Éireann and NUI Galway and others who provided data for inclusion in this report is also acknowledged.

5 CONTENTS List of figures List of tables Glossary Executive summary ii iii iv vi 1. Introduction 1 2. Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) 7 3. Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) and oxides of nitrogen (NO X ) 9 4. Carbon monoxide (CO) Ground level ozone (O 3 ) Particulate matter (PM 10 ) and black smoke Particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) Benzene (C 6 H 6 ) and volatile organic compounds Heavy metals lead (Pb), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni) and mercury (Hg) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Eyjafjallajokull Volcanic Ash Cloud 32 Appendix A: Summary data tables 34 Information sources 49 i

6 FIGURES Figure 1: Air quality zones Figure 2: Air monitoring stations Figure 3: Maximum daily SO 2 concentrations at individual stations in Figure 4: Annual mean SO 2 concentrations, Figure 5: Annual mean NO 2 concentrations at individual stations in Figure 6: Annual mean NO 2 concentrations, Figure 7: Maximum 8-hr mean CO concentrations at individual stations in Figure 8: Maximum 8-hr mean CO concentrations in Cork and Dublin Figure 9: Number of days with maximum 8-hr O 3 concentrations > 120 µg/m 3 at individual stations in Figure 10: AOT40 at rural background stations, Figure 11: Annual mean PM 10 concentrations at individual stations in Figure 12: 98-percentile of daily black smoke concentrations at individual stations in Figure 13: Annual mean PM 10 concentrations, Figure 14: 98-percentile of daily black smoke concentrations in major urban areas, Figure 15: Average PM 10 levels in towns and cities with a coal ban and without a coal ban Figure 16: Annual mean PM 2.5 concentrations at individual stations in Figure 17: Annual mean benzene concentrations at individual stations in Figure 18: Annual mean benzene concentrations in Dublin and Cork, Figure 19: Annual mean concentrations of VOC ozone precursors at Rathmines, Dublin Figure 20: Annual mean lead concentrations in Dublin, Figure 21: Annual mean PAH concentrations for individual stations in Figure 22: Levels of PM 10 measured in Ireland during the volcanic ash episode 33 ii

7 TABLES Table 1: Summary statistics for continuous SO 2 concentrations in Table 2: Summary statistics for hourly NO 2 concentrations in Table 3: Summary statistics for hourly NO X concentrations in Table 4: Summary statistics for rolling 8-hr CO concentrations in Table 5: Summary statistics for rolling 8-hr O 3 concentrations in Table 6: AOT40 values from rural stations (Zone D) in Ireland, Table 7: Summary statistics for PM 10 concentrations in Table 8: Summary statistics for black smoke concentration April 2008-March Table 9: Summary statistics for PM 2.5 concentrations in Table 10: Summary statistics for benzene concentrations in Table 11: Summary statistics for VOC ozone precursor concentrations in Table 12: Summary statistics for lead, arsenic, cadmium and nickel concentrations in Table 13: Summary statistics for mercury concentrations in Table 14: Summary statistics for metal deposition concentrations in Table 15: Summary statistics for PAH concentrations in iii

8 GLOSSARY > Greater than 8hr 8-hour AOT40 Sum of the difference between hourly concentrations greater than 80 µg/m 3 (40 ppb) and 80 µg/m 3 over a given period using only the one-hour values measured between 8.00 and Central European Time each day As Arsenic AEI Average exposure indicator Cd Cadmium CAFE Clean Air for Europe Directive (2008/50/EC) CEC Council of the European Communities C 6 H 6 Benzene CO Carbon monoxide DEHLG Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government DELG Department of Environment and Local Government DoE Department of the Environment EC European Commission EP European Parliament EPA Environmental Protection Agency Hg Mercury hr Hour LAT Lower assessment threshold mg/m 3 Milligrammes per cubic metre na Not applicable ng/m 3 Nanogrammes per cubic metre Ni Nickel NO Nitric oxide NO 2 Nitrogen dioxide NO x Oxides of nitrogen O 3 PAH Pb Ozone Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon Lead PM 10 Particulate matter with diameter less than 10 µm PM 2.5 Particulate matter with diameter less than 2.5 µm ppb Parts per billion SO 2 Sulphur dioxide Troposphere Region of the atmosphere from ground level to ~10-15 kilometres VOCs Volatile organic compounds iv

9 yr year UAT Upper assessment threshold µm Micron µg/m 3 Microgrammes per cubic metre µg/m 3.h Microgrammes per cubic metre hours µg/m 2 /day Microgrammes per square metre per day Zone A Dublin Zone B Cork Zone C Galway, Limerick, Waterford, Clonmel, Kilkenny, Sligo, Drogheda, Wexford, Athlone, Bray, Carlow, Dundalk, Ennis, Naas, Tralee, Balbriggan, Celbridge, Letterkenny, Mullingar, Navan and Newbridge. Zone D Remainder of State (excluding Zones A, B and C) v

