Technical Cooperation Contents. -Extension of Organic Agriculture Techniques for. Assistance to Small Scale Farmers Groups - English version

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1 Technical Cooperation Contents -Extension of Organic Agriculture Techniques for Assistance to Small Scale Farmers Groups - English version Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) Tsukuba International Center December, 2007

2 Copyright Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), 2007 All rights reserved First published by Japan International Cooperation Agency Tsukuba International Center (JICA TSUKUBA) Program Team II in , Koyadai, Tsukuba City, Ibaraki Prefecture Tel: Fax:

3 1. Text (English)

4 Introduction

5 Module 0 Principles of Organic Agriculture

6 Module 0: Principles of Organic Agriculture Table of Contents [1] Unit 0.1.1: Principles of Organic Agriculture Development of Japanese Organic Agriculture... 1 Expansion of Conventional Agriculture...1 Reemergence of Organic Agriculture...1 Principles of Japanese Organic Agriculture... 3 Principles of Japanese Organic Agriculture...3 Current State of Japanese Organic Agriculture... 4 Current State of Japanese Organic Agriculture...4 New Developments in Japanese Organic Agriculture...5 Lessons from Japanese Organic Agriculture... 7 Lessons from Japanese Organic Agriculture...7

7 [1] Unit 0.1.1: Principles of Organic Agriculture [1] Principles of Organic Agriculture Objective: To understand the principles of Japanese organic farming and clarify the objective of studying Organic Agriculture. Goals: 1. To understand the principles of Japanese Organic Agriculture. 2. To be able to explain one s thoughts regarding the lessons of Japanese Organic Agriculture. 1 Development of Japanese Organic Agriculture Expansion of Conventional Agriculture With its temperate climate, abundant rainfall and fertile soil, the environment in Japan is well suited to agriculture, and the Japanese people have long adapted their agricultural practices to the natural environment and culture of Japan. However, from the 1960s onward, Japanese policy has pushed for increased agricultural productivity and economic efficiency. Thus, chemical fertilizers to allow for more efficient introduction of nutrients needed for crops and labor-saving synthetic agricultural chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides (hereinafter referred to as synthetic agricultural chemicals ) began to be used. Agriculture also became more mechanized in order to increase labor intensity. Furthermore, farmers became increasingly specialized in either crop cultivation or livestock breeding. This agricultural style is known as Conventional Agriculture. The essence of Conventional Agriculture is the pursuit of rationality within a market economy system. In Japan, as elsewhere, Conventional Agriculture has become the norm, with the result being a significant increase in the productivity and economic efficiency of Japanese agriculture. Reemergence of Organic Agriculture Conventional Agriculture has contributed to increased agricultural productivity; however, it has also been responsible for a variety of problems. The first such problem is the pollution of rivers and seas with synthetic agricultural chemicals and, chemical fertilizers. Furthermore, it has been found that the long-term, continued use of chemical fertilizers for monocropping and continuous cropping lowers soil fertility, increases the frequency of disease and insect damage, and does not enable productivity to be sustained at high levels. Added to this is the health risks posed to the farmers themselves from the use of synthetic agricultural chemicals and chemical fertilizers; thus, even amongst producers, a movement questioning the desirability of Conventional Agriculture has begun. 1 1 Module 0 Principles of Organic Agriculture Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 Module 4

8 Module 0 Principles of Organic Agriculture Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 [1] Principles of Organic Agriculture At the same time, consumers are increasingly concerned about food safety and environmental issues and are voicing doubts about Conventional Agriculture. This increasing interest in and move towards Organic Agriculture by farmers and consumers is not just a Japanese phenomenon, it is happening throughout the world. However, some issues exist which are characteristic of Japan s agriculture. The first issue is the ageing of Japanese society and the decline in the number of agricultural workers. In 1960, the total number of farms was 6.05 million; by 2005, however, this number had dropped by more than half to 2.85 million. On top of this is the fact that now close to 60% of agricultural workers in Japan are 65 years old or older 1. The second issue concerns the food self-sufficiency ratio. This ratio has gone from 79% in 1960 to 40% by These two issues are provoking a sense of alarm among the Japanese people, leading many to fear that if this situation remains unchanged, Japanese agriculture and Japanese food will collapse. And this is increasingly leading more and more people to seriously consider Organic Agriculture. Organic Agriculture in Japan was first championed by the Japan Organic Agriculture Association, founded in The association s goal was not merely to popularize Organic Agriculture but to consider the issue of what Japanese agriculture should be and how it should be distributed, as well as to help improve Japanese eating habits, lifestyle and society. And they attempt to promote Organic Agriculture by creating a coalition between farmers and consumers, called Teikei. This coalition is defined by the Japan Organic Agriculture Association as a group purchasing system involving specific producers (including producer groups) and specific consumers (consumer groups, co-ops, etc.) who interact with one another for the purpose of increasing mutual understanding as well as labor and financial cooperation, and who engage in an ongoing commerce in agricultural products via voluntary, independent shipping from producer bases to consumer bases (known as shipping posts, stations, etc.), with some 3 to 10 member households per base. In other words, this is not the existing distribution system; rather, a new distribution system that involves the direct transaction of organic produce between farmers and consumers, relying on the trust between the two. This structure of this coalition-based system is suited to organic produce and has contributed greatly to the development of Japanese Organic Agriculture. Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4 In this way, over many years, Japanese agriculture has grown and developed, not simply as a change in the agricultural situation but as a social movement as well. In the next section, we will examine the foundations of the Principles of Organic Agriculture. 1 Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Census of Agriculture and Forestry web page < 2 Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Food Balance Sheet web page < 1 2

