How to Measure Leader s Impact on Organizational Performance: Implications from the Comparative Case Study

Public Organiz Rev DOI 10.1007/s11115-013-0268-1 How to Measure Leader s Impact on Organizational Performance: Implications from the Comparative Case Study Xuanhui Liu & Wouter Van Dooren # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014 Abstract The link between leadership and organizational performance has been a controversial issue. On the basis of the critique of previous research, this article puts forward an integrative indicator, which uses Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) as an indicator to measure the leaders impact on organizational performance. A comparative case study was applied to test the new approach. The findings show that leadership is transmitted through performance measurement, administrative ethics, and organizational learning. The organizational citizenship behavior could be employed as integrative indicator to compare leader s impact on organizational performance in the long term. A model of leadership transmitting mechanism is drawn. Keywords Leadership. Organizational performance. Performance measurement. Organizational citizenship behavior. Management control Introduction Does leadership make a difference to organizational performance? If yes, how to measure it? These questions have been heated discussed in past few decades. For example, Lieberson and O Connor (1972) assert that leadership differences have little or no impact on organizational performance. Thomas (1988) has done a comprehensive review of Lieberson & O Connor s study. He argues the methodological weakness in Lieberson & O Connor s research. Based on the evidences from the retailing sectors of the UK, Thomas s article shows that leadership does make a difference on X. Liu (*) Economics and Management School, Xi an Technological University, Weiyang District, 710016 Xi an, China e-mail: liuxuanhui@hotmail.de W. Van Dooren Department of Political Science, University of Antwerp, Sint Jacobstraat 2 (M 2.81), 2000 Antwerpen, Belgium e-mail: wouter.vandooren@ua.ac.be

X. Liu, W. Dooren organizational performance. Despite the controversial conclusion on the causality between leadership and organizational performance, the indicator selected in the two articles to measure leaders influences on organizational performance is also problematic. In these articles, the organizational performance is measured in company s profit. As we know, profit is a dynamic concept related with the company s long term development strategy and other conditions. It will be arbitrary to use profit as an indicators to show leaders impact on company s performance. Furthermore, from methodological perspective, the two periods in Lieberson & O Connor (1972) and Thomas (1988) s article are not comparable. Lieberson & O Connor s data were collected in 1946 1965 in the USA, while Thomas data were collected in 1965 1984 in the UK. The period of 1946 1965 just fell into the Golden Age of Western countries after WWII, which is an economic booming period in the Western world. The period of 1965 1984, however, caught the economic stagflation in the UK. During the Golden Age, most of the companies would make profits. It is as same as the stock market, where most people earn money in booming stage and loose money in depression period. Regarding to the issue of leadership, leadership might play a vital role in organizational performance improvement in depression period, but the company s profit might be still poor. Therefore, we argue that both Lieberson and O Connor (1972) and Thomas (1988) s conclusions are farfetched to show the leaders impact on organizational performance. We believe that leader s impacts on organizational performance are closely related with the indicator and research method. Therefore, scholars are facing the challenges of finding the proper indicator and methods on this issue. This article is based on a comparative case study of performance measurement in Chinese local government. The article is structured as follows. It firstly reviews the previous research related with leadership and organizational performance and sets up the theoretical framework to measure leader s influences on organizational performance. Afterwards it introduces the research methods in the comparative case study. Next, it analyzes the findings. The final section discusses the limitations and implications of this research. The Previous Research In this section, we attempt to make clear the causality between leadership and organizational performance and set up our theoretical framework step by step. Normally, the research on leadership can be classified into two dimensions. One dimension is leadercentered, which focuses on leaders influences and the top-down leadership transmitting mechanism. For instance, in Bass (1985) research, leadership is divided into transactional leadership and transformational leadership. Transactional leadership is a lower level leadership, which means that transactional leaders pursue a benefit, economic exchange to meet subordinates current material and physical needs in return for the contract service rendered by the subordinates (Bass 1985). In Bass (1985) s opinion, transformational leadership is the ideal type to connect leadership and organizational performance. Podsakoff et al. (1996) make further contribution in this direction. They claim that transformational leadership include six key dimensions (articulating a vision; providing an appropriate model; fostering the acceptance or group goals; high performance expectations; providing individual support; and

