Fundamentals of Genetics 1. What scientist is responsible for our study of heredity? 2. Define heredity. 3. What plant did Mendel use for his hereditary experiments? 4. Name the 7 characteristics, giving both dominant and recessive forms of the pea plants, in Mendel s experiments. 5. In order to study pea plant traits, Mendel had to control among the plants. 6. Define pollination & name 2 types. 7. How do pea plants normally pollinate? 8. How can cross-pollination of pea plants be done? 9. How did Mendel obtain pure pea plants? 10. What is the P 1 generation? How is it obtained? 11. What is the F 1 generation &how is it obtained? 12. How did Mendel obtain his F 2 generation? 13. When Mendel crossed his P 1 plants to get the F 1 generation, what ratio did he get? 14. What is the difference between dominant & recessive genes? 15. State Mendel s law of segregation. 16. What are alleles? 17 What is the difference between genotypes & phenotypes? 18. Write the 2 genotypes for a purple flower. 19. Write the genotype for a white flower. 20. What is the difference in a homozygous and a heterozygous genotype? 21. What is probability & tell 3 ways they can be expressed. 22. What is the probability that you will get "heads" each time you flip a coin? 23. What is a monohybrid cross? 24. Give an example of a monohybrid cross. 25. What is a Punnett Square used for? 26. Sketch the Punnett Square for crossing a pure purple flower with a white flower. 27. Use a Punnett Square to solve this cross --- PP x pp. 28. What percentage of the offspring from this cross are purple? White? 29. Use a Punnett Square to solve this cross in guinea pigs --- BB x Bb. Hint: See page 174. 30. In the above cross, what coat colors & percents did you get?
31. What phenotype (coat color) would each of these guinea pig genotypes result in: a. Bb? b. BB? c. bb? 32. Use a Punnett Square to solve this cross for coat color in rabbits: Bb x Bb? 33. What percent of the rabbits will have black fur? Brown fur? What ratio does this give for coat color? 34. Define genotypic ratio. 35. What is the genotypic ratio for all F 1 crosses (bb x Bb)? 36. Define phenotypic ratio. 37. What is the phenotypic ratio for all F 1 crosses? 38. What is a testcross? 39. A testcross can determine which individual s phenotype is. 40. Use a Punnett Square to solve the following 2 testcrosses: a. BB x Bb b. bb x Bb 41. In each of the above testcrosses, tell how many offspring have black coats (dominant) and how many will have brown (recessive) coats? 42. What does complete dominance mean? 43. Give an example of complete dominance in pea plants. 44. What is incomplete dominance? 45. How many alleles influence the phenotype in: a. complete dominance? b. incomplete dominance? 46. Using four-o-clocks, give an example of how incomplete dominance occurs. Be sure to tell all possible genotypes & phenotypes. 47. Give the following ratios for crossing 2 pink four-o-clocks (Rr x Rr): a. Genotypic ratio? b. Phenotypic ratio? 48. Define codominance. 49. In what genotype does codominance appear? 50. In horses, coat color is a result of codominance. 51. Write the genotype for roan coat color & tell the color of each allele in the genotype. 52. What is a dihybrid cross?
53. How many different genotypes will result in a dihybrid cross when 2 homozygous organisms are crossed? 54. The offspring from a dihybrid cross of 2 homozygous organisms will all be. 55. Use a Punnett Square to show the results of the following cross: RrYy x RrYy 56. How many different genotypes resulted from this cross? 57. How many different phenotypes resulted from this cross? 58. Write the genotypes for each of these phenotypes: a. Round, green seeds b. Wrinkled, yellow seeds c. Wrinkled, green seeds DNA & Protein Synthesis 1. What does DNA stand for? 2. What is DNA s primary function? 3. What is the function of proteins? 4. What are the repeating subunits called that make up DNA? 5. Name the 3 parts of a DNA nucleotide. 6. Sketch and label a DNA nucleotide. 7. Name the 4 nitrogen bases on DNA. 8. What is the difference between a purine & a pyrimidine? 9. Name 2 purines. 10. Name 2 pyrimidines. 11.Who is responsible for determining the structure of the DNA molecule & in what year was this done? 12. The model of DNA is known as a because it is composed of two chains wrapped around each other. 13. What makes up the sides of a DNA molecule? 14. What makes up the "steps" of a DNA molecule? 15. How did Rosalind Franklin contribute to determining the structure of DNA? 16. What type of bonds holds the DNA bases together? Are they strong or weak bonds? 17. What makes up the "backbone" of the DNA molecule? 18. On DNA, a base will always pair with a base. 19. What is the most common form of DNA found in organisms? 20. How many base pairs are in a full turn or twist of a DNA molecule? 21. Name the complementary base pairs on DNA.