9 2 Principles of Japanese Organic Agriculture Principles of Japanese Organic Agriculture [1] Principles of Organic Agriculture Module 0 Principles of Organic Agriculture According to the Japan Organic Agriculture Association, the principles of Japanese Organic Agriculture seek to achieve the following. Production of safe, high-quality food Produce safe, high-quality food in sufficient quantities to contribute to a healthy diet. Protection of the environment Minimize the amount of environmental pollution and destruction that results from agriculture to ensure the health of the ecosystem, including microorganisms, soil organisms and plants and animals. Harmonious co-existence with Nature Utilize local renewable resources and energy and make use of Nature s productive capacity. Local self-sufficiency and recycling Establish a base of food self-sufficiency as well as local renewable resource and energy self-sufficiency and recycling in order to achieve local self-sustainability. Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Module 2 Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Maintenance and promotion of soil fertility Maintain and promote soil fertility by producing living soil. Protection of biodiversity Ensure that biodiversity is maintained by conserving the diversity of cultivated varieties, feed varieties, and wild varieties. Organic Agricultural Technology Module 3 Safeguarding of a healthy feed environment Respect the natural diets of animals to ensure the health of feed stock. Ensuring human rights and fair employment conditions Guarantee a safe, healthy working environment, independently fair employment conditions, sufficient pay and a sense of satisfaction. 1 3 Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4

10 Module 0 Principles of Organic Agriculture Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 1 Module 2 [1] Principles of Organic Agriculture Cooperation between producers and consumers Build an amicable, prominent relationship between producers and consumers to create a foundation of mutual understanding and trust from which to promote Organic Agriculture together. Promotion of the value of agriculture and creation of a society that values life Build a society that respects life and values the social, cultural, educational and ecological significance of agriculture and agricultural communities. 3 3 Current State of Japanese Organic Agriculture Current State of Japanese Organic Agriculture (1) Japan s Organic Agricultural Products Certification System In 2000, the Japanese Agricultural Standards for Organic Agricultural Products (Organic JAS) were established as a certification system for Japanese organic agricultural products. These standards were created based on the Codex Alimentarius. Currently in Japan, only those products which satisfy Organic JAS can be certified as organic agricultural products with the Organic JAS Mark. Fig. [1]-1 Organic JAS Mark (Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Organic Agricultural Technology Module 3 Fisheries Food Labeling and JAS website) Organic JAS specify the following as the basis for organic agricultural product production: The fundamental basis for maintaining and improving the natural cyclical function of agriculture is to avoid the use of synthetic agricultural chemicals and chemical fertilizers and to adopt cultivation management methods which maximize the productive capacity of farmland through soil quality and which minimize the burden of agricultural production on the environment. 4 The following are key points regarding production methods: Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4 Soil is prepared through the use of such materials as compost and, as a rule, no chemical fertilizers or synthetic agricultural chemicals have been used for two years or more prior to 3 Japan Organic Agriculture Association s Organic Agriculture-related Basic Standards 2000 web page < 4 Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Japanese Agricultural Standards for Organic Agricultural Products web page 1 4