How to Measure Leader s Impact on Organizational Performance intellectual stimulation), which could show the leader s impact on organizational performance. House et al. (2004) claim that the leadership shows in two aspects: first, leadership means the power in decision making; second, leadership is the ability of individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute towards the effectiveness and the success of the organization of which they are members. All these definitions put the leader in the center of research agenda. The implication for practice is that leaders impact could be measured through the subordinates performance. The other dimension can be named Complexity Leadership Theory, where leadership should be seen not only as positions and authority, but also emergent, interactive, dynamic-a complex interplay from which a collective impetus for action and change emerges when heterogeneous agents interact in networks in ways that produce new patterns of behavior or new models of operating (Uhl-Bien et al. 2007, p.299). The complex leadership theory shows the latest development in organizational theory and democratic trend in organizational politics. Leadership and its impacts on organizational performance are embedded inside the organization, which is dynamic and interactive. As the democratic thoughts are accepted by more and more members, the impacts of leadership on organizational performance are the results of interaction between leaders and subordinates, formal and informal groups inside the organization, and the art of management at organizational level. Compared with the leader-centered definition, the complex leadership theory reflects the reality of organizational behavior in knowledge age. In this dimension, leaders impact on organizational performance should reflect the comprehensive results of organizational complexity and organizational learning. The organizational complexity could be summarized into two categories: complex man and complex organization (Shepard and Hougland 1978). The complex man perspective emphasizes individual differences, such as job satisfaction, attitude, value, and needs. The complex organizational learning propositions focus on the organization and context differences, such as organizational structure, organizational size, facilities, and organizational culture (Shepard and Hougland 1978). From the static perspective, the leader s impacts are reflected in how to control the organizational complexity toward organizational goals. Organizational learning increases the organizational complexity from another aspect. The complex man and complex organization will not keep unchanged. In reality, the employees and organizational factors might be changed through organizational learning. According to the definition given by Fiol and Lyles (1985), organizational learning is the process of improving actions through better knowledge and understanding. In this regard, organizational learning plays vital role in the leadership transmitting mechanism. However, the permeability between different levels is complex as well. The Individuals, groups, and the organization influence each other in multiple ways. Sessa and London (2006, pp. 7 8) lists six different formats in organizational learning: individual to group; group to individual; individual to organization; organization to individual; group to organization; and organization to group. It is obvious that the permeability increases the difficulty of controlling individual behavior in accordance with the organizational targets. Hence, it is difficult to use a single indicator to measure the leader impact on organizational performance. Meanwhile, leaders impact on organizational performance is a multi meaning concept. Mumford et al. (2008, p. 145) claim that leader s impacts are shown in three aspects: follower motivation, effective group interaction, and satisfaction with both the leader and the subordinates. In Wilderom et al empirical research, they put forward

X. Liu, W. Dooren eight criteria to evaluate the organizational performance: efficiency, customer satisfaction, managerial behavior, professional behavior, service quality, contact with clients, market position, and reputation (Wilderom et al. 2012, p. 481). The eight criteria expand the indicators in measuring the organizational performance. But some indicators are controversial, such as efficiency and service quality. Furthermore, most of the indicators are aimed at business sector, such as profit, market position, and reputation. That might be the reason why the other researchers have different indicators to measure organizational performance (e.g. Wilderom et al. 2012, p. 846). Most importantly, these indicators could only reflect the short term influences of leadership on organizational performance, such as market position and reputation, which will change constantly. It is difficult to show the results of interaction between leaders and subordinates comprehensively. In public sector, the general accepted criteria for measuring government performance are three Es (efficiency, economy, and effectiveness). These criteria might be good at measuring the overall performance of government organizations. But these indicators were products of three decades ago. Carter (1991, p. 85) argues that it intended to increase central control over service delivery as much as it was to cut cost. Three decades later, more and more indicators have been added into the government performance measurement, such as accountability, equality, quality, and so on (Wu et al. 2011). Therefore, we need to rethink the validity of the indicators of 3Es in knowledge age. The key challenge on this issue is to understand the leadership transmitting mechanism. In leadership theory, there are different perspectives about the transmitting mechanism. For example, Bass (1985) puts forwards the typology of transactional leadership and transformational leadership. In reality, the leader always combines the transactional leadership and transformational leadership together. In academic field, the scholars are still facing some difficulties in explaining the transmitting mechanism. For example, the leader-member exchange (LMX) theory claims that role exchange is the mechanism of leadership transmitting. However, this theory is questioned by many scholars (see Dienesch and Liden 1986). The questions range from the fundamental concept, such as role-making process, to the methodology. Dienesch & Liden conclude that the relation between performance and LMX model is still tenuous (Dienesch and Liden 1986, p. 622). The behavior approaches also find the complexity in the leader-subordinate transmitting process. The complexity of organizational behavior and the learning process show that there is still much to be discovered in understanding the process (Sessa and London 2006; Hernandez et al. 2011). For example, the interaction between individuals, groups, and organizations are complex, the behavior contingency increases the instability of behavior observation, so on and so forth. How to avoid the complexity and measure the leaders impact on organizational performance comprehensively are crucial issues faced by scholars. Performance measurement research gives us some inspirations on this issue. As we know, performance measurement is a result-oriented approach. In theory, the results can be measured by ratio indicators. However, limited by the shortcomings of data collection methods, the ratio indicators could only tell us one aspect of organizational performance, such as efficiency, effectiveness, or economy (Van Dooren et al. 2010). How to find the integrative indicator? Nord (1970) asserts that good management is that which leads to the desired behavior by organizational members. The organizational