22. How many hydrogen bonds link cytosine & guanine? adenine & thymine? 23. How does the nucleotide sequence in one chain of DNA compare with the other chain of DNA? 24. Why must DNA be able to make copies of itself? 25. Define DNA replication. 26. What is the first step that must occur in DNA replication? 27. What acts as the template in DNA replication? 28. What is a replication fork? 29. What enzymes help separate the 2 strands of nucleotides on DNA? What bonds do they break? 30. What is the function of DNA polymerases? 31. are joined to replicating strands of DNA by bonds. 32. If the sequence of nucleotides on the original DNA strand was A G G C T A, what would be the nucleotide sequence on the complementary strand of DNA? 33. Does replication of DNA begin at one end and proceed to the other? Explain. 34. Why does DNA replication take place at many places on the molecule simultaneously? 35. When replication is complete, how do the 2 new DNA molecules compare to each other & the original DNA molecule? 36. Is DNA replicated (copied) before or after cell division? 37. Sketch & label DNA replication. (Figure 10-5, page 188) 38. What is the error rate in DNA replication? What helps lower this error rate to 1 in 1 billion nucleotides? 39. What is a mutation? 40. Name several things that can cause DNA mutations. 41. What sugar is found on DNA? 42. What base is missing on RNA, & what other base replaces it? 43. Uracil will pair with what other on DNA? 44. Is RNA double or single stranded? 45. Name the 3 types of RNA and tell the shape of each. 46. Which type of RNA copies DNA s instructions in the nucleus? 47. Which type of RNA is most abundant? 48. What does trna transport? 49. What 2 things make up ribosomes? 50. Define transcription. 51. In what part of a cell are proteins made?
52. What is RNA polymerase & tell its function. 53. What are promoters? 54. Where does RNA polymerase bind to the DNA it is transcribing? 55.What makes the beginning of a new gene on DNA in eukaryotes? 56. What do promoters mark the beginning of on prokaryotic DNA? 57. When a promoter binds to DNA, What happens to the double helix? 58. Are both strands of DNA copied during transcription? 59. As RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template strand, what is being added? 60. What bases pair with each other during transcription? 61. What is the termination signal? 62. What happens when RNA polymerase reaches the termination signal? 63. What are the products of transcription called? 64. Transcripts are actually molecules. 65. In transcription, s instructions for making a protein are copied by. 66. Which RNA molecules are involved in the synthesis (making) of a protein? 67. What happens to the newly made mrna molecule following transcription in the nucleus? 68. What makes up proteins, what are the subunits called, & what bonds them together? 69. How many different kinds of amino acids make up proteins? 70. What determines how protein polypeptides fold into 3-dimensional structures? 71. Why does a protein need a 3-dimensional structure? 72. What is the genetic code & why is it important? 73. What is a codon & what does each codon code for? 74. How many codons exist? 75. Name the amino acid coded for by each of these codons: a. UUA b. AUU c. UGU d. AAA e. GAG f. UAA 76. What codon starts protein synthesis? 77. What codons stop protein synthesis?
78. Proteins are synthesized (made) at what organelle in the cytosol? 79. Sketch and label a trna molecule & tell its function. 80. Define translation & tell how it starts. 81. Where are amino acids found in a cell & how are they transported? 82. What is an anticodon & where is it found on trna? 83. What codon on mrna would bind with these anticodons: (use table 10-1, page 194) a. AAA b. GGA c. UAC d. CGU 84. What are ribosomes made of and in what 2 places can they be found in a cell? 85. What is the difference between proteins made by free ribosomes & those made by attached, membrane proteins on the ER? 86. How many binding sites are found on the ribosomes and what does each site hold? 87. To start making a protein or, a ribosome attaches to the codon on the transcript. 88. The start codon, AUG, pairs with what anticodon on a trna molecule? 89. What amino acid does the start codon always carry? 90. What type of bonds are the ones that attach amino acids to each other in a growing polypeptide? 91. are linked to make proteins as a moves along the mrna transcript. 92. What ends translation? 93. Can more than one ribosome at a time translate an mrna transcript? Explain. 94. What determines the primary structure of a protein? 95. What would the translation of these mrna transcripts produce? a. UAA CAA GGA GCA UCC b. UGA CCC GAU UUC AGC DNA Technology 1. What is genetic engineering? 2. Give 2 ways it can be used. 3. What is a GMF? 4. What are some ways we are using DNA technology? 5. What are restriction enzymes? 6. When restriction enzymes cut DNA ends are created.
