Leadership: A Framework for Thinking and Acting

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1 sho01910_ch04 10/21/05 12:46 PM Page 28 CHAPTER 4 Leadership: A Framework for Thinking and Acting Dennis D. Pointer LECTURE OUTLINE A. Chapter Purpose The purpose of this chapter is to develop an understanding of one of the most fundamental management concepts, leadership the means by which things get done in organizations. A manager can formulate goals, strategize, interact with others, communicate, collect information, make decisions, plan, organize, monitor, and control; but nothing happens without leadership. B. Foundational Concepts Leadership: a process through which an individual attempts to intentionally influence human systems in order to accomplish a goal. Key concepts: a. Leadership is a process. It is a verb, an action word. Leadership manifests itself in the doing. b. Only individuals lead. Groups and organizations don t lead. c. The focus of leadership is followers individuals, members of a group, people in an organization, citizens of a community, or the population of a nation. d. Leadership equates to influencing. e. The objective of leadership is goal accomplishment. f. Leadership is intentional, not accidental. C. Leadership Perspectives and Theories 1. Trait Perspective The trait perspective focuses on characteristics of individuals that might distinguish successful from unsuccessful leaders.traits and behaviors are loosely coupled; what seems to be the most important are not traits, but how they are expressed in the behavior of the leader. a. Characteristics that are present in leaders as compared to followers: (1) Intelligence: general perceptual, conceptual, and problem-solving ability (2) Articulateness: ability to express ideas clearly and powerfully (3) Confidence: self-esteem and belief in one s competencies/capacities (4) Initiative and persistence: desire to take on a task and complete it (5) Sociability: inclination and ability to develop a rich web of interpersonal relationships 2. Skills Perspective Katz (1955) states that effective leadership is based upon possessing/developing three core skills: a. Technical: proficiencies regarding the work of the organization that produces products/services and serves customers (influence over things) 28

2 sho01910_ch04 10/21/05 12:46 PM Page 29 CHAPTER 4 Leadership: A Framework for Thinking and Acting 29 b. Conceptual: proficiencies dealing with identifying, defining, and manipulating abstractions (influence over ideas) c. Human: proficiencies regarding interacting and working with others (influence over/with people) Mumford and colleagues (2000) state that effective leadership is based upon possessing/ developing three sets of skills similar to those proposed by Katz (1955): a. Problem solving: the ability to identify, understand, specify, and solve ill-defined organizational problems b. Social judgment: the ability to understand people and how they interact in social systems c. Knowledge: the ability to accumulate information and organize it into coherent mental models/maps 3. Behavioral/Style Perspective Work undertaken from this perspective has focused on identifying dimensions that can be employed to describe/categorize specific leadership behaviors, developing models of leadership style (a combination of behaviors), and examining how different styles are related to leadership effectiveness. a. Lewin and Lippitt (1939): Compared three styles of leadership autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire. b. Ohio State University (Stodgill and Coons, 1957): Two dimensions of leader behavior were identified: initiating structure (the degree a manager defined and organized the work) and consideration (the extent a manager exhibited concern for the welfare of the group and its members). c. University of Michigan (Likert et al., 1961): Specified two leadership behaviors: job-centered and employee-centered (defined similar to initiating structure and consideration in the Ohio State studies). d. Managerial Grid: Blake and Mouton (1982) developed a model with two dimensions: production orientation and people orientation.the model suggests that a manager s behavior can range from low to high on both dimensions, resulting in five leadership styles. (1) High production and low people orientation: Leadership behavior focuses exclusively on goal and task accomplishment, and maximizes productivity through explicit direction and tight control. (2) High production and high people orientation: Leadership behavior is goal and task centered but seeks a high degree of follower involvement. (3) Low production and high people orientation: Leadership behavior focuses on creating fulfilling relationships even if goal and task accomplishment suffer. (4) Low production and low people orientation: Leadership behavior focuses on neither goal and task accomplishment nor on fulfilling the needs of followers; minimal energy is expended on execution of the leadership role. (5) Moderate production and moderate people orientation: Leadership behavior balances goal/task accomplishment and follower need fulfillment. 4. Contingency Perspective This perspective incorporates situational characteristics, or contingencies, into leadership models. a. Leadership match model: Fiedler s (1967) model is based on the underlying notion that managers are unable to alter their style to any appreciable degree. Leadership effectiveness depends not on fitting one s style to the situation but rather on selecting a situation that is conducive to one s leadership style.

