DRINKING WATER SUPPLY AND AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION

DRINKING WATER SUPPLY AND AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION

ENVIRONMENT & POLICY VOLUME 11 The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.

Drinking Water Supply and Agricultural Pollution Preventive Action by the Water Supply Sector in the European Union and the United States Edited by Geerten J.I. Schrama University oftwente, The Netherlands This research project has been funded, under contract number EV5V-CT94-0368, by: EUROPEAN COMMISSION DIRECTORATE-GENERAL XII SCIENCE, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Directorate D - RTD Actions: Environment Research into economic and social aspects of the environment... " SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-94-010-6145-2 ISBN 978-94-011-5106-1 (ebook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-5106-1 Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved 1998 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1998 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1998 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner

TABLE OF CONTENTS PART ONE Chapter 1. Introduction 3 Geerten J./. Schrama 1.1 Water management 3 1.1.1 Scarcity and pollution of drinking water resources 3 1.1.2 Agricultural water pollution 5 1.2 Steering problem 10 1.3 Content of the research project 11 1.3.1 Research questions 11 1.3.2 Research design 11 1.3.3 Results of the project 13 1.3.4 Policy relevance 14 1.3.5 Theoretical framework 14 1.4 Organization of the research project 15 1.5 Layout of the book 16 References 17 Chapter 2. Theoretical Framework 19 Geerten J.l. Schrama 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Policy networks 21 2.2.1 Delineation of the concept 21 2.2.2 Policy communities versus issue networks 21 2.2.3 Policy network characteristics 22 2.2.4 Policy networks and policy issues 24 2.3 Policy styles 26 2.4 Policy instruments 29 2.4.1 Policy instruments and organizational resources 30 2.4.2 Policy network characteristics and policy instruments choice 32 2.4.3 Application to the present policy issue 33 2.5 Control capacity of the water supply sector 34 2.5.1 Mission and orientation 34 2.5.2 Organizational resources 35 2.5.3 Steering strategies 36 2.6 Summary 38 References 40 PART TWO 43 Chapter 3. Policy Framework - European Union 45 Ellis L.M. Brand, Kenneth I. Han/, and los Lipman 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Regulatory framework 46

vi 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 Water quality policy of the EU Water quality legislation EU agricultural policy (CAP) 3.2.4 Pending policy developments 3.2.5 Conclusions 3.3 Policy network 3.3.1 General institutional context of the EU 3.3.2 Water supply sector 3.3.3 Agricultural sector 3.3.4 Others 3.3.5 Network dynamics: linkages and dependencies 3.4 Conclusions References Chapter 4. Control Capacity - European Union Ellis L.M. Brand, Kenneth I. Hanf, and los Lipman 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Actual control capacity 4.3 Prospects of increasing the control capacity 4.3.1 Authority and legitimacy 4.3.2 Organizational capacity 4.3.3 Legitimacy (political support) 4.3.4 Financial capacity 4.3.5 Information 4.3.6 Confidence and trust 4.4 Conclusions References Interviews Chapter 5. Policy Framework - Germany Ralph Piotrowski and R. Andreas Kraemer 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Environmental awareness 5.1.2 German political framework 5.1.3 Differences in water and agricultural policy 5.2 Agricultural pollution of drinking water resources 5.2.1 Nutrients 5.2.2 Pesticides 5.3 Regulatory framework 5.3.1 Water protection zones 5.3.2 Influencing farming practices in water protection zones 5.3.3 Abstraction charges and advice to farmers 5.4 Policy network 5.4.1 Water policy networks relating to agriculture 5.4.2 Agriculture policy networks relating to water management 5.4.3 Interfaces and overlaps 47 50 56 58 60 61 61 65 67 68 69 71 71 73 73 74 77 78 82 85 87 88 89 90 90 91 93 93 94 95 97 98 99 101 103 104 106 108 108 110 116 118

vii 5.5 Conclusions 120 References 121 Chapter 6. Control Capacity - Germany 123 R. Andreas Kraemer and Ralph Piotrowski 6.1 Introduction 123 6.2 Actual control capacity and its application 125 6.2.1 Legal instruments 125 6.2.2 Beyond legal regulation: co-operation 133 6.2.3 Influencing values: co-ordination 137 6.2A No instrument: fleeing from pollution 139 6.3 Prospects for increasing control capacity 139 6.3.1 Water protection zones 140 6.3.2 Organic farming: high potential but not popular 141 6.3.3 Effects of compensation payments on agricultural practices 142 6.3A Support from authorities 143 6A Conclusions 144 References 146 Chapter 7. Policy Framework - The Netherlands 149 Stefan M.M. Kuks 7.1 Introduction 149 7.1.1 Water supply in the Netherlands 149 7.1.2 Dutch case study 154 7.2 Regulating nitrates as a source of groundwater pollution 157 7.2.1 Nitrates and the ED drinking water standards 157 7.2.2 Regulatory framework for nitrates at the national level 158 7.2.3 Manure policy (first and second phase): the soil protection act and the fertilizers act 159 7.2A Manure policy (third phase) and the ED groundwater directive 161 7.3 Regulating pesticides as a source of groundwater pollution 164 7.3.1 Pesticides and the ED drinking water standards 164 7.3.2 Regulatory framework for pesticides at the national level 167 7.3.3 Pesticides use and the 'long term crop protection plan' 170 7.3A Registration of pesticides and the 'pesticides approval commission' 171 7 A A policy network point of view: the dynamics of agricultural issues in the water supply sector 172 7 A.l Water supply sector growing into a policy community 172 7 A.2 Water supply sector encountering the agricultural sector in an issue network 173 7 A.3 Consultations between water supply companies and farmer organizations 175