11 [1] Principles of Organic Agriculture seeding / planting (in the case of perennial cultivars, three years or more prior to harvesting) and are not used during cultivation. Genetically modified seeds are not used. (2) Market Size The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan has performed ongoing research into the production volume of organic agricultural products since the establishment of Organic JAS. For example, they found that, in 2005, producers who received Organic JAS certification produced 48,000 tons of agricultural products (0.16% of Japan s total agricultural production volume), and the number of farms was found to be approximately 5,500. These findings, however, are limited to only those producers with Organic JAS certification. Even among those producers within the Japanese organic agricultural community who are not certified according to Organic JAS, a large number refrain from using chemical fertilizers and synthetic agricultural chemicals and effectively practice organic cultivation. These producers, however, are unable to label their products as Organic Agricultural Products. But, thanks to the coalition of producers and consumers, Teikei, discussed earlier, producers are able to sell their products directly to consumers. The sales structure created through this coalition is a notable feature of Japanese Organic Agriculture. Accurate figures for the number of uncertified organic farmers and their production volume are not currently available, but it is said to comprise 1% or less of Japan s organic agricultural products 5. The volume of imported organic agricultural products from overseas, on the other hand, continues to increase annually. In 2005, 1.44 million tons of all agricultural products certified as organic came from overseas 6. Module 0 Principles of Organic Agriculture Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 New Developments in Japanese Organic Agriculture There are a variety of changes affecting the environment of Japanese Organic Agriculture. Of particular significance is the policy push by the government to initiate a system for promoting Organic Agriculture. Organic Agricultural Technology As explained earlier, Japan has a certification system for organic agricultural products, known as Organic JAS, which has been established by law. This system allows consumers to identify which agricultural products are organic and which are not. However, at the same time, the amount of imported Organic < 5 Norikaze Nakajima, author and editor. Chiiki ni hirogaru Yuki-nogyo Inochi to No no Ronri [The Spread of Local Organic Agriculture The Logic of Life and Agriculture], Chapter 6 Yuki-nogyo-sui-shin-ho wo tsukuro [ Towards the creation of an Organic Agriculture Promotion Law ] (Toshiki Imai), P172 6 Includes imported goods certified in countries with systems equivalent to the Organic JAS certification system (EU15, America, Australia, and Switzerland). 1 5 Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4

12 Module 0 Principles of Organic Agriculture Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 Module 4 [1] Principles of Organic Agriculture JAS-certified agricultural products and processed goods is increasing each year. The reason for this is that the Organic JAS system is centered on quality labeling control; no law exists to promote assistance for producers involved in or who wish to be involved in Organic Agriculture. In 2006, a new Organic Agriculture Promotion Law was created. The aim of this law is to establish Japan s basic stance regarding the promotion of Organic Agriculture, to identify the responsibilities of the national and local governments in comprehensively implementing measures for promoting Organic Agriculture. The basic stance promoted by this law is given below. 1 Make it easier for farmers to engage in organic agriculture. 2 Enable farmers and others to actively engage in the production, distribution and sale of agricultural products cultivated via organic agriculture, and enable consumers to easily obtain agricultural products cultivated via organic agriculture. 3 Promote linkages between consumers and organic farmers and others engaged in organic agriculture. 4 Promote organic agriculture while respecting the autonomy of organic farmers and others engaged in organic agriculture. Based on the provisions of this law, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries created its Basic Policy on the Promotion of Organic Agriculture, which it announced in April This policy says that the five year period from 2007 to 2011 shall be a condition adjustment period for organic agriculture promotion and sets the following four items as targets to be achieved by Development and systemization of organic agriculture-related technology (Goal) Establish a technological system for organic agriculture that allows quality and yield to be stably ensured. 2 Strengthening of supervision for the expansion of organic agriculture (Goal) Ensure that 100% of prefectures have a developed supervisory system for organic agriculture through the use of organic agriculture expansion supervisors. 3 Improvement in consumer understanding of organic agriculture (Goal) Increase to 50% or higher the number of consumers who understand that organic agriculture is environmentally-balanced farming that uses no chemical fertilizers or pesticides. 4 Creation of organic agriculture promotion programs in each prefecture and strengthening of organic agriculture promotion systems (Goal) Ensure that 100% of prefectures create and implement programs for promoting organic agriculture. Ensure that 100% of prefectures and 50% or more of towns and cities work to improve systems which promote organic agriculture through the involvement of organic farmers, pro-organic agriculture citizen groups, distributors, sellers, commercial buyers, consumers, administrative departments and agencies, agricultural groups, and others. 1 6

13 4 [1] Principles of Organic Agriculture Lessons from Japanese Organic Agriculture Lessons from Japanese Organic Agriculture Module 0 Principles of Organic Agriculture Japanese Organic Agriculture has arrived at its present state through a long process of trial and error, and, more than anything else, its achievements are the result of some 30 years of faith and perseverance on the part of those actually involved in the cultivation of organic agricultural products. Unlike the large-scale farming of the United States and Europe, Japanese Organic Agriculture is small-scale, based on individual family units. Therefore, it has a wealth of experience to share with other small-scale farmers throughout the world. The following are some topics for further discussion. (1) Revitalization of Indigenous Agriculture In the process of modernizing farming in Japan, venerable farming technologies, soil utilization techniques, and cultