of Materials Measurement Methods

Transcription

1 of Materials Measurement Methods Horst Czichos, Tetsuya Saito, Leslie Smith (Eds.) With CD-ROM, 970 Figures and 158 Tables Spri inger

2 XVII Contents List of Abbreviations XXIII Part A Materials Measurement System 1 Measurement Principles and Structures What Is Metrology? The Roots and Evolution of Metrology BIPM: The Birth of the Meter Convention 6 l.i* BIPM: The First 75 Years Quantum Standards: A Metrological Revolution Regional Metrology Organizations Traceability of Measurements Mutual Recognition of NMI Standards: The CIPM MRA Metrology in the 21st Century The Sl System and New Science ik References 16 2 Measurement Strategy and Quality Sampling The Traceability of Measurements Statistical Evaluation of Results 27 2.k Validation ^7 2.5 Inter-Iaboratory Comparisons and Proficiency Testing (Certified) Reference Materials Reference Procedures Accreditation and Peer Assessment 8^ 2.9 Human Aspects in a taboratory Further Reading 92 References 92 3 Materials and Their Characteristics: Overview Basic Features of Materials Classification of Materials Characterization Methods 101 References 102 Part B Measurement Methods for Compositionand Structure k Chemical Composition 105 k.l Bulk Chemical Characterization 105 k.2 Microanalytical Chemical Characterization 138 References 1^8

3 XVIII Contents 5 Nanoscopic Architecture and Microstructure Fundamentals Crystalline and Amorphous Structure Analysis Lattice Defects and Impurities Analysis Molecular Architecture Analysis Texture, Phase Distributions, and Finite Structures Analysis 217 References Surface and Interface Characterization Surface Chemical Analysis Surface Topography Ana lysis 255 References 272 Part C Measurement Methods for Materials Properties 7 Mechanical Properties Elasticity Plasticity Hardness Strength Fracture Mechanics Permeation and Diffusion 371 References Thermal Properties Thermal Conductivity and Specific Heat Capacity Enthalpy of Phase Transition, Adsorption and Mixing Thermal Expansion and Thermomechanical Analysis Thermogravimetry Temperature Sensors 417 References Electrical Properties Electrical Materials Electrical Conductivity of Metallic Materials Electrolytical Conductivity Semiconductors Measurement of Dielectric Materials Properties 472 References Magnetic Properties Magnetic Materials Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials: (Standard) Measurement Techniques for Properties Related to the B(H) Loop Magnetic Characterization in a Pulsed Field Magnetometer (PFM) Properties of Magnetic Thin Films 522 References 527

4 Contents XIX 11 Optical Properties Fundamentals of Optical Spectroscopy Micro-spectroscopy Magnetooptical Measurement Nonlinear Optics and Ultrashort Pulsed Laser Application Fiber Optics Evaluation Technologies for Optical Disk Memory Materials Optical Sensing 593 References 600 Part D Measurement Methods for Materials Performance 12 Corrosion Background Conventional Electrochemical Test Methods Novel Electrochemical Test Methods Exposure and On-Site Testing Corrosion Without Mechanical Loading Corrosion with Mechanical Loading Hydrogen-Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking High-Temperature Corrosion Inhibitor Testing and Monitoring of Efficiency 676 References Friction and Wear Definitions and Units Selection of Friction and WearTests Tribological Test Methods Friction Measurement Quantitative Assessment of Wear Characterization of Surfaces and Debris 706 References Biogenic Impact on Materials Modes of Materials - Organisms Interactions Biological Testing of Wood Testing of Organic Materials Biological Testing of Inorganic Materials Coatings and Coating Materials Reference Organisms 775 References Material-Environment Interactions Materials and the Environment Emissions from Materials Fire Physics and Chemistry 813 References 825

5 XX Contents 16 Performance Control and Condition Monitoring Nondestructive Evaluation Industrial Radiology Computerized Tomography - Application to Organic Materials Computerized Tomography - Application to Inorganic Materials Computed Tomography - Application to Composites and Microstructures Structural Health Monitoring - Embedded Sensors Characterization of Reliability A Appendix 907 References 908 Part E Modeiing and Simulation Methods 17 Molecular Dynamics Basic Idea of Molecular Dynamics Diffusionless Transformation Rapid Solidification Diffusion Summa ry 950 References Continuum Constitutive Modeiing Phenomenological Viscoplasticity Material Anisotropy Metallothermomechanical Coupling Crystal Plasticity 966 References Finite Element and Finite Difference Methods Discretized Numerical Schemes for FEM and FDM Basic Derivations in FEM and FDM The Equivalence of FEM and FDM Methods From Mechanicsto Mathematics: Equilibrium Equations and Partial Differential Equations From Mathematics to Mechanics: Characteristic of Partial Differential Equations Time Integration for Unsteady Problems Multidimensional Case Treatment of the Nonlinear Case Advanced Topics in FEM and FDM Free Codes 999 References 999

6 20 The CALPHAD Method Outline ofthe CALPHAD Method Incorporation ofthe First Principle Caiculations into the CALPHAD Approach Prediction of Thermodynamic Properties of Compound Phases with First Principle Caiculations 1019 References Phase Field Basic Concept ofthe Phase-Field Method Total Free Energy of Microstructure Solidification Diffusion-Controlled Phase Transformation Structural Phase Transformation Microstructure Evolution 1050 References Monte Carlo Simulation Fundamentals ofthe Monte Carlo Method Improved Algorithms Quantum Monte Carlo Method Bicritical Phenomena in 0(5) Model Superconductivity Vortex State Effects of Randomness in Vortex States Quantum Critical Phenomena 1086 References 1089 Appendix- International Standards 1097 Acknowledgements 1151 Aboutthe Authors 1153 Detailed Contents 1173 Subject Index 1189