10 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report provides an overview of air quality in Ireland for 2010, based on data obtained from the 28 monitoring stations that form the national ambient air quality network, including data from a number of mobile air quality monitoring units. Monitoring stations are located across the country, with new stations added in 2010 in Longford Town and Celbridge in County Kildare. The results of the monitoring are compared to limit values set out in EU and Irish legislation on ambient air quality. Overall, air quality in Ireland continues to be of good quality and remains the best in Europe. In 2010, measured values of sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), Ozone (O 3 ), particulate matter (PM 10 and PM 2.5 ), heavy metals, benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were all below limit and target values set out in the CAFE Directive and 4 th Daughter Directive. However, levels of particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) continue to remain of concern and levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are a possible concern for the future in some areas. PAH arise from domestic fuel burning and vehicle exhaust emissions. Traffic is the primary source of nitrogen dioxide and is also one of the main sources of particulate matter. Domestic solid fuel use is the other main source of particulate matter in air in Ireland and particularly impacts air quality in areas where the sale of bituminous coal is permitted. As a result, levels of particulate matter in smaller towns are similar or higher than those in cities, where bituminous coal is banned. As such it is important to note the impact that the choice in domestic heating fuel can have on the environment and air quality. To help with this, from 2011 the government is enforcing a regulation that will require that all bituminous coal placed on the market in Ireland for residential use has a sulphur content of no more than 0.7%. To maintain our good standard of air quality and ensure that in the future our air will be healthy and clean, Ireland must continue to implement and enforce the ban on bituminous coal. We must also reduce traffic emissions through reducing travel demand, emphasising sustainable transport modes such as cycling, walking and public transport and improving the efficiency of motorised transport. In April and May of 2010, the EPA s air quality monitoring network was used to assess the impact on health and the environment of the eruption of Iceland s Eyjafjallajokull volcano. It was found that this incident had no impact on ambient air quality in Ireland. Real-time air quality information is available on the EPA website at The website provides members of the public with direct access to current levels of pollutants from relevant fixed stations across Ireland. vi

11 1. INTRODUCTION This report provides an overview of ambient air quality trends in Ireland in 2010 based on monitoring data from 28 stations in operation during the year. Time series air quality concentrations are presented in a set of indicators, which compare measured concentrations with air quality standards for a suite of air pollutants. In addition to the above, there were 11 monitoring stations measuring black smoke operated by local authorities in 2010; this report contains the results for the April 2009-March 2010 monitoring period. The air quality analysis presented here is based on concentration measurements of the following pollutants: sulphur dioxide; nitrogen dioxide and oxides of nitrogen; carbon monoxide; ozone; particulate matter - PM 10, PM 2.5 and black smoke; benzene and volatile organic compounds; heavy metals - lead, arsenic, cadmium, nickel and mercury; and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The pollutants of most concern are particulate matter, expressed as PM 10, nitrogen dioxide, PAHs and, to a lesser extent, ozone. The sources and impact of these air pollutants, current levels in Ireland and trends over time for each pollutant are outlined in this report. Legislative context The EPA is responsible for the implementation of all Irish and EU ambient air quality legislation. It manages the ambient air quality monitoring network and is responsible for all reporting to stakeholders which include the general public and the EU. The EPA is also the National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for ambient air monitoring for Ireland. The results of air quality monitoring in 2010 presented in this report are compared to the limit and target values in the latest EU legislation, the Clean Air for Europe (CAFE) Directive (EP and CEU, 2008) and the fourth daughter Directive (EP and CEU, 2004). The CAFE Directive is an amalgamation of the Air Quality Framework Directive and its subsequent first, second and third daughter Directives. The EU intends to incorporate the Fourth Daughter Directive into the CAFE Directive in the future. The CAFE Directive introduced no changes to existing limit values for SO 2, NO 2, NO X, CO, Ozone, Benzene and Lead however the upper and lower assessment thresholds for PM 10 have been increased. The Stage II limit value for PM 10 set out in the first daughter Directive (CEC, 1999) is not included in the CAFE Directive and no longer applies. The CAFE Directive introduced a limit value for PM 2.5. It requires member states to measure an average exposure indicator (AEI) for PM 2.5, which is an annual concentration averaged over three years. Based on this value there will be a mandatory percentage reduction for each member state to be achieved by In addition member states will be required to undertake PM 2.5 speciation studies to determine the sources of background PM 2.5 levels. 1