3 sho01910_ch04 10/21/05 12:46 PM Page SECTION ONE Chapter Outlines and Support Materials b. Path-goal model: This model is based on the expectancy theory of motivation.while the expectancy theory focuses on describing the relationship among effort, performance, and rewards, the path-goal model is interested in the factors that affect them. A follower s level of motivation is the result of perceptions of expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences. Such perceptions are affected by three sets of contingencies: leadership behavior or style, features of the work environment, and characteristics of the follower. c. LEAD model: Hersey and Blanchard (1977) developed a model with differing degrees of task- and relationship-oriented behavior, and four different leadership styles, similar to the Ohio State, Michigan, and Blake and Mouton studies. They argued that the single most important contingency in selecting a leadership style that is effective is task-relevant maturity. Maturity is situational and task-specific; a follower may be very mature performing one task and immature in another. d. Attribution theory: This concept holds that a manager s selection of a leadership style depends on the way follower behavior is perceived and interpreted. There are two general types of attributions: internal (e.g., lack of follower effort or ability) and external (e.g., bad luck, inadequate task design by others, poor supervision). The contingency perspective has several implications for managers: a. It helps us appreciate that leadership effectiveness and success depends upon the circumstances. b. Leadership behaviors are best described along two dimensions: initiating/tasks and consideration/relationship. c. Three sets of contingencies seem to be most closely related to leadership effectiveness or success: (1) Characteristics of the manager (2) Characteristics of followers (3) Characteristics of the situation d. Leadership effectiveness depends, more than anything else, on a manager: having a broad repertoire of styles and being able to flexibly move among them; possessing the ability to diagnose the most critical contingencies of a given situation; being able to select an effective leadership style for that situation; and possessing the skills and ability to execute the chosen style well. e. The way in which a specific leadership situation is diagnosed depends on the manager s perceptions and attribution of causes to follower behavior. f. Much of leadership behavior has to do with stimulating and then focusing follower motivation. g. Taken to the extreme, contingency-driven leadership may appear erratic and arbitrary. This can be confusing and frustrating for followers unless managers are very explicit about how they are behaving and why. 5. Transformational Perspective Burns (1978) identifies two types of politicians transactional and transformational and there is a growing body of literature that draws a distinction between these leadership styles in organizations. Whereas transactional leadership attempts to preserve and work within the constraints of the status quo, transformational perspectives seek to upset and replace it. D. Pulling It All Together 1. Focus: the direction of a manager s influence attempts External leadership focuses outside the boundary of the organizational component for which the manager is responsible (toward superiors or peers). Internal leadership is directed downward toward subordinates.

4 sho01910_ch04 10/21/05 12:46 PM Page 31 CHAPTER 4 Leadership: A Framework for Thinking and Acting Objective: what a manager hopes to accomplish in exercising influence Transformational leadership seeks to alter both the nature of goals sought and manager-follower interactions; the objective is to transcend the status quo. Transactional leadership attempts to optimize the outcome of manager-follower exchange relationships by achieving stated goals in an efficient manner within the rules as presently defined. 3. Approach: the way in which a manager influences followers In exercising directive (initiating structure, job-centered) leadership, a manager defines the task and specifies how it is to be performed. The focus is on goal accomplishment, and little attention is paid to manager-follower or follower-follower relationships. In exercising facilitative (consideration, employee-centered) leadership, a manager involves followers in making decisions that affect them and pays considerable attention to fulfilling their needs. E. Several Distinctive Aspects of Leadership in Health Care Organizations 1. Leading Clinical Professionals Professionals are granted high levels of autonomy regarding what they do and how they do it. Entertain the notion that physicians possess a distinctly different mentality, cognitive frame, or paradigm than do managers. Two of the most frustrating and vexing aspects of leadership is when one s behavior is misinterpreted by followers and they don t respond as you expected. When the follower is a physician, the notion of clinical mentality helps explain why. The cognitive frames of managers and physicians are quite different. There are several important implications: a. Physicians are likely to perceive and interpret a manager s leadership behavior in idiosyncratic ways and quite different than what might be expected or wanted. b. Physicians have distinctive motivational dynamics. Their expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences differ considerably from those of managers. c. Managers are prone to misinterpreting the intentions or behaviors of physicians and attributing negative cause to them. 2. Leadership and Gender Women are occupying senior executive positions in increasing numbers. There is a gender gap in leadership, and it seems to be the result of a gender bias on the part of both women and men. The traditional solution is to close this gap by assimilation; but this may be counterproductive. Assimilation results in a reduction of diversity. Managerial and leadership heterogeneity is essential for finding different ways to solve new problems and seize emerging opportunities in times of revolutionary change. OVERVIEW OF CHAPTER IN PRACTICE AND DEBATE TIME MATERIAL IN PRACTICE: We re Searching for a Leader But May Not Fully Understand What Leadership Is 1 Why are leadership skills so important, in particular in relation to the hiring of a new chief executive officer of a 250-bed short-term general hospital? Leadership is the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with the routine directives of the organization. It is a process through which an individual attempts to intentionally influence human systems in order to accomplish a goal, given the uncertainty and complexity facing organizations. In as much as leadership is critical in an organization,

5 sho01910_ch04 10/21/05 12:46 PM Page SECTION ONE Chapter Outlines and Support Materials it is critical that the CEO the top organizational leader possess such skills, both for the needs of the organization in meeting its goals as well as to set the tone and serve as a role model for other leaders in the organization. 2 Discuss several distinct challenges of leading in health care organizations. Two distinct aspects of leadership in health care organizations are the issues of professionalism and gender. Health care organizations are populated by professionals who either perform or directly supervise most of the work done in them. Managerial positions in health care organizations are being increasingly filled by women. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS 1. Reread the opening case and answer the questions again. Compare those composed before and after reading this chapter. What are the differences? How have you altered your thinking about the nature of leadership and the factors that contribute to its effectiveness and success? The answers to the opening case questions written before reading the chapter will probably reflect a great deal of variability. The answers written after reading the chapter should have some common threads. In defining leadership, students should mention the concept of influence. Management should be distinguished from leadership in that management focuses on functions such as planning, organizing, communicating, making decisions, monitoring, and controlling. Leadership can be described in terms of a process whereby a leader influences an individual or group to undertake tasks to accomplish a goal. It might be helpful to point out to students that leadership is best learned by examples of both effective and ineffective leadership. Examples from the students own experiences offer excellent class discussion material, and aid the students in applying the text material. 2. You are interviewing for a position, and your prospective employer asks you to describe your leadership style. How would you do so? This is a fairly typical question asked of candidates for management positions, irrespective of level, so it is a good idea to have a reasonably well-thought-out and articulate answer. Draft a one or two paragraph statement; share it with fellow students. Students will have a variety of responses. Students should draw upon the theories and perspectives offered in the chapter to describe their own leadership style. 3. Some contend that leadership is highly romanticized. That is, there s a tendency to ascribe far more to leadership as a cause than is actually warranted. While leadership certainly makes a difference, it may not make as much difference as either managers, followers, or onlookers generally think it does. Successful performance of a group, organization, or nation is the result of many factors interacting in complex ways. However, it s far easier, and more reassuring, to attribute such success to the leadership abilities of an individual. What do you think? Since this is an open-ended question asking for students opinions, the answers will vary. Challenge the students to support their opinions with the research that was presented in the chapter, along with their own personal experiences. 4. Several distinctive aspects of leading in health care organizations have been discussed. What are some other ones that pose challenges for effectively executing the leadership role? Students may mention characteristics such as organization design, work group design, job design, external environment, mission/goals, the pace of change, and strategic issues. Chapter 1 presents a typology of health services organizations and identifies some distinctions among the various types. This material can serve as a useful starting point for a class discussion.

6 sho01910_ch04 10/21/05 12:46 PM Page 33 CHAPTER 4 Leadership: A Framework for Thinking and Acting 33 TEACHING TIPS AND EXERCISES 1. Students might benefit from an additional discussion regarding the trait perspective of leadership. A stimulating class discussion can be sparked by simply asking students whether effective leaders are born or made. Ask students to share specific examples from their answers to the questions at the end of the opening case relating to exceptional leaders and lousy leaders. What do their examples have in common? It might be helpful to share the results of another widely publicized trait theory study. Edwin Ghiselli studied over three hundred managers from ninety different businesses in the United States. In his 1971 report, he identified six traits that were linked to success. The traits, in order of importance, are supervisory ability, need for occupational achievement, intelligence, decisiveness, self-assurance, and initiative. You might engage students in a discussion of whether these six traits are inherent, or whether they are developed. If students believe that the traits of effective leaders are developed, and that leaders are made and not born, then you might initiate a discussion of how, and especially at what stages of life, these skills are developed. Does this have implications for various levels and stages of the educational process? How early should leadership training begin? 2. A useful starting point in covering the material in this chapter would be to distinguish between management and leadership. Refer students back to the concepts in Chapter 2 regarding the traditional functional roles of managers (planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling). Ask students if these functions describe management or leadership. Are effective managers always effective leaders? Are effective leaders always effective managers? What types of traits, skills, knowledge, and abilities are necessary for the leadership role as opposed to the management role? Managers can be conceptualized in terms of planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling. Leaders are more concerned with establishing direction, aligning people, motivating, and inspiring. COMPLEMENTARY READINGS Buckingham, M. & Clifton, D. (2001). Now, discover your strengths. New York: Free Press. Collins, J. (2001). Good to great. HarperBusiness: New York. Goleman, D., McKee, A., & Boyatzis, R. (2002). Primal leadership: Realizing the power emotional intelligence. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Heifetz, R. & Linsky, M. (2002). Leadership on the line: Staying alive through the dangers of leading. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Kouzes, J. M. & Posner, B. Z. (2003). The leadership challenge (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Leatt, P. & Porter, J. (2003). Where are the healthcare leaders? The need for investing in leadership. Health Care Papers, 4(1), Northouse, P. (2004). Leadership theory and practice (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Tichy, N. & Cardwell, N. (2002). The cycle of leadership: How great leaders teach their companies to win. New York: Harper Collins. Upshaw, M. V., Sollectio, W., & Kaluzny, A. (2001). Leadership in Public Health in L. Novick, L and G. Mays (ed.). Public Health Adminstration: Principles for Population-Based Management. Aspen Publishers: Gaithersburg.