How to Measure Leader s Impact on Organizational Performance behavior modification theory and management control theory develop these thoughts. Organizational behavior modification theory shows that leaders might use performance information as means in management control and a means to monitor the subordinates behavior (Luthans and Kreitner 1975; Liu and Van Dooren 2013). In this sense, performance measurement is the bridge to connect leadership and organizational performance. The managers set up the goal and control the subordinates through performance measurement and the use of performance information (see Fig. 1). We might measure the leaders impact on organizational performance through organizational behavior. Thus, we set up a theoretical framework to measure the leader s impact on organizational performance. In this framework, the organizational behavior could make up the shortcomings of static or single dimension indicators in previous research. As we know, the subordinates organizational behavior represents the interaction between leaders and subordinates. Meanwhile, the organizational behavior also shows the influences of internal and external context. In this sense, the organizational behavior could be employed as an integrative indicator to measure leader s impact on organizational performance. To make this theoretical framework more concrete, we employ the latest development in organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Organizational citizenship behavior is a kind of prosocial organizational behavior which could contribute to organizational effectiveness (Organ 1988). It meets our anticipation about the leader s impact on organizational performance. In the broad sense, OCB includes all positive organizationally relevant behaviors of individual organization members (Van Dyne et al. 1994, p. 767). The narrow definition normally refers to the specific behaviors indifferent dimensions. Van Dyne, Graham & Dienesch also give out a simply classification of OCB category. They are obedience, loyalty, and participation. Fahr et al. (2004, pp. 241 253) summarize the previous researches on OCB dimensions. The OCB dimensions include altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, civic virtue, functional participation, advocacy, participation, loyalty, inter personal harmony, social welfare participation, self training and so forth (Fahr et al. 2004, pp. 241 253). Podsakoff and Mackenzie (1997, pp. 133 151) summarize the reasons of why OCBs might influence organizational effectiveness into eight aspects, which include the following: enhancing coworker or managerial productivity; freeing up the resources Manager Goal UPI Performance Measurement Performance Measurement Subordinates OB Performance Measurement PI Fig. 1 The process of management control through performance measurement and UPI. Note: This model is based on Child s (1984) model of management control. OB means organizational behavior, PI means performance information, UPI refers to the use of performance information