12 The CAFE Directive was transposed into Irish legislation by the Air Quality Standards Regulations 2011 (S.I. No. 180 of 2011). It replaces the Air Quality Standards Regulations 2002 (S.I. No. 271 of 2002), the Ozone in Ambient Air Regulations 2004 (S.I. No. 53 of 2004) and S.I. No. 33 of The 4 th Daughter Directive was transposed by the Arsenic, Cadmium, Mercury, Nickel and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Ambient Air Regulations 2009 (S.I. no. 58 of 2009). In 2002 a Voluntary Agreement was established between the Minister for the Environment, Community and Local Government and the Solid Fuel Trade Group (SFTG), representing the majority of coal importers. The SFTG agreed that bituminous coal imported by its members would have a sulphur content of 0.7%. This Agreement has resulted in reduced SO 2 emissions to air from the household burning of bituminous coal. In June 2011 the Minister for the Environment, Community and Local Government introduced the Air Pollution Act, 1987 (Marketing, Sale and Distribution of Fuels) (Amendment) Regulations 2011 (S.I. no. 270 of 2011) to consolidate the environmental and related human health benefits achieved by the Voluntary Agreement. These Regulations require that all bituminous coal placed on the market in Ireland for residential use must have a sulphur content of no more than 0.7%. This placed the former Voluntary Agreement on a statutory footing and this will ensure the continued dominance of low sulphur coal in the residential market. The Regulations also added a further four towns to the list of bituminous coal ban areas Athlone, Carlow, Clonmel and Ennis. A further part of these regulations involves the necessity for every coal provider to be registered. The EPA will have responsibility for this registration process. The Irish Regulations specify the dates by which the limit values or target values for each of the pollutants must be achieved and also the reference methods for sampling, analysis and measurement. Specific requirements are set out in relation to providing the public with information on ambient air quality. Up-to-date information on air quality must be made available on a widespread basis through appropriate media including newspapers and the Internet, with more sensitive population groups provided with more specific information. Further details on air quality legislation can be found at Air quality zones and assessment thresholds EU legislation on air quality requires that member states divide their territory into zones for the assessment and management of air quality. The zones adopted in Ireland are shown in Figure 1. Zone A is the Dublin conurbation, Zone B is the Cork conurbation with Zone C comprising 21 large towns in Ireland with a population >15,000. Zone D is the remaining area of Ireland. The zones were amended in the Arsenic, Cadmium, Mercury, Nickel and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Ambient Air Regulations 2009 (DEHLG, 2009) to take account of population changes and updated assessment of air quality. Based on these population changes the towns of Letterkenny, Celbridge, Newbridge, Balbriggan, Navan and Mullingar are now in Zone C of the Air Quality Zones. 2

13 The air quality in each zone is assessed and classified with respect to upper and lower assessment thresholds based on the measurements over the previous five years. Upper and lower assessment thresholds are prescribed in the legislation for each pollutant. The number of monitoring locations required is dependent on population size and whether ambient air quality concentrations exceed the upper assessment threshold, are between the upper and lower assessment thresholds, or are below the lower assessment threshold. The greatest monitoring effort applies where concentrations are above the upper assessment threshold, i.e., where they approach or exceed the limit value. Where concentrations are between the two thresholds, less intensive measurement combined with other assessment methods, such as air quality modelling, will suffice. 3

14 Air quality monitoring network in 2010 The role of the EPA in monitoring air quality in Ireland is to establish, maintain and manage a monitoring network which conforms to the conditions set out in the CAFE Directive and 4 th Daughter Directive. These Directives were established to allow member states to assess general ambient air quality across the country. Based on sampling criteria set out in the legislation Ireland requires a relatively small number of monitoring stations to fulfil its obligations. This is due to our small population and generally good air quality. In 2010, there were 28 air quality monitoring stations operating in Ireland. Of these, 26 were fixed continuous-monitoring stations with air quality assessed by mobile monitoring units at three sites. The air quality monitoring network with all stations, including mobile units, in operation in 2010 is shown in Figure 2. Local authorities operate the majority of monitoring stations in Zone A (Dublin) and Zone B (Cork) while the EPA operates the majority of stations in the rest of the country and the mobile monitoring stations. The EPA uses mobile monitoring units to carry out air quality monitoring primarily in Zones C and D where no continuous monitoring was previously conducted. In 2010, the mobile monitoring stations were in operation at Newbridge and Celbridge, in Co. Kildare and Ringsend, Dublin. In addition to the monitoring stations above, there were 11 monitoring stations measuring black smoke operated by local authorities in Summary statistics for these stations along with their locations are presented in Table 8 of Appendix A. Responses and Outlook Ireland is well placed to achieve the EPA 2020 Vision Goal for Clean Air: Our air will be healthy and clean. Ireland s emissions to the atmosphere will meet all international and national targets. Ireland must continue to maintain our air quality where it is good. A key legislatibve target is to t fully implement the Clean Air for Europe CAFE Directive. This means that industrial emissions must be rigorously controlled and there must be a change in our methods of transportation to more sustainable modes. Under the CAFE Directive, any exceedances of limit values must be actioned by the implementation of a management plan involving the relevant local authorities. These management plans will examine methods to eliminate or reduce the impact to ambient air of pollution sources. Once the management plan is drawn up, it will be submitted to the EPA, who in turn will submit it to the EU for verification. The EPA looks forward to continuing its close collaboration with the network of air quality agencies (primarily local authorities, Health Service Executive, Met Éireann) in building the national capacity for improving our air quality. 4

15 Figure 1 Air Quality Zones

16 Figure 2 Air monitoring stations

17 2. SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO2) Introduction SO 2 is a gas formed when sulphur containing fuels (mainly coal and oil) are burned in power stations, domestically, and elsewhere. Pollutant Limit value for Concentration, µg/m 3 Averaging period SO 2 Health protection 350 Hourly mean (not to be exceeded more than 24 times per yr) SO 2 Health protection 125 Daily mean (not to be exceeded more than three times per yr) SO 2 Protection of Vegetation 20 Annual mean SO 2 Protection of Vegetation 20 Winter mean State and Impacts SO 2 limits set out in CAFE Directive 2008/50/EC Impacts of high concentrations of SO 2 include temporary breathing difficulties for those who suffer from respiratory conditions such as asthma. Longer-term exposure to high SO 2 concentrations can aggravate existing cardiovascular disease and respiratory illness. SO 2 is also a major precursor to acidic deposition (acid rain). Acid rain can adversely affect the quality of soils, lakes and streams and can lead to the accelerated corrosion of buildings and monuments. Figure 3 Maximum daily SO 2 concentrations at individual stations in

