ESCAP-World Bank Trade Cost Database - Implication for Asia-Pacific Connectivity

Transcription

1 WTO/ESCAP 10 th ARTNeT Capacity Building Workshop for Trade Research ESCAP-World Bank Trade Cost Database - Implication for Asia-Pacific Connectivity Presented by Yann Duval, Chief Chorthip Utoktham, Consultant Trade Facilitation Unit, Trade & Investment Division, UNESCAP Based on a Joint paper with Jean-François Arvis (WB) and Ben Shepherd (Developing Trade Consultants) (Trade Costs in the Developing World: ) 1 16/06/2015

2 Outline 1. Background & rationale for the database 2. Trade costs in the ESCAP-WB Database: Definition 3. End result the ESCAP-World Bank Trade Cost Database 4. Trade costs in developing countries: Main findings 5. Explaining trade costs 6. Conclusion and policy implications 7. Other Applications / Extensions of the Database 2

3 1. Background & Rationale for the Database Regional/global trade and production networks as a key engine of development Trade Facilitation [TF] (efficient trade procedures and low trade costs) essential to enable firms to participate Intraregional (South-South) trade important for A-P countries to continue growing at a time when developed markets slowing/shrinking Some cross-country indicators of TF and trade costs available (e.g., WB Doing Business indicators) but none allowing for measuring bilateral/intra-regional trade costs Development of a bilateral trade cost database to provide a systematic and standardized way to evaluate trade costs in developing countries 3

4 2. ESCAP-WB Trade Cost: Definition Based on the comprehensive trade costs measure proposed by Jacks, Meissner and Novy (2009) Measure derived from the theory-consistent gravity equation, i.e., ratio based essentially on Bilateral Trade data and Gross Output data objective measure of costs Captures all additional costs involved in trading goods bilaterally relative to those involved in trading goods domestically. It includes: International shipping and logistics costs Tariff and non-tariff costs, including indirect and direct costs associated with trade procedures and regulations Costs from differences in language, culture, currencies

5 2. ESCAP-WB Trade Cost: Definition Our measure of ad valorem trade costs: Where ij ji t t ij ii t t ji jj X X ii ij X X jj ji τij denotes geometric average trade costs between country i and country j tij denotes international trade costs from country i to country j tji denotes international trade costs from country j to country i tii denotes intranational trade costs of country i tjj denotes intranational trade costs of country j Xij denotes international trade flows from country i to country j Xji denotes international trade flows from country j to country i Xii denotes intranational trade of country i Xjj denotes intranational trade of country j σ denotes intra-sectoral elasticity of substitution (which is set = 8) 5

6 2. ESCAP-WB Trade Cost: Definition Our measure of ad valorem trade costs: ij ji t t ij ii t t ji jj X X ii ij X X jj ji Intuition: keeping all else constant, a rise in the ratio of international trade relative to domestic trade must be associated with a fall in international trade costs relative to domestic trade costs Ad valorem? bilateral trade costs are expressed in % of the value of goods (like tariffs generally are) Important note: Change in the value of sigma can change the absolute value of trade costs better to look at trade cost relative to each other 6

7 2. ESCAP-WB Trade Cost: Definition Our measure of ad valorem trade costs: ij ji t t ij ii t t ji jj X X ii ij X X jj ji Note that: Our trade costs are always expressed in terms of international relative to intra-national trade costs Our trade costs are the geometric average of trade costs in both directions (country i to j and country j to i) This can makes the identification of policy effects challenging 7

8 Appendix Data and Sources To calculate trade costs between countries i and j, we need data on: Exports from i to j Exports from j to i Production in country i that is also consumed there, in gross shipments terms (not value added) Production in country j that is also consumed there, in gross shipments terms (not value added) Getting the international trade data is straightforward: WITS-UN Comtrade Aggregate into two macro-sectors, manufacturing (ISIC D) and agriculture (ISIC A and B) using a WITS concordance Adjustment for re-exports using other sources for a small number of countries Getting the intra-national trade data is less straightforward 8

9 Appendix Data and Sources For some countries, data on domestic production in gross shipments terms are available through the UN national accounts system Coverage is up to 124 countries Conversion from Local Currency Units to USD using the WDI GDP exchange rate Calculation of intra-national trade as domestic production less total exports to the rest of the world For countries for which gross domestic production is not available, we infer it from GDP 9