viii 7.5 Another policy network point of view: the dynamics of environmental issues in the agricultural sector 177 7.5.1 Traditional agricultural network 177 7.5.2 Changes in the traditional network and consequences for the choice of instruments 179 References 186 List of abbreviations 190 Chapter 8. Control Capacity - The Netherlands 191 Stefan M.M. Kuks 8.1 Introduction 191 8.2 Preventive strategies on the provincial level 193 8.2.1 Period 1988-1991 193 8.2.2 Period 1991-1995 196 8.3 Comparison of the five selected provinces 198 8.3.1 Water supply companies 198 8.3.2 Agricultural pollution of water sources 200 8.3.3 Policy approaches towards agricultural pollution of water sources 201 8.4 Motives of water suppliers 207 8.4.1 Motives of the water supply companies 208 8.4.2 Motives of the provincial authorities 210 8.4.3 Moti ves of the farmers 211' 8.4.4 Motives of the farmer's organizations 211 8.5 Resources of water suppliers 212 8.5.1 Organizational capacity 213 8.5.2 Financial capacity 215 8.5.3 Information 217 8.5.4 Confidence 219 8.5.5 Authority 220 8.5.6 Time 221 8.6 Conclusions on the control capacity of water suppliers 222 8.6.1 Influence of the problem context 222 8.6.2 Influence of the regulatory context 223 8.6.3 Influence of the network context 224 8.6.4 Motives of water suppliers 225 8.6.5 Resources needed by water suppliers 227 8.6.6 Susceptibility to resources on the farmer's side 228 References 230 Chapter 9. Policy Framework - England and Wales 231 Jeremy J. Richardson 9.1 Policy Problem 231 9.1.1 Behavior changing actions 231 9.1.2 Problem indicators 234 9.2 Regulatory framework 241

ix 9.2.1 Regulation of the water industry 242 9.2.2 Regulation of pesticides 246 9.2.3 Regulation of agriculture 247 9.3 Other policy actors 248 References 250 Chapter 10. Control Capacity - England and Wales 253 Jeremy J. Richardson 10.1 'Regulation' in practice: consensus building, joint problem solving and self-regulation? 253 10.1.1 Regulation of nitrates: shifting from a consensual to an impositional regulatory style? 254 10.1.2 'Evangelising' as a policy instrument: mobilising the affected interests 259 10.1.3 Private 'regulation' 263 10.2 Policy options: policy succession and consensus building or radical policy change? 268 10.2.1 Licensing pesticides: increased attention to water issues via incremental policy change 269 10.2.2 More ofthe same: improving liaison and co-ordination between policy actors 270 10.2.3 Radical policy options 271 10.2.4 Relevance of Europe 273 References 276 PART THREE 279 Chapter 11. Comparative Analysis 281 Geerten J.I. Schrama 1l.l Introduction 281 11.2 Policy issues, policy networks, and policy styles 281 11.2.1 Agricultural sector 283 11.2.2 Policy issues and policy styles 284 11.2.3 Water policy networks 287 11.2.4 Agricultural pollution of drinking water resources 288 11.2.5 Conclusions 289 11.3 Policy instruments 290 11.3.1 Policy instruments aimed directly at farmers 291 11.3.2 Water supply sector involved in implementation 291 11.3.3 Policy instruments aimed at the water supply sector 293 11.3.4 Conclusions 293 11.4 Actual control capacity of the water supply sector 294 11.4.1 Mission and orientation 295 11.4.2 Organizational resources 296

x 11.4.3 Steering strategies 300 11.4.4 Conclusions 302 References 304 INTERMEZZO 305 Chapter 12. Policy Framework - United States 307 Laurence J. OToole, Jr. 12.1 Introduction 307 12.2 Problem of agricultural pollution of drinking water resources 309 12.3 Regulatory framework 311 12.3.1 National regulation 311 12.3.2 Subnational regulation 315 12.4 Policy network: national overview 317 12.5 Illustrative cases 322 12.5.1 New York 323 12.5.2 California 327 12.5.3 Iowa 333 12.5.4 Wisconsin 335 12.6 Conclusions 337 References 338 Chapter 13. Control Capacity - United States 341 Laurence 1. OToole, Jr. 13.1 Introduction 341 13.2 Actual control capacity and its application 342 13.2.1 Natural resources 343 13.2.2 Organizational capacity 344 13.2.3 Financial resources 347 13.2.4 Informational resources 348 13.2.5 Confidence 349 13.2.6 Authority 350 13.2.7 Time 351 13.3 Prospects for increasing control capacity 352 13.3.1 Regulating as 'sine qua non' 352 13.3.2 Developing a national groundwater policy 353 13.3.3 Dealing with self-imposed constraints 353 13.3.4 Removing policy instruments that discourage problem-solving behavior 355 13.3.5 Enhancing sectoral organization and supporting agricultural allies indirectly 355 13.3.6 Enhancing financial resources in the water supply sector 357 13.3.7 Improving information resources 360 13.3.8 Building confidence 361

xi 13.3.9 Enhancing authority 13.3.10 Playing fortime 13.4 Conclusions References PART THREE - CONTINUED Chapter 14. To Reinforce Control Capacity? Geerten J.I. Schrama 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Economic incentives 14.3 Legal regulation 14.4 Communicative steering 14.5 Contacts between the water supply sector and the agricultural sector References 362 363 363 364 365 367 367 369 369 371 373 375