18 SO 2 was measured at 12 stations in The results are shown in Figure 3 and indicate that 2010 concentrations were well below the daily limit of 125 µg/m 3, as set out in the CAFE directive. No exceedances of the hourly limit were recorded in Table 1 in Appendix A contains summary SO 2 statistics from all stations in Trends over Time The historical trend for SO 2 concentrations shows a significant decrease since the early 1990s. The reason for this can mainly be attributed to the change in the use of liquid and solid fuel to gaseous fuel in both the power generation, industrial and transport sectors. Fuel switching was also a major contributor in the domestic sector. Concentrations of SO 2 in Ireland are now consistently low. Figure 4 shows average SO 2 results from a number of monitoring stations for the past nine years. Figure 4 Annual mean SO 2 concentrations, Outlook In June 2011 the Minister for the Environment, Community and Local Government introduced the Air Pollution Act, 1987 (Marketing, Sale and Distribution of Fuels) (Amendment) Regulations 2011 (S.I. no. 270 of 2011). These Regulations require that all bituminous coal placed on the market in Ireland for residential use must have a sulphur content of no more than 0.7%. This placed the former Voluntary Agreement (2002) on a statutory footing and this will ensure the continued dominance of low sulphur coal in the residential market. The Regulations also added a further four towns to the list of bituminous coal ban areas Athlone, Carlow, Clonmel and Ennis. Overall the levels of SO 2 in Ireland look set to remain low. However, with increasing financial pressure in households we may see a return to the use of coal as a home heating fuel, which would see a rise in the levels of SO 2. As such the choice households make in domestic heating fuel can have a major impact in local air quality, particularly in those towns where there is no ban on bituminous coal. 8

19 3. NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO2) AND OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOX) Introduction NO X refers to the two pollutants nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ). They are produced during combustion at high temperatures, mainly in vehicles and power stations. The industrial sector is also a significant contributor to NO X levels in Ireland, particularly the cement production industry. Pollutant Limit value for Concentration, µg/m 3 Averaging period NO 2 Health protection 200 Hourly (not to be exceeded more than 18 times per yr) NO 2 Health protection 40 Annual mean NO x Vegetation protection 30 Annual mean NO 2 and NO X limits set out in CAFE Directive 2008/50/EC State and Impacts Short-term exposure to NO 2 is linked to adverse respiratory effects including airway inflammation in healthy people and increased respiratory symptoms in asthmatics. Long-term exposure is associated with increased risk of respiratory infection in children. NO X is a major precursor in the formation of ground level ozone. It is also a major precursor in the formation of photochemical smog. NO X, along with SO 2, also contributes to acidic deposition. NO 2 concentrations were measured at 14 stations in The results are shown in Figure 5 and summary statistics are contained in Table 2 (NO 2 ) and Table 3 (NO X ) in Appendix A. Figure 5 Annual mean NO 2 concentrations at individual stations in 2010 µg/m Annual Limit Value Zone A (Dublin) Zone B (Cork) Zone C (21 biggest towns) Zone D (remainder of country) 9

20 Concentrations of NO 2 were below the 2010 annual limit value (40 µg/m 3 ) at all sites in NO 2 concentrations at traffic-impacted stations in Dublin and Cork have been close to the limit value for a number of years and in 2009 exceeded the limit value at one Dublin City centre site. The NO 2 limit value came into force on 1 January Trends over Time NO 2 levels across all zones of Ireland have remained relatively static since 2002 however an increasing trend in Dublin and Cork traffic-impacted stations is emerging (Figure 6). NO 2 levels are low in rural areas and smaller towns but close to or above the limit value in some Dublin and Cork stations. NO X levels in urban areas are influenced by weather episodes which accounts for some of the variation seen in annual results. A period of stable airflow over a city centre can lead to build up of NO 2. Figure 6 Annual mean NO 2 concentrations, Outlook Due to the 2009 exceedance of the NO 2 limit value, the Dublin City and County Councils are finalising an air quality management plan to deal with this issue High NO X emissions within urban centres may lead to further breaches of the limit value in the future due to our continued reliance on car transportation. Although technological advances in the future may lead to lower NO X emissions from individual cars, this technology will take time to make an impact on the levels as they stand. 10

21 The actions set out in the Smarter Travel Policy for Sustainable Transport (DOT, 2009) should be implemented to arrest the increasing trend in NO X levels in Ireland. These include actions to reduce travel demand, increase alternatives to the private car and improve the efficiency of motorised transport. 11