10 Appendix Data and Sources For those countries that lack domestic production in gross shipments terms: We take GDP data by ISIC aggregate from the WDIs, supplemented by the UN national accounts system GDP data cannot be used directly because they are in value added not gross shipments terms (i.e., they net out intermediate input use) We therefore calculate average gross shipments to value added ratios for the two ISIC aggregates for those countries where we have both sets of data We use those ratios to gross up the value added data to their estimated gross shipments equivalents We then calculate intra-national trade as domestic production less total exports to the rest of the world 10

11 3. End Result the ESCAP-WB Trade Cost Database All-inclusive Bilateral trade costs for 178 countries [Now >180] For the period * [Now -2012] Two macro-sectors covered Agriculture Manufacturing Underlying data on international trade (Xij, Xji) are relatively easy to come by, but data on intranational trade (Xii, Xjj) are more complicated Intranational trade = Gross Output (from UN National Account statistics) export *Linear interpolation applied to fill in missing trade costs observations 11

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13 urce=escap-world-bank:-international-trade-costs

14 4. Main findings 1. All-inclusive international trade costs are at least one order of magnitude (10 times) larger than tariffs Our all-inclusive measures cover tariffs, NTMs of all types, trade facilitation, connectivity, and logistics, as well as geographical factors, and cultural/historical/institutional factors everything that drives a wedge between domestic and international prices Consistent with Anderson and Van Wincoop (2004), who provide a guesstimate of 5% ad valorem for average rich country tariffs, compared with 74% ad valorem for international trade costs 14

15 4. Main Findings 2. Trade costs in developing countries are much higher than in developed countries, and they are falling more slowly High income Upper middle income Lower middle income Low income

16 4. Main findings 3. Trade costs in agriculture are much higher than trade costs in manufacturing in all income groups, and they are basically static over time High income Upper middle income Lower middle income Low income

17 4. Main findings 4. Differences in policy and geography/culture translate into different levels of trade costs in different regions East Asia & Pacific Europe & Central Asia Latin America & Caribbean Middle East & North Africa South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa

18 Intra- and extra-regional comprehensive trade costs in the Asia-Pacific region (excluding tariff costs), Region ASEAN-4 East Asia- 3 North and Central Asia - 4 Pacific Islands Developing Economies Source: ESCAP-World Bank Trade Cost Database, updated June Available from SAARC-4 AUS-NZL ASEAN-4 76% (9%) East Asia-3 75% 51% (5%) (-5%) North and 351% 177% 121% Central Asia - 4 (9%) (-7%) (9%) Pacific Islands 175% 174% 368% 133% Developing Economies (-11%) (-9%) (34%) (-10%) SAARC-4 128% 125% 282% 317% 114% (2%) (-0%) (13%) (2%) (10%) AUS-NZL 101% 89% 338% 73% 142% 54% (4%) (-3%) (-5%) (-22%) (-1%) (1%) EU-3 108% 85% 152% 211% 114% 109% 43% (2%) (-4%) (-8%) (-6%) (3%) (0%) (-4%) USA 85% 63% 180% 163% 109% 100% 67% (11%) (-0%) (2%) (-11%) (6%) (4%) (0%) 18 Trade costs: EU-3

19 Bilateral comprehensive trade costs in the Asia-Pacific, excluding tariff costs of selected economies with China and United States ( ) 19

20 4. Explaining trade costs From a policy perspective, it is important to break trade costs down into their component parts Which sources of trade costs are the most important in terms of determining the overall pattern observed across countries? What sorts of policies would be most effective in lowering trade costs and reducing the relative isolation of many low income countries? Econometric estimation becomes necessary at this point: we use a model with trade cost variables to explain the observed pattern of trade costs across countries 20

21 4. Explaining trade costs Factors included in the trade cost model are: Distance Common border Common language Existence of a colonial relationship Common colonial heritage Once part of the same country Tariffs Membership of the same RTA Exchange rate Liner shipping connectivity (UNCTAD) Air connectivity (Arvis and Shepherd) Logistics Performance Index Cost of starting a business We estimate the models for a single year for all countries, in agriculture and manufacturing sectors 21

