Reactor Technology: Materials, Fuel and Safety 14 th 17 th April 2009 Dr. Tony Williams
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1 Reactor Technology: Materials, Fuel and Safety 14 th 17 th April 2009 Dr. Tony Williams Leibstadt NPP, 1200MWe BWR, GE, 1984
2 Course Structure Unit 1: Reactor materials Unit 2. Reactor types Unit 3: Radiation, Dosimetry, Health Unit 4: Regulatory Issues, Reactor safety Unit 5: Nuclear fuel production Unit 6: Waste issues 2
3 Unit 2: Reactor Types In this unit we will be addressing the following: Which are the main types of reactors in commercial use today? What are their main characteristics? Future reactor designs Some environmental implications of nuclear 3
4 The Main Reactor Types Reactors tend to be characterised by their neutron spectrum and by their coolant: Thermal (spectrum) Reactors Light Water Cooled and moderated Reactors Pressurised water reactor $ $ $ Boiling water reactor $ $ VVER $ Heavy Water Cooled and moderated reactors CANDU $ Gas Cooled reactors Magnox $, AGR $, HTR Other thermal reactors RBMK $ SGHWR Fast (spectrum) Reactors Liquid Metal cooled Sodium lead Gas cooled 4
5 5
6 Light Water Reactors Water is a good, well known, inert, heat transfer medium, but the relatively large absorbtion cross sections require the enrichment of the uranium The coolant serves also as moderator In a Pressurised Water Reactor, the water does not boil in the core, it boils in a secondary circuit In a Boiling Water Reactor, the water boils in the core and a secondary circuit is not necessary 6
7 1 barn = 1 x cm Thermal Scattering Thermal Absorption Thermal Fission Fast Absorption Fast Fission U235 Pu239 U238 Aluminium Berylium Graphite Iron Zirconium Lead Hydrogen Deuterium Helium Nitrogen Sodium Potassium Lithium Boron Cadmium Xenon Hafnium Nuclear Cross-sections: Elastic Scattering, Inelastic Scattering, Absorption, Fission,.. 7
8 PWR & BWR Coolant Moderator H2O H2O Fuel UO2 (4-5%) Cladding Control Zircalloy PWR:Boric acid control rods in fuel BWR: Void fraction, control rods between fuel 8
9 BWR PWR 9
10 Comparison PWR vs. BWR PWR BWR Fuel UO2 UO2 Coolant H2O H2O Circuits 2 1 Primary Circuit Pressure 15 Mpa 7MPa Reactor Outlet Temperature Turbine Inlet Temperature Advantages Balance of Plant totally separate from Primary circuit Boron Control Passive Shutdown System Simpler Plant Design Short and long term reactivity control via void fraction Disadvantages Complex control system above core High Dose rate in Turbine Hall Complex Fuel design Active Control system from below core 10
11 PWR Fuel 17x17 BWR Fuel 10x10 11
12 1 Fuel bundle 7 Heavy water pump Heavy Water Reactors CANDU 2 Calandria (reactor core) 8 Fueling machines 3 Adjuster rods 9 Heavy water moderator 4 Heavy water pressure reservoir 10 Pressure tube 5 Steam generator 11 Steam going to steam turbinee 6 Light water pump 12 Cold water returning from turbine 13 Containment buildingg made of reinforced concretee Qinshan Phase III Units 1 & 2, located in Zhejiang China Coolant D2O Moderator D2O Fuel UO2 (0.72%) Cladding Control Zircalloy Control rods 12
13 Gas Cooled Reactors As gases are not good moderators (not dense enough), gas cooled thermal reactors need a separate moderator, which is almost always graphite Magnox Unat-Metal fuel, Magnesium Alloy Clad, CO2 coolant, graphite moderator AGR Slightly eniched UO2 fuel, stainless steel clad, CO2 coolant, graphite moderator (partially disposable) HTR Mid-enriched UO2 particulate fuel, ceramic cladding, Helium coolant, graphite moderator (part of fuel) 13
14 Gas Cooled Reactors PBMR 14
15 Gas Cooled Reactors PBMR Coolant He Moderator Graphite Fuel UO2 (<20%) Cladding SiC High Temperature Reactors No metal parts and gas coolant allows very high temperatures and thus efficiencies Efficiency can be further improved by direct cycle Control and Shutdown an issue for large units High temperature applications Control Control rods in Reflector 15
16 16
17 Other Reactors RBMK Coolant Moderator H2O (BWR) Graphite Fuel UO2 (2%) Cladding Control Zircalloy Void fraction Control rods in water channels 17