22 4. CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) Introduction Carbon monoxide is a colourless gas, formed from incomplete oxidation during combustion of fuel. Sources of CO in Ireland are mainly from automobiles, although tobacco smoke and poorly adjusted and maintained combustion devices such as boilers contribute also. CO concentrations tend to be higher in areas with heavy traffic congestion. Pollutant Limit value for Concentration, mg/m 3 Averaging period CO Health protection 10 8 hr CO limit set out in CAFE directive 2008/50/EC State and Impacts CO enters the bloodstream through the lungs where it impairs oxygen delivery to the body s organs and tissue. The health impact of CO concentrations that may be found in ambient air is most serious for those who suffer from cardiovascular diseases such as angina. It may induce fatigue in healthy people. At higher concentrations not normally found in ambient air, CO is poisonous causing impaired vision and coordination, headaches, dizziness, confusion and nausea and death. CO was measured at 6 locations in 2010; the results are shown in figure 7. Levels in 2010 are very similar to concentrations observed in 2008 and 2009 and are well below the limit value. Summary statistics of CO concentrations are presented in Table 4 of Appendix A. Figure7 Maximum 8-hr mean CO concentrations at individual stations in

23 Trends over Time Trends in CO levels in Dublin and Cork since 1999 are shown in Figure 8. It can be seen that levels have remained constant over the period with no discernible trend in changes. All levels recorded in this time period have remained below the limit value set out in the CAFE Directive. Figure 8 Maximum 8-hr mean CO concentrations in Dublin and Cork Outlook Levels of CO in Ireland are below the limit value and are likely to remain low in the coming years. 13

24 5. GROUND LEVEL OZONE (O3) Introduction Ozone is a gaseous species and is formed as a secondary pollutant in the troposphere from the chemical reaction of NO X, CO and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight. Ozone can also be present in the troposphere due to downward flux from the ozone-rich stratosphere, where it occurs naturally and provides an important role in absorbing harmful UV radiation. Ozone is readily transported from Atlantic and European regions due to the natural movement of air masses. Ground-level ozone is depleted through reactions with traffic-emitted pollutants therefore levels of ozone are higher in rural areas than in urban areas. Pollutant Target value for Concentration Averaging period 3 Max daily 8-hr mean (not to be exceeded on more than 25 days O 3 Health 120 µg/m averaged over 3 yrs) O 3 Vegetation 18,000 µg/m 3 h AOT40 from 1-hour values a O 3 Health 180 µg/m 3 Hourly information threshold O 3 Health 240 µg/m 3 Hourly alert threshold O 3 target values and thresholds set out in CAFE Directive 2008/50/EC State and Impacts Ozone is a powerful oxidising substance and its presence in rural areas can damage crops and vegetation. High concentrations of ozone affect the functioning of the respiratory system leading to irritation in the throat and lungs. It is particularly harmful for those who suffer from respiratory ailments such as asthma and bronchitis. Ozone levels, which in Ireland are highly influenced by transboundary sources, are low in comparison to mainland Europe. Average concentrations in Ireland are generally below the thresholds for effects on human health and vegetation set down in the CAFE Directive. This sets out a target value for the protection of human health in respect of ozone concentrations, stipulating that maximum 8-hr mean concentrations of ozone should not exceed 120 µg/m 3 on more than 25 days averaged over three years. The Directive also contains a long-term objective for 2020 that concentrations of ozone should never exceed 120 µg/m 3. Summary statistics for 8- hr mean concentrations recorded in Ireland in 2010 are given in Table 5 of Appendix A. a AOT40 is expressed in units of µg/m 3.h and refers to the sum of the difference between hourly concentrations greater than 80 µg/m 3 (40 ppb) and 80 µg/m 3 over a specified period, such as a growing season. The AOT40 target value in 2010 is 18,000 µg/m 3.h, calculated from hourly values between 08:00 and 20:00 Central European Time (CET) each day from May to July and averaged over 5 yrs. The long-term objective for Ireland for 2020 is 6,000 µg/m 3.h. 14

25 Ozone concentrations recorded in 2010 were low and at a similar level to those seen in recent years, these results are shown in Figure 9. The 8-hr target value was exceeded at 2 stations with the highest number of exceedances measured at Valentia where the value was exceeded on 3 days. This was below the target value but above the long-term objective. Figure 9 Number of days with maximum 8-hr O 3 concentrations > 120 µg/m 3 at individual stations in 2010 Trends over Time Figure 10 shows the AOT40 for five rural background stations for the years The AOT40 is an indicator of exposure of vegetation to ozone during the growing season, when vegetation is more susceptible to damage from pollutants. Rural background stations are classified as remote, regional or near-city depending on their proximity to urban areas. Ozone levels are higher in remote regions and tend to be highest along the western seaboard (indicated by Galway site) than in the east of the country (indicated by Monaghan site). Ozone concentrations are strongly influenced by meteorological conditions; stable anticyclones over Ireland with warm sunny weather are more likely to produce higher levels of ozone. This can arise from local emissions, particularly the interaction of oxides of nitrogen, volatile organic compounds and sunlight or it can be due to transboundary sources from the rest of Europe. The lack of high pressure stable air masses during recent summers is reflected in the low levels of ozone we have witnessed during those years. 15