22 4. Explaining trade costs (Beta coefficients*) entry cost LPI ACI LSCI exchange rate RTA tariff same country Agri Mfg common colonizer colony common language (official) common language (ethno) common border distance *the amount of increase in trade costs (measured in standard deviations) that is associated with a one standard deviation increase in each independent variable

23 Trade Costs in Asia and the Pacific Contribution of natural barriers, behind-the border facilitation and trade-related practice to trade costs Tariff Trade Costs 0-10%* 60-90%* 1% 6-7% Direct Behind- & At-the border Trade Costs Availability/use of ICT Services 6-7% Business (Regulatory) Environment Policy-Related Non-Tariff Trade Costs 16-18% Maritime Connectivity/Services 52-57% Other Trade Costs Indirect cost of trade procedure Currency fluctuation Other non-tariff barriers Natural Trade Costs (Geographical and Cultural Factors) 10-30%* * Illustrative based on casual observation of the data only. Natural trade costs for landlocked countries may be outside the range shown for natural trade costs.

24 Conclusion & policy implications Key findings: 1. All-inclusive trade costs more than an order of magnitude higher than tariff rates 2. Trade costs in developing countries much higher than in developed countries, and falling more slowly 3. Trade costs in agriculture much higher than trade costs in manufacturing in all income groups, and static over time 4. Very different levels of trade costs in different developing regions 5. Often cheaper for developing countries to trade with faraway developed countries than to trade with neighbors 6. From higher to lower trade costs in A-P: Central Asia South Asia Southeast Asia East Asia (excluding Mongolia) 24

25 Conclusion and policy implications Some preliminary implications: Streamlining trade procedures (narrow TF), maritime connectivity and logistics most important policy areas for moving forward on trade costs East Asia and the Pacific may provide an important stock of best practice in the developing world when it comes to reducing trade costs To successfully reduce trade costs, action necessary on a number of fronts at once a broad agenda is appropriate Sectoral focus (on agriculture) of technical assistance/capacity building on trade facilitation may be effective approach Particular attention needed on reducing intra-regional trade costs The analysis of trade costs provide a useful starting point in engaging with countries on their trading environment other tools (microlevel) needed to identify actual bottlenecks and develop solutions E.g., ESCAP-UNECE UNNExT Business Process Analysis Guide 25

26 Conclusion and policy implications Way Forward: Continuous updating of the database Deepen analysis on agricultural trade cost Explore ways to breakdown the all-inclusive trade cost measure into components (isolate the policy-related component in particular) Improve on the trade cost models to include more factors Calculate trade costs at a more disaggregated level & add service sector Include more developing countries (particularly LDCs and LLDCs in the database) 26

27 Arvis et. al (forthcoming): Trade costs in the Developing World Based on Arvis et. al (2012/13) Improvements made: o Aggregation of bilateral trade costs into a single consistent measure of trade costs for each country o Presentation of trade costs in index form rather than in absolute term o Use of panel data (2007, 2010 and 2012) rather than one-year cross-sectional data o(air connectivity index removed) 27

28 Trade costs in Developing Countries Arvis et al. (forthcoming) 9. Developing countries in some regions have been more successful than others in reducing trade costs in relative term. 28

29 Outline 1. Background & rationale for the database 2. Trade costs in the ESCAP-WB Database: Definition 3. End result the ESCAP-World Bank Trade Cost Database 4. Trade costs in developing countries: Main findings 5. Explaining trade costs 6. Conclusion and policy implications 7. Other Applications / Extensions of the Database 29

30 Value added trade costs in Goods and Services (Duval, Saggu and Utoktham, May 2015) A Why Trade Costs in Value added? B Value Added Trade Costs: Definition C Value Added Trade Costs: Data Source D Trade costs in developing countries: Findings E. F Conclusion Trade costs: 30

31 Why Trade Costs in Value Added? Initiation Products are increasingly being Made in the World rather than made in a specific country (WTO, 2015). What increasingly matters for growth and development is not the volume or gross value of goods being traded, but the value addition made as part of the trading process. Trade costs calculated based on value added data rather than gross data may provide a more relevant indicator to develop trade and development strategies. [Create an alternative dataset covering more sectors] Trade costs: 31