18 Thermal and Fast Reactor Systems The words Thermal and Fast relate to the type of neutron spectrum predominating in the reactor Thermal reactor- neutron energy ca ev Fast reactor neutron energy 100's kev - MeV Fast reactor contains no moderator Fission Probability is much lower therefore need more critical mass Bulk of fissions occur at 100keV Plutonium burned in core centre and bred in blanket 18
19 19
20 Cross-Sections and Moderation 20
21 Coolant Moderator Fuel Cladding Control Sodium none Pu/U Oxide U/Pu/Zr Metal Pu/U Carbide Pu/U Nitride Stainless Steel Control rods Sodium Cooled Fast Reactor 21
22 Lead Cooled Fast Reactor Coolant Moderator Fuel Cladding Control Lead Lead/Bismuth none Pu/U Oxide U/Pu/Zr Metal Pu/U Carbide Pu/U Nitride Stainless Steel Control rods 22
23 Gas Cooled Fast Reactor Coolant Moderator Fuel Cladding Control He none Ceramic Ceramic Control rods 23
24 Molten Salt Reactor Coolant Moderator Flouride salt and N/He Graphite Fuel Cladding Fluoride salt none Control Control rods 24
25 Some Environmental Issues 25
26 Technology Comparison (g/kwh) Kohle De Erdgas De Wasserkraft CH Photovoltaik CH Wind (Westeuropa) Kernenergie CH CO2 [g/kwh] NOx [mg/kwh] SOx [mg/kwh] Quelle: ecoinvent Datenbank V1.3, 26
27 m3 Wasser / kwh Water Requirements per kwh Kohle UCTE Erdgas UCTE Wasserkraft CH Kernenergie CH Öl UCTE Photovoltaik CH Wind Europa 27
28 m3 Beton / kwh Concrete Requirements per kwh
29 mg Kupfer / kwh Kupferbedarf pro kwh Kohle UCTE Erdgas UCTE Wasserkraft CH Kernenergie CH Öl UCTE Photovoltaik CH Wind Europa 29
30 PSI Daten SWR CH (Diffusion) Diffusion (old) Enrichment Quelle: ecoinvent Datenbank V1.3, 30
31 Sources of Greenhouse Gases in Nuclear PSI Daten DWR CH (Zentrifugen) Modern Enrichment Quelle: ecoinvent Datenbank V1.3, 31
32 Life Cycle Analysis Energy Type Photovoltaik (CH) Windkraft (CH) Wasserkraft (CH) Cumulative Primary Energy Requirements (excl. Fuel use) in MWh/GWhe Fuel use in MWh/GWhe 526-1' Steinkohle '600-3'000 Braunkohle '800-3'700 Öl '400-3'000 Brenngas '400-3'000 Erdgas (D) 300 2'200 Kernenergie '200 Hirschberg et al. PSI 32
33 Life Cycle Analysis input as % of output PJ Mine Refining & conversion Enrichment (80:20 centrifuge:diffusion) Fuel fabrication Plant operation Plant build & decommission Waste management Waste build & decommission 0.01 Total life cycle: 8.70 % (285/3272) 285 PJ The Swedish utility Vattenfall has undertaken a thorough life cycle assessment of its Forsmark nuclear power station, which has three boiling water reactors totalling 3100 MWe net. These started up in and run at 86.4% capacity. The energy analysis figures were based on a 40 yr plant life, transports included, with PJ figures calculated from percentage on basis of 3272 PJ output) 33
34 Inputs diffusion centrifuge GWh (e) Mining & Milling (180 t/yr U 3 O 8 at Ranger, 0.17% U in ore) Conversion (ConverDyn data) TJ (th) Annual Initial enrichment: 2400 kwh/swu OR: Initial enrichment: Urenco 63 kwh/swu Re-load enrichment: 2400 kwh/swu OR: Re-load enrichment: Urenco 63 kwh/swu Fuel Fabrication (ERDA 76/1) Construction & Operation (ERDA 76/1) Fuel storage, Waste storage, Transport (ERDA 76/1, Perry 1977, Sweden 2002) allow Decommissioning (Ontario data) Total (diffusion enrichment) 114 OR: Total (centrifuge enrichment) 44 PJ (th) 30 year PJ (th) 30 year Output: 7 TWh/yr PJ 34
35 Unit 2 Review We know the basic characteristics of a range of current and future reactor types and understand the reasons for the design choices Thermal (spectrum) Reactors Light Water Cooled and moderated Reactors Pressurised water reactor Boiling water reactor VVER Heavy Water Cooled and moderated reactors CANDU Gas Cooled reactors Magnox, AGR, HTR Other thermal reactors RBMK SGHWR Molten Salt Fast (spectrum) Reactors Liquid Metal cooled Sodium lead Gas cooled We have seen the results of a life cycle analysis of nuclear and know how this compares with other energy forms 35
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Status Report LFTR Overview Full name Liquid-Fluoride Thorium Reactor Acronym LFTR Reactor type Molten Salt Reactor Purpose Commercial Coolant Molten fluoride Moderator Graphite Neutron Thermal Spectrum