26 Figure 10 AOT40 at rural background stations, Outlook Short acute ozone pollution episodes are infrequent in Ireland; however they have happened in the past and will happen in the future. They are most likely to occur in summer months when there is a stable anti-cyclone over Ireland bringing settled, warm weather. Movement of polluted air masses from Europe are more likely to occur during these periods, with the air masses likely to contain high levels of ozone. Because ozone levels in Ireland are highly influenced by transboundary sources, attainment of the long-term objective will only occur should hemispheric ozone levels reduce. This will require a European and possibly global effort to reduce emissions of ozone precursors. 16

27 6. PARTICULATE MATTER (PM10) AND BLACK SMOKE Introduction PM 10 are particles with diameters of 10 micrometres or less. These particles can consist of direct emissions such as dust, emissions from combustion engines, emissions from the burning of solid fuels or natural sources such as windblown salt, plant spores and pollens. These direct emissions are known as primary PM 10. PM 10 can also be produced indirectly by formation of aerosols as a result of reactions of other pollutants such as NO X and SO 2, these are known as secondary PM 10. In Ireland the main sources are solid fuel burning and vehicular traffic. Pollutant Limit value for Concentration, µg/m 3 Averaging period PM 10 Health protection 50 Daily (not to be exceeded more than 35 times per yr) PM 10 Health protection 40 Annual mean PM 10 limits set out in CAFE Directive 2008/50/EC Black smoke consists of fine particles suspended in air which mainly arise from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and peat, in the domestic, industrial or transport sectors. Open fires in dwelling houses are a major source of much of the particulate material emitted to air as smoke. Measurement of black smoke was mandatory from 1980 to 2005 under Directive 80/779/EEC (CEC, 1980), which was revoked on the introduction of the Air Quality Framework Directive and subsequent CAFE Directive, where PM 10 monitoring has replaced it. However, black smoke has been measured in Ireland for over 20 years and is valuable for observing long-term trends in air quality in towns and cities. For this reason, local authorities are encouraged to continue their measurement of black smoke and the EPA will continue to report the results in its annual Air Quality report. State and Impacts The health impacts of PM 10 /Black Smoke relate to its ability to penetrate deep into the respiratory tract. This inhalation can increase the risk, frequency and severity of cardiopulmonary and respiratory disorders. It is particularly harmful for those who have a preexisting respiratory illness. It also has a strong association with circulatory disease and mortality. PM 10 was monitored at 18 stations across Ireland in 2010; the results are shown in Figure 11. Mean concentrations are below the annual limit value of 40 µg/m 3. Summary statistics for PM 10 concentrations for all sites are available in Table 7 of Appendix A. 17

28 Figure 11 Annual mean PM 10 concentrations at individual stations in 2010 The reporting year for black smoke is April-March. Results here are for the April 2009-March 2010 period and are shown in Figure 12. Smoke concentrations were very low during the reporting period and were well below the limits in the standards that applied under the revoked EU directive. Black smoke concentrations were typically one-tenth of the 98-percentile standard of 250 µg/m 3. Table 8 in Appendix A contains summary black smoke statistics reported to the EPA. Figure percentiles of daily black smoke concentrations at individual stations in

29 Trends over Time The trends in PM 10 annual mean concentrations are shown in Figure 13. In cities, traffic emissions are the main source of PM 10 while in smaller towns or those areas not connected to the natural gas grid, emissions from domestic solid fuel combustion dominate. The air quality in cities benefits from the ban on smoky coal, as well as the increased use of gas, with the result that levels of PM 10 are similar across all Zones. A decreasing trend is seen in urban zones (Zones A, B and C) since 2003,which is most likely due to the decreases in particulate emissions from traffic due to improved vehicle engine emissions. This decrease is not seen in Zone D where domestic solid fuel emissions are more significant than traffic emissions. Figure 13 Annual mean PM 10 concentrations Levels of black smoke have decreased substantially since the 1990 s in Ireland. Figure 14 shows 98-percentile black smoke concentrations across the Dublin, Limerick and Cork monitoring networks from 1985 to The large reduction since the eighties underlines the effectiveness of the smoke-control legislation introduced in the greater Dublin area in 1990 which banned the marketing, sale and distribution of bituminous coal. This ban on bituminous coal was extended to Cork city in 1995 and to Arklow, Drogheda, Dundalk, Limerick and Wexford in In 2000 the ban was extended to Celbridge, Galway, Leixlip, Naas and Waterford, in 2003 it was extended further to include Bray, Kilkenny, Sligo and Tralee and in 2011 it was extended again to include Athlone, Carlow, Clonmel and Ennis. 19