X. Liu, W. Dooren for more productive purpose; reducing the need to devote scarce resources to purely maintain functions; serving as an effective means of coordinating activities between team member and across work groups; enhancing the organizations ability to attract and retain the best people by making it a more attractive place to work; enhancing the stability of organizational performance; enhancing an organization s ability to adapt to environmental changes. These behaviors are the desired behaviors show the final results of leaders impact on organizational performance. The previous studies on leadership and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) also give us some insights. For example, the research has demonstrated that transformational leadership has direct positive effects on some OCB dimensions, such as altruism, conscientiousness, civic virtue, and sportsmanship (Kim 2012, pp.875 876). More importantly, OCB grasps the key point in measuring leaders impact on organizational performance. Essentially, the leaders can do nothing to organizational performance without the subordinates cooperation. That is to say, the leaders realize organizational objectives through the subordinates performance. Based on the empirical evidences, some scholars claim that OCBs are positively related with organizational performance (cf. Podsakoff & Mackenzie 1997, p.135; Borman and Motowidlo 1993; George and Bettenhausen 1990; Karambayya 1990; MacKenzie et al. 1991, 1993; Organ 1988, 1990; Podsakoff and Mackenzie 1994; Podsakoff et al. 1993; Smithetal.1983). OCB shows us the efforts of improving performance from organizational behavior perspective. Although the leaders impact on organizational performance might be shown in many aspects, such as organizational culture, administrative ethics, organizational objectives, and so on, these efforts will finally be reflected in subordinates behavior. In this regard, OCB could be employed as an integrative indicator to show the leaders impact on organizational performance. We have noticed the merits and demerits of OCB approach in measuring leaders impact on organizational performance. The merit of OCB approach is shown in the integrative characteristic. As we have discussed, the OCB approach integrates the external and internal influences into the observable behavior, which could reflect the leaders influences on individuals. From the organizational behavior theory perspective, the overall performance of OCB could show the complex results of the interactions at individual, group, and organizational level, which also integrate internal and external influences. More importantly, it could be used as an indicator in both private and public sectors wherever the leaders and subordinate relationship exists. The shortcoming of OCB approach is shown in behavior contingency and the complexity of organizational behavior, which might increase the reliability of the research findings. The behavior contingency will decrease the representativeness of observation results. The complexity of organizational behavior is mainly shown in the interaction between different levels, such as individual, group, and organizational level. However, the demerit might be remedied by the deliberated research design. The comparative case study shows our efforts in this direction. Methods The paper is derived from a project of comparative study of performance measurement in Chinese local government. The case study was conducted in Xi an, a sub-provincial

How to Measure Leader s Impact on Organizational Performance city in Shaanxi Province, China. Four governmental agencies were selected from 86 departments. They are the Service Center, local taxation bureau, forestry bureau, and urban administration and law enforcement bureau. To test the theoretical framework, a deliberated research design was shown in research methods. The qualitative methods were employed in this research, including document research, observation method, and interviews respectively. Firstly, we use the document research to identify the best and poor performance within the local government agencies. Because of the evidence-based performance measurement, we are easy to judge the best performance from poor performance. Here, the Service Center was selected as the best practice in performance measurement, which has achieved dramatic achievements in past three years. While the other three organizations represent the poor performance related with different reasons. Following this step, we attempt to find out the relationship between leadership and organizational performance. We have checked the official documents related with organizational citizenship behavior in the best practice and poor practice, such as absence, organizational activities participation, volunteer for overtime work, make constructive suggestions/innovations, and promote organization image to outsiders. Meanwhile, in-depth interviews help us to understand the link between leadership and organizational performance from another dimension. Through the semi-structured interview, we have revealed the factors influencing the leadership transmitting mechanism comprehensively. The direct observation focuses on organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The OCB dimensions are measured in 5 point rating scale (1=very poor, 5=very good). The rating is based on the direct observation. In order to reduce the risk of behavior contingency, direct observations were conducted at least three times in each organization. Each time, the observation notes were made. The final score of each dimension of OCB is the average score of direct observation. More importantly, observation, document research, and interview method construct triangulation in data collection and results verification, which would increase the reliability of data we got and test the theoretical framework with different methods. Results The research results show that leadership and organizational performance has a positive link in the best practice. Based on the evidence of document research, the case of Service Center has achieved obvious progress in efficiency and effectiveness. The findings also show that the subordinates Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCB) have been improved obviously. That is a virtuous circle in the management control process. The leaders control subordinates organizational behavior through performance measurement. We can find that organizational performance and organizational citizenship behavior are improved simultaneously in the best practice. The observation method also supports the positive link between leadership, organizational performance, and organizational citizenship behavior. The OCB score in best practice (the Service Center) is higher than the poor cases. The comparison of OCB in four cases is shown in Table 1. The interviews have identified that the leadership will influence the organizational behavior positively through organizational learning and