32 Value-Added Trade Costs: Definition Our measure of ad valorem trade costs: ij ji t t ij ii t t ji jj X X ii ij X X jj ji The interpretation is still the same as ones in Arvis et. al (2013) where the trade costs are international trade costs relative to intranational one 32

33 Value added trade costs : Data Source To calculate trade costs between countries i and j, we need data on: Exports from i to j Exports from j to i Production in country i that is also consumed there, in gross shipments terms (not value added) Production in country j that is also consumed there, in gross shipments terms (not value added) Getting both international/intranational trade data is straightforward: OECD-WTO Trade in Value Added database Data is available in both international and domestic value added Data are categorized into 18 main sectors in ISIC Rev 3. Aggregate into 3 macro-sectors: agriculture, manufacturing, and services 56 countries are available in the dataset (22 non-oecd) Trade costs: 33

34 VA Trade costs in developing countries: Findings 1. In absolute term, trade costs calculated using value added data are lower than those calculated using gross trade and output data Trade costs with China in the goods sector, 2009 Trade costs: 34

35 VA Trade costs in developing countries: Findings 2. In relative term, Gross and VA trade costs give similar result. Trade costs in goods sector are declining over time. Trade costs: 35

36 VA Trade costs in developing countries: Findings 3. Value added trade costs tend to be higher in the services sector compared to the goods sector. Trade costs with China in the goods, services, transport and telecoms, and finance and insurance sectors,

37 VA Trade costs in developing countries: Findings 5. Lower value added trade costs is clearly associated with greater participation in global value chains in terms of greater exports of intermediate goods. 37

38 Value-Added Trade Costs in goods & services: Conclusion Key findings: 1. In absolute term, trade costs calculated using value added data are lower than those calculated using gross trade and output data. 2. In relative term, trade costs in both approaches gives similar result. Trade costs in goods sector are declining over time. 3. Value added trade costs tend to be higher in the services sector compared to the goods sector. In contrast to sub-sector industries for goods trade (e.g., agriculture vs. manufacturing), differences in value added trade costs across services sub-sectors (e.g., transport and telecoms vs. finance and insurance) also tend to be more limited. 4. East Asia 3 remains low in both gross shipment and value added term. 5. Lower value added trade costs is clearly associated with greater participation in global value chains in terms of greater exports of intermediate goods. Better theoretical basis needed to calculate VA trade costs VA trade costs may be best interpreted as trade connectivity indicators 38

39 Trade Facilitation Indicators: the potential impact of trade facilitation on developing countries' trade OECD (2013) A Trade facilitation indicators B Data and methodology C Results D Conclusion. E F 39

40 Trade facilitation indicators: Introduction - The paper assesses the impact of several trade facilitation indicators on developing countries trade as well as the impact of such indicators on trade costs reduction. - Relevant trade facilitation indicators are analyzed to suggest the prioritization of trade facilitation measures for governments and to provide the technical assistance to developing countries in a more systematic way - 16 trade facilitation indicators are constructed, corresponding to the main provisions of the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement 40

41 Trade facilitation indicators: Introduction Trade Facilitation Indicators are categorized as follows: a) Information availability b) Involvement of the trade community c) Advanced rulings d) Appeal procedures e) Fees and charges f) Formalities documents g) Formalities automation h) Formalities procedures i) Cooperation internal j) Cooperation external k) Consularization l) Governance and impartiality m) Transit fees and charges n) Transit formalities o) Transit guarantees p) Transit agreements and cooperation Trade costs analysis are focused on item (a) to (l) 41

42 Trade facilitation indicators: Data - Data sources for the analysis of the TFIs impact on trade costs: - Trade costs from ESCAP trade costs database - Trade facilitation indicators: Calculated by OECD based on: - Their own survey data collection, supplemented by - Global Express Association questionnaires covering transparency, customs efficiency and post-release process - Doing business indicators from World Bank - Logistics Performance Index from World Bank - World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report - Institutional Profile Database from CEPII - APEC Sub-committee on Customs Procedures 2010 Evaluation Report on Customs Activities in APEC - Southern Africa Trade Hub Report 42

43 Trade facilitation indicators: Methodology - The study runs cross sectional model of trade costs (average of ) on several indicators as follows where 43

44 Trade facilitation indicators: Results 44

45 TFIs contributing most to reduction of trade costs Sub-Saharan Africa: (g) Formalities automation, (f) Formalities - documents and (b) Involvement of the trade community (estimated potential reductions of 2.3%, 1.7% and 1.2% respectively); Middle East and North Africa: (g) Formalities automation ((1.6%), (b) Involvement of the trade community (1.3%) and (h) Formalities procedures (0.9%). Asia: (g) Formalities automation (2.1%), (f) Formalities procedures (1.5%) and (d) Appeal procedures (0.9%). For Latin America: (h) Formalities procedures (2.0%), (f) Formalities documents (1.5%) and (l) Governance and impartiality (1.0%). 45

46 Other Data Sources of Trade Facilitation / Trade Cost indicators Other possible databases for trade facilitation Doing Business Database [ Logistics Performance Index Database [ Liner Shipping Connectivity Index Database [ ctivepath=p,11&srf_expanded=,p,11] Global Competitiveness Index Database [ ESCAP International Supply Chain Connectivity (ISCC) Index [ UPCOMING: UNRCs Global Trade Facilitation and Paperless Trade Implementation Survey 2015

47 Concluding remarks A lot of potential for relevant and better analysis of trade costs and trade facilitation remains Macro-level analysis should be continued, but important to collect better data on trade costs 47

48 Trade Transactions: Buy-Ship-Pay Model 48

49 Trade costs: 49

50 For more information on what we do on trade and investment at ESCAP, artnet.unescap.org Visit our website at: unnext.unescap.org THANK YOU 50

51 ANNEX Derivation of trade costs equation Data and Sources Trade cost composition (AvW, 2004) Comparison with other measures 51

52 2/6/ i i ii w i i ii P t Y YY X 1 j j jj w j j jj P t Y Y Y X 1 j i ij w j i ij P t Y YY X 1 i j ji w i j ji P t Y Y Y X Appendix Derivation of Trade Cost Equation

53 Appendix Derivation of Trade Cost Equation Multiply the equations for internal trade and the equations for international trade to give two new equations: X X ii ij X X jj ji YY i i Y w YY i Y w j t ii i P i tij ip j 1 1 Y Y j Y w j t jj j P Divide those two equations and GDP and multilateral resistance cancel out: j 1 1 Y Y j Y w i t ji j P i X X ij ii X X ji jj t t ij ii t t ji jj /6/2013

54 Appendix Methodology: Inverse Gravity Points to note about our approach: This is not an econometric estimation, so issues such as endogeneity and omitted variables bias do not arise Inverse gravity relies heavily on theory, but the formula for τ takes basically the same form for any of the theories that are currently standard in the literature All that is required to implement inverse gravity is data on inter- and intra-national trade, along with a parameter assumption as to sigma Ad valorem equivalents are highly sensitive to the choice of sigma, but index numbers are not 54

55 Appendix Data and Sources To calculate trade costs between countries i and j, we need data on: Exports from i to j Exports from j to i Production in country i that is also consumed there, in gross shipments terms (not value added) Production in country j that is also consumed there, in gross shipments terms (not value added) Getting the international trade data is straightforward: WITS-UN Comtrade Aggregate into two macro-sectors, manufacturing (ISIC D) and agriculture (ISIC A and B) using a WITS concordance Adjustment for re-exports using other sources for a small number of countries Getting the intra-national trade data is less straightforward 55

56 Appendix Data and Sources For some countries, data on domestic production in gross shipments terms are available through the UN national accounts system Coverage is up to 124 countries Conversion from Local Currency Units to USD using the WDI GDP exchange rate Calculation of intra-national trade as domestic production less total exports to the rest of the world For countries for which gross domestic production is not available, we infer it from GDP 56

57 Appendix Data and Sources For those countries that lack domestic production in gross shipments terms: We take GDP data by ISIC aggregate from the WDIs, supplemented by the UN national accounts system GDP data cannot be used directly because they are in value added not gross shipments terms (i.e., they net out intermediate input use) We therefore calculate average gross shipments to value added ratios for the two ISIC aggregates for those countries where we have both sets of data We use those ratios to gross up the value added data to their estimated gross shipments equivalents We then calculate intra-national trade as domestic production less total exports to the rest of the world 57