30 Figure percentiles of daily black smoke concentrations in major urban areas, b Outlook Towns and cities with a ban on the sale of bituminous coal have lower levels of PM 10 than those without, although areas with the ban also tend to have access to natural gas which also decreased PM 10 levels. The effectiveness of the policy is also seen in the decreasing concentrations of black smoke measured since the ban was introduced. To maintain these levels, continued support for the ban by retailers and the public and enforcement of the ban by local authorities is important. In 2011 the Irish Government introduced stringent new limits on the sale of residential coal and also further extended the bituminous coal ban to four more large towns in Ireland. These actions should lead to further decrease PM 10 levels in Ireland. Figure 15 shows average PM 10 levels in towns and cities with a coal ban and without a coal ban from This graph emphasises the effectiveness of the coal ban on PM 10 levels. A reduction in traffic numbers and consequent emissions would also reduce PM 10, particularly in cities and large towns. Episodes of elevated PM 10 levels can occur in Ireland if meteorological conditions which are favourable to poor dispersion of local emissions persist for a number of days or weeks. These conditions, brought about by the presence of a stable anti-cyclone over Ireland, are associated with warm weather in the summer and cold weather in the winter. Such conditions are also favourable to transportation of air masses with high concentrations of PM 10 from other European countries to Ireland. Although black smoke data has been a useful historic resource for assessing trends in particulate levels across Ireland, monitoring is not a requirement of European legislation. In the past number of years black smoke monitoring equipment has become obsolete and is being phased out. It is b 2009 and 2010 data for Cork City was unavailable 20

31 being replaced by PM 10 and PM 2.5 monitoring which is required under the CAFE Directive. Monitoring of black smoke is expected to cease in the coming years. Figure 15 Average PM 10 levels in towns and cities with a coal ban and without a coal ban µg/m Towns and Cities with Ban on Sale of Bituminous Coal including Dublin and Cork Towns without Ban on Sale of Bituminous Coal Dublin and Cork Only 21

32 7. PARTICULATE MATTER PM2.5 Introduction PM 2.5 or fine particulate matter is particle pollution made of a mixture of solids and liquids of size 2.5 micrometers or less. It is composed of a number of varying components depending on its source. These can include acids such as nitrates and sulphates, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), metals, soil or dust particles. This PM 2.5 can be emitted directly into the atmosphere or can be formed secondarily. For example sulphates are formed by the chemical reaction of SO 2 in the atmosphere after its release from power plants or industrial facilities. PM 2.5 is considered a better indicator of man-made particulate matter than PM 10. Pollutant Obligation Concentration Attainment Date PM 2.5 Target Value 25 µg/m PM 2.5 Stage I Limit value 25 µg/m PM 2.5 Stage II Limit value 20 µg/m PM 2.5 obligations set out in CAFE Directive 2008/50/EC State and Impacts Similarly to PM 10 and black smoke, the health impacts of PM 2.5 relate to its ability to penetrate into the lungs increasing the risk, frequency and severity of cardiopulmonary and respiratory disorders. It is accepted among health officials that any exposure to PM 2.5 should be reduced. The CAFE directive introduced mandatory monitoring of PM 2.5. Levels in Ireland are below both the stage one and stage two limit values of 25 µg/m 3 and 20 µg/m 3. PM 2.5 results for individual stations are shown in Figure 15. Summary statistics for PM 2.5 concentrations in 2010 are presented in Table 9 of Appendix A. 22

33 Figure 16 Annual mean PM 2.5 concentrations for individual stations in 2010 Trends over Time This is the second year that PM 2.5 has been measured at most stations so therefore no trend data is available. Under the CAFE Directive, Member States are tasked with measuring an average exposure indicator (AEI). This is based upon measurements in two urban background locations and is the three-calendar year running annual mean concentration averaged over both sites. Based upon these observed levels, each member state will be required to reduce their PM 2.5 levels by a percentage. Ireland is using the years 2009, 2010 and 2011 to calculate its AEI. Outlook In general PM 2.5 levels in Ireland appear to be low. The AEI value which will be reported in 2012 will determine what, if any, reduction Ireland has to make in PM 2.5 levels. Preliminary results indicate that Ireland s AEI will be in the range 8.5 µg/m 3 13 µg/m 3 requiring a reduction of 10% by This reduction will be challenging as it will require an integrated approach across a number of sectors including transport and residential emissions. 23

34 8. BENZENE (C6H6) and VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Introduction Urban areas can have measurable quantities of benzene in air. The major source of benzene in Ireland is from automobile exhaust emissions as regular unleaded petrol may contain up to 1% benzene. Benzene can also be released to the air from petroleum refining, fuel storage/filling stations, industrial emissions, chemical usage and tobacco smoke. Pollutant Limit value for Concentration, µg/m 3 Averaging period Benzene Health protection 5 Annual mean Benzene limit value set out in CAFE Directive 2008/50/EC State and Impacts Acute (short-term) inhalation exposure of humans to benzene may cause drowsiness, dizziness, headaches, as well as eye, skin, and respiratory tract irritation and, at high levels, unconsciousness. Chronic (long-term) inhalation exposure has caused various disorders in the blood, including reduced numbers of red blood cells and aplastic anaemia, in occupational settings. Increased incidences of leukaemia (cancer of the tissues that form white blood cells) have been observed in humans occupationally exposed to benzene, although this level of exposure is unlikely in ambient air. Benzene is part of a group of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) known as ozone precursors. This group of organic compounds are chemically reactive in the troposphere and produce ground-level ozone, which is itself a respiratory irritant. Benzene was measured at four stations in 2010; results are shown in Figure 16. The annual limit of 5 µg/m 3, which came into force in 2010, was not exceeded at any station. Table 10 in Appendix A contains summary benzene statistics for all stations. In addition to benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, o-xylene, m-xylene and p-xylene were measured at Rathmines, an urban background station in Dublin. Summary results for these compounds are contained in Table 11 in Appendix A. There is no limit value for these VOC ozone precursors. 24