X. Liu, W. Dooren Table 1 Comparison of OCB in four cases Items of OCB Service center Forestry bureau Local taxation bureau UALE bureau Obey organizational rules 5 2 3 4 Engage in self-training/self-development 4 1 2 3 Volunteer for overtime work 5 1 2 2 Contribute to public welfare (e.g., donate blood or money) 3 3 3 3 Keep workplace clean and neat 5 2 2 2 Participate in activities organized by group and organization (e.g., games, political learning) 5 2 3 3 Make constructive suggestions/innovations 5 2 2 2 Promote organization image to outsiders 5 2 2 3 Help coworkers in nonwork matters (e.g. sick, death, marriage etc.) 5 2 2 2 Take on extra responsibilities 4 1 1 2 Save the organizational resources (e.g., equipment, electricity) 4 2 2 2 Help colleagues in work-related matters 4 2 2 3 Maintain harmonious relationship and diffuse conflicts 5 3 3 3 Prohibit behavior harmful to organization 5 4 3 3 Share useful work-related information 5 2 2 2 Be patriotic 3 3 3 3 Sum 72 34 37 42 administrative ethics. The OCB shows the results of long term efforts of the organization in pursuing for high performance. The OCB could be employed as an integrative indicator to measure the leaders impact on organizational performance. Analyses Performance Measurement and Leadership Transmitting The results show that performance measurement plays a vital role in the leadership transmitting process. As we know, performance measurement is always used as an external instrument to control the subordinates behavior in management control (also see Fig. 1). The control function is realized through the rewards and punishment mechanism. From the organizational learning theory perspective, performance measurement also influences the leadership transmitting. In the top-down performance measurement process, leaders are very important in the organization. The subordinates learn from performance measurement procedure. For example, the subordinates will observe the leader on how to use the performance information. Is it justice? Is everyone equal in the rewards and punishments? How do they get the performance information? How does the leader do in the performance measurement procedure? The answers of

How to Measure Leader s Impact on Organizational Performance these questions will influence the organizational justice and subordinates attitude. In the long term, the subordinates will adjust their behavior according to learning results. In the best practice, the performance measurement process is transparent. They collect not only the subordinate performance information, but also the leader performance information. The performance is measured by quantitative indicators. No subjective assessment is involved. That is a fundamental measure to ensure the justice in performance measurement. Meanwhile, the use of performance information keeps transparent. Everyday, the performance information will be sent to all the employees. The interviews show that most of the subordinates are satisfied with the performance measurement procedure and give high evaluation to their leaders. In the poor cases, we see different situations. They adopt the traditional performance measurement method. Quantitative methods and the subjective assessment are combined in the performance information collection process. Meanwhile, performance measurement is only carried out at the subordinates level. The leader s performance measurement is charged by the upper level departments. The final use of performance information is determined by the leaders. The subordinates are excluded from decision making process. As a result, the subordinates begin to suspect the justice of performance information and the performance measurement procedure. The suspicions also result in low evaluation on the leadership. Through the comparative case study, we can find the mechanism between performance measurement and leadership transmitting clearly. The effectiveness of management control and the influences of leadership are shown in the organizational citizenship behavior. In the best practice, the leaders could use the performance information effectively in the day to day management. That is the key point for the leadership transmitting. It is an external mechanism to influence and control the subordinates behavior. Combined with the OCB results, we can find that the performance measurement procedure has casual link with subordinates behavior. The leaders performance will influence subordinates attitude and behavior. The more transparency and justice the performance measurement procedure is, the more satisfaction the subordinates will be. In this sense, the performance measurement procedure will influence the OCB positively. Administrative Ethics Administrative ethics plays the internal function in leadership transmitting. In this regard, leaders influence subordinates behavior mainly through role model and the administrative ethics in the organization. Macaulay and Lawton (2006) claim that virtuous leaders and virtuous subordinates are the basic requirements of good governance. In fact, the case study shows that administrative ethics would influence both leaders and subordinates behavior in upward spiral means. That is another mechanism to strengthen the effectiveness of management control. In turn, it will result in the different organizational performance. Leaders are always the role model in the organization. The subordinates learn from the leaders behavior in organizational routine. The administrative ethics reflects the basic requirements on both leaders and subordinates morality. The interviews in best practice show that the subordinates give high comments on the leaders morality. While in the poor cases, the good comments are vanished.