58 Appendix Trade costs composition Direct evidence on border costs shows that tariff barriers are now low in most countries, on average less than 5% for rich countries, on average between % for developing countries. Estimated Trade Costs in Industrialized Countries Trade Costs (170%) Transport Costs (21%) Border related trade barriers** (44%) Retail and wholesale distribution costs (55%) Freight costs Transit costs* (9%) Policy barriers (Tariff and NTBs) (8%) Language barrier (7%) Currency barrier (14%) Information costs barrier (6%) Security barrier (3%) *Tax equivalent of the time value of goods in transit. ** The combination of direct observation and inferred costs, which, according to author, is an extremely rough breakdown Source: Anderson and van Wincoop (2004) 58

59 Appendix Comparison with other measures How does our methodology compare with other measures that capture concepts similar to trade costs? OTRI: Captures tariffs and NTMs for which data are available only; does not include other policy factors (trade facilitation, connectivity, logistics) or non-policy factors (geography, history, institutions) Doing Business: Captures costs between the seller s factory and the port only; excludes international transport costs, trade barriers in the importing country, and other factors that drive a wedge between prices Logistics Performance Index: Also only captures costs between the seller s factory and the port; excludes between the border factors, as well as geography, history, etc. CIF/FOB ratios: Captures international transport costs only, not other factors that make it more costly to trade internationally rather than domestically 59

60 2. Methodology: Inverse gravity Applied international trade typically uses the gravity model to analyze the impact of a particular trade cost factor on bilateral trade flows Anderson and Van Wincoop (2003, 2004) provide the canonical model: X ij YY i Y w j tij ip 1 X is exports from i to j Y is GDP t is iceberg trade costs j Sigma is the intra-sectoral elasticity of substitution Pi and P are the multilateral resistance terms

61 2. Methodology: Inverse gravity A typical gravity paper controls for a range of factors (geography and history) and then adds another trade cost source to see whether it has a significant impact on bilateral trade NTMs and product standards RTA membership Trade facilitation Logistics performance Air or maritime connectivity Entry barriers In principle, the estimates from different gravity papers can be combined to give an overall picture of the level of trade costs, but only Anderson and Van Wincoop (2004) have done so: hence their 170% headline number 61

62 2. Methodology: Inverse gravity There are two inter-related problems with the standard approach: The focus is on one source of trade costs at a time, rather than on a comprehensive measure of total trade costs No understanding of the big picture as regard to overall trade cost Some policy forums, such as the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, have focused their trade facilitation efforts on the reduction of trade transaction costs ; but measurement and assessment of performance has proved difficult using standard techniques There is always the possibility of omitted variable bias to the extent that an omitted source of trade costs is correlated with an included one (which is highly likely) 62

63 2. Methodology: Inverse gravity The methodology is very simple, and is based on some basic algebra done with the standard gravity model Take two countries i and j That gives four gravity models for each direction of international trade, and two types of internal (intra-national) trade The four equations allow us to eliminate the two unobservable multilateral resistance terms as well as GDP, leaving just intranational and inter-national trade and intra- and inter-national trade costs Note that there is no assumption that trade is balanced or that trade costs are identical in both directions 63

64 2. Methodology: Inverse gravity Summarizing the algebra, our measure of ad valorem trade costs: ij ji tijt tiit ji jj 1 2 X 1 X ii ij X X jj ji For the purposes of our work, τ ( trade costs ) is the geometric average of trade costs from i to j and from j to i relative to intranational trade costs in each country The intuition is that keeping all else constant, a rise in the ratio of international trade relative to domestic trade must be associated with a fall in international trade costs relative to domestic trade costs Data on international trade (Xij, Xji) are relatively easy to come by, but data on intra-national trade (Xii, Xjj) are more complicated 64

65 4. Explaining trade costs (semi-partial R2*) Covariance Cost of Starting a Business Logistics Performance Index Air Connectivity Liner Shipping Connectivity Exchange Rate RTA Tariffs Same Country Common Colonizer Colony Common Language (Official) Common Language (Ethno.) Common Border Distance *the proportion of the observed variation in trade costs that is accounted for by each independent variable, after controlling for the influence of the other independent variables

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