7. What is a cloning vector? 8. Define plasmid & tell how they re used in genetic engineering. 10. What is the first step in genetically engineering insulin from bacterial cells? 11. What is cloning? 12. What is recombinant DNA? 13. A plasmid containing recombinant DNA is inserted into a host called a organism. 14. What does transgenic mean? 15. What is a DNA fingerprint & how can they be used? 16. What is the method called that is used to make a DNA fingerprint? 17. Who is Dolly? 18. What is gel electrophoresis? 19. What causes DNA segments to separate during gel electrophoresis? 20. How accurate are DNA fingerprints & why? 21. If only a tiny amount of DNA is available for analysis, what process must be used & why? 22. What is the name of the private company in NL specializing in genetics? 23. What genetic diseases are common to NL? 24. What is the Human Genome Project? 25. Define gene therapy and name several diseases it may be used to treat. 26. Name a medicine produced by DNA technology. 27. What is a founder population? 28. Name several crops or plants that have had their yields increased due to genetic engineering. 29. Name two genetically modified plants?. 30. How are genetic engineers working to solve the problem of expensive herbicides for crops? 31. What are some concerns about genetically engineered foods? Chromosomes & Inheritance 1. Geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan conducted breeding experiments with what animal? 2. How many pairs of chromosomes are found in Drosophila. 3. Are the chromosomes in male & female fruit flies the same? Explain. 4. What did Morgan name the 2 chromosomes in the non-identical pair? 5. Describe the shape of the 2 chromosomes in the non-identical pair. 6. Morgan hypothesized that the non-identical pair were the chromosomes.
7. All other chromosomes except X and Y are called. 8. What is the genotype for males? Females? 9. When male & female fruit flies are crossed, what percent of the offspring will be male? Female? 10. Because the X chromosome was much bigger than the Y chromosome, what did Morgan hypothesize? 11. Genes on the X chromosome are genes. 12. What is meant by sex linkage? 13. Did Morgan s experiments prove or disprove the existence of sex-linked traits? 14. Name a trait that Morgan discovered was carried on the X chromosome in fruit flies. 15. Use a Punnett Square to show the results of crossing a red-eyed female (X R X R ) with a whiteeyed male X r Y. 16. Use a Punnett Square to show the results of crossing a red-eyed female (X R X r ) with a redeyed male XRY. 17. What are linkage groups? 18. What 2 fruit fly traits did Morgan discover were linked? 19. What is the effect of crossing-over on genes? 20. Do genes that are close together or far apart get crossed over more often? 21. What is a chromosome map? 22. What scientist made a chromosome map of Drosophila? 23. How is one amp unit determined? 24. What is germ cell mutation & what is its effect? 25. What are somatic mutations, give an example, & can they be passed on to offspring? 26. What are lethal mutations? 27. What are chromosome mutations? 28. Name & describe 4 types of chromosome mutations. 29. What are gene mutations? 30. What are point mutations? 31. What are substitutions & give an example of a disease caused by this type of gene change? 32. What are frame shift mutations? 33. What is a pedigree? 34. Write the symbol that would appear on a pedigree for each of the following: a. Male carrier? b. Male with trait? c. Female carrier?
d. Female with trait? 35. Name several single allele traits (both dominant & recessive). 36. Name 3 sex-linked traits. 37. What are polygenic traits and name four. 38. What influences the expression of a sex-influenced trait? 39. Name & describe 2 types of nondisjunction. 40. What causes Down syndrome? 41. When would genetic screening be useful? 42. What is amniocentesis?