X. Liu, W. Dooren Meanwhile, the research shows that the leader s role model is strengthened by performance measurement. Some researchers have criticized that one shortcoming of transformational leadership is the leader-centered method (Meindl 1990; Klein and House 1995). They have ignored the mutual influences between leaders and subordinates. Improved by performance measurement, follower s moral development will put forward higher requirements to leaders than before. That is why some scholars suggest that transformational leadership is a reciprocal process in which leaders and followers are transformed by each other (Dvir and Shamir 2003). This proposition is supported by our empirical research. In the organizational routine, the leader s role model works not only on the subordinates behavior, but also improves the requirements on leaders administrative ethics. In the best practice, we have found the virtuous circle on administrative ethics improvement. Through performance measurement, the general administrative ethics has been improved in the best practice. The administrative ethics improvement has been strengthened by performance measurement. While in the poor cases, we could not find such link. In this sense, the case study could explain how the leaders influence subordinates inner world through performance measurement and administrative ethics. Organizational Learning To some extent, leadership depends on creating a learning environment (Fletcher 2004). With globalization and democratic values accepted by more and more people in public sector, the traditional leadership theory is facing the challenges. Fletcher (2004, p. 648) states that leadership theory shift from the single-minded focus on individual achievements to emphasis on collective achievements, social network, and shared accountability. Organizational learning is the key point to understand these changes. Since the economic reform in 1978, there have been some fundamental changes in Chinese local government. The best practice shows us the changes from traditional patriarchy leadership style to collective leadership style. From organizational learning perspective, these changes are reflected on decision making process and the relationship between leaders and subordinates. The leaders need to consider subordinates idea in important decision making process. The democratic decision making process will strengthen the organizational commitment. In this regard, it is an interaction and continuous learning between leaders and subordinates. These achievements are strengthened by performance measurement. In the best practice, the virtuous circle of organizational learning has been constructed. They have the designed organizational learning programs and un-designed organizational learning measures. The designed organizational learning includes performance measurement regulations, regular conference, political learning, and so on. Performance measurement regulations have rewards and punishments mechanism to strengthen the results of organizational learning. The regular conferences have improved the communication between leaders and subordinates. The un-designed organizational learning measures will influence the subordinates inner world, such as role model of leaders and performance-oriented organizational culture. These measures cooperate with the performance measurement procedure. The high performance culture has been constructed in the best practice. Leaders and subordinates have clear mission on striving for high performance. Compared with the best case, the poor cases still kept the traditional patriarchy leadership style. The leaders attempt to achieve high performance through strict control.

How to Measure Leader s Impact on Organizational Performance Leadership External approach: Performance Mea. Internal approach: Administrative Eth. Organizational Behavior Modification Process/Performance Management Subordinates Organizational Performance Improvement Organizational Citizenship Behavior Organizational Learning Organizational Learning Fig. 2 Leadership and organizational performance improvement This measure has conflicts with the changing situation. Without the role model of leaders, the effectiveness of organizational learning will be doubted. Furthermore, information transparency and procedure justice are problematic in the poor cases. Rewards and punishments could not be executed equally. These factors result in poor organizational performance. When the organizational performance becomes worse, the leader will strengthen control. The negative effects are amplified by the organizational learning. That is a vicious circle. In the long term, performance measurement is a continuous learning process in government organization. The comparative study shows that leadership transmitting is strengthened by performance measurement and administrative ethics. We can classify performance measurement as an external approach and administrative ethics as an internal approach. These measures work on subordinates through the management control, which is realized through performance management. It is also an organizational behavior modification process. The final results are shown in organizational performance improvement and organizational citizenship behavior. Organizational learning connects the leaders and subordinates in this process. That is a continuous learning circle in the organization. It is shown in Fig. 2. Discussions and Conclusion This article explores the issue of how to measure the leader s impact on organizational performance. Based on the literature review, we argue that leader s influences on organizational performance should be measured by an integrative indicator and new methods. We also put forward the organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) to measure leader s impact on organizational influences. Essentially, the leader s impact on organizational performance is a leadership transmitting mechanism. We attempt to measure it from the subordinates organizational behavior. More importantly, we take the mutual influences of leaders and subordinates into consideration. In our theoretical framework, leadership, performance measurement, organizational performance, and subordinates organizational citizenship behavior have logical connection. We have tested this theory through the comparative case study in Chinese local government. The findings support the proposition that OCB could reflect the leaders impact on organizational performance comprehensively. OCB, as an organizational behavior, is influenced by performance measurement, administrative ethics, and the organizational learning. In the long term, leadership transmitting mechanism is also an organizational behavior modification process.