35 Figure 17 Annual mean benzene concentrations at individual stations in 2010 Trends over Time Trends in benzene concentrations in Dublin and Cork since 2001 are shown in Figure 17. This shows a marked decrease in the concentration of benzene in both cities since the early 2000s. This is due to the introduction of the EU limit on benzene in unleaded petrol. Benzene concentrations have been relatively steady for the last couple of years. Figure 18 shows the concentrations of benzene and five other ozone precursors, since 2005, at the monitoring station in Rathmines, Dublin. Figure 18 Annual mean benzene concentrations in Dublin and Cork,

36 Figure 19 Annual mean concentrations of VOC ozone precursors at Rathmines, Dublin c Xylenes and ethylbenzene are mostly associated with vehicle emissions, while toluene is associated with paints and paint thinners. These ozone precursor concentrations are indicative in nature and there is no discernible trend in concentrations over the selected time period. Outlook On 1 January 2000 the EU limit for benzene in petrol reduced from 5% to 1% and the average content of benzene in petrol in the EU is 0.7%. This has significantly reduced the levels of benzene Europe-wide. Benzene levels in Ireland are low and are anticipated to stay low in the medium term. c Concentration for ethylbenzene was not available for

37 9. HEAVY METALS LEAD (Pb), ARSENIC (As), CADMIUM (Cd), NICKEL (Ni) AND MERCURY (Hg) Introduction Lead, arsenic, cadmium, nickel and mercury are toxic heavy metals which can be found in the air. They impact on health through inhalation of particulate matter (PM 10 ) containing the metals or, in the case of mercury, direct inhalation of vapour. Heavy metals can enter the food chain through deposition to the ground. Their sources are primarily fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes such as metal-plating, mining, smelting, the production of batteries, plastics and pigments and other combustion sources. Lead was used in many products such as paint in the past. The most common source of lead was, and still is, emissions from motor vehicles; however this has dramatically reduced since the introduction of lead-free petrol in the 1980s. Mercury is also a toxic heavy metal which can be found in the atmosphere. The majority of mercury emissions are produced from fossil fuel combustion and solid waste incineration. Coal burning power plants are the largest human-caused source of mercury emission to the air. Lead is included in the CAFE Directive while arsenic, cadmium, nickel, arsenic and mercury are covered by the Fourth Daughter Directive 2004/107/EC and were measured for the first time in Pollutant Obligation Target Value Concentration, ng/m 3 Averaging period Lead Limit value 500 Annual mean Arsenic Target value 6 Annual mean Cadmium Target value 5 Annual mean Nickel Target value 20 Annual mean Mercury No target value specified n/a n/a Limit and target values set out in Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC State and Impacts Short-term exposure to these heavy metals can cause irritation of the respiratory system, which can lead to laryngitis, bronchitis or rhinitis. Long-term exposure can cause irritation to the respiratory tract and cardiovascular and neurological effects, asthma, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, reduced vital capacity, and lung and nasal cancers. Lead interferes with a variety of biological processes and is toxic to many organs and tissues. It is particularly damaging to the brain and causes neurological impairments such as seizures, mental retardation and behavioural disorders. Even at relatively low doses lead is associated with damage to the nervous system of foetuses and may be a factor in high blood pressure and subsequent heart disease. Mercury 27

38 exposure at high levels can harm the brain, heart, kidneys, lungs and immune system of people of all ages, especially to the developing nervous system of unborn babies and young children. Lead, arsenic, cadmium and nickel in PM 10 were measured at five stations in The annual mean concentrations measured at all stations were all below the respective target or limit values. Levels of lead were typically times less than the limit value. Table 12 in Appendix A contains summary statistics for the four heavy metals in PM 10 from all monitoring stations in Mercury was measured at one site in 2010 and deposition of lead, arsenic, cadmium and nickel were measured at two stations in There is no target value for mercury or metal deposition specified in Directive 2004/107/EC. Table 13 in Appendix A contains summary statistics for mercury measurement in Table 14 contains summary statistics for deposition of lead, arsenic, cadmium and nickel from all monitoring stations in Trends over Time 2010 was only the third year that arsenic, cadmium and nickel were measured in Ireland, and therefore trend analysis was not possible. Lead concentrations measured in 2010 are similar to values recorded since leaded petrol was phased out in The decrease in ambient lead concentrations is clear from the trend in the annual mean concentrations of lead at city centre and suburban roadside stations in Dublin for the period 1988 through to 2010 shown in Figure 19. The measurement method for measuring lead changed in 2009 to meet the requirements of the CAFE Directive. It is now measured as a concentration of lead in PM 10 because this is the most significant to health. 28

39 Figure 20 Annual mean lead concentrations in Dublin, Outlook Since the introduction of the ban in leaded petrol, levels of lead in air have decreased rapidly and are currently very low in Ireland and it is likely that levels of lead in air will continue to remain low in the future. Levels of arsenic, cadmium and nickel in air are low; however it will take a number of years before any trends that may be present can be established. Due to the lack of heavy metal industries or large-scale mining in Ireland it is expected that levels of heavy metals will remain low in the future. 29