X. Liu, W. Dooren Some scholars might argue that the complexity of organizational behavior would reduce the reliability of observation results. We acknowledge that the observation method is a bit rough compared with the survey method on OCB measurement. In the empirical case study, we increase the observation frequency to ensure the reliability of observation data. Meanwhile, it should be noticed that the general accepted survey method is also problematic (e.g., Niehoff and Moorman 1993). Normally, the interviewees know the expectation of investigators or the desired answer. In Chinese context, the survey results are always influenced by propaganda and the political pressure in public organization. It is difficult to use the quantitative methods on this issue. That is the reason why we use multi qualitative research methods on this topic. The multi research methods make a triangulation, which could make up the shortcomings of single method. To sum up, we have discussed the leadership transmitting mechanism in this article. Based on the comparison of best practice and poor cases, we have generated a model of how the leaders influence organizational performance through performance measurement in organizational routine. We also stressed the interaction between leaders and subordinates in organizational learning process and attempted to employ the organizational citizenship behavior as an indicator to measure the results. The theoretical model would have implications for private organizations as well. Further research might follow this direction and test the theory in different context. Acknowledgments The authors are grateful for valuable comments on earlier drafts from the NIG annual conference (Belgium, 2012) and anonymous POR reviewers. Special thanks to the scholarship of Erasmus Mundus for supporting our research project at Department of Political Science, University of Antwerp. References Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press. Borman, W. C., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1993). Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance. In N. Schmitt & W.C. Borman and Associates (Eds.), Personnel selection in organizations (pp. 71 98). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Carter, N. (1991). Learning to measure performance: the use of indicators in organizations. Public Administration, 69(1), 85 101. Child, J. (1984). Organization. London: Harper Row. Dienesch, R. M., & Liden, R. C. (1986). Leader-member exchange model of leadership: a critique and further development. Academy of Management Review, 11, 618 634. Dvir, T., & Shamir, B. (2003). Follower developmental characteristics as predicting transformational leadership: a longitudinal field study. Leadership Quarterly, 14, 327 344. Fahr, J., Zhang, C., & Organ, D. W. (2004). Organizational citizenship behavior in People s Republic of China. Organizational Science, 15(2), 241 253. Fiol, C. M., & Lyles, M. A. (1985). Organizational learning. The Academy of Management Review, 10(4), 803 813. Fletcher, J. K. (2004). The paradox of postheoric leadership: an easy on gender, power, and transformational change. Leadership Quarterly, 15, 647 661. George, J. M., & Bettenhausen, K. (1990). Understanding prosocial behavior, sales performance, and turnover: a group-level analysis in a service context. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 698 709. Hernandez, M., Eberly, M. B., Avolio, B. J., & Johnson, M. D. (2011). The loci and mechanisms of leadership: exploring a more comprehensive view of leadership theory. Leadership Quarterly, 22, 1165 1185. House, R. J., et al. (2004). Culture, leadership and organizations: the globe study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Karambayya, R. (1990). Contexts for organizational citizenship behavior: do high performance and satisfying units have better citizens (working paper). North York: York University.

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X. Liu, W. Dooren Wilderom, C. P. M., et al. (2012). A longitudinal study of the effects of charismatic leadership and organizational culture on objective and perceived corporate performance. Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 835 848. Wu, J., et al. (2011). Xiaonengjianshe in the comparative perspective: performance improvement, innovation, and service-oriented government. Chinese Public Administration, 3, 35 40 (in Chinese). Xuanhui Liu, PhD, is a lecturer in the Economics and Management School at Xi an Technological University. He received his PhD in social science from the University of Antwerp. His research interests include performance management, organizational behavior, and public administration theory. He is currently working on a book about performance management in Chinese local government. Wouter Van Dooren, PhD, is a professor in the political science department at the University of Antwerp. His main research interests are performance, performance measurement, and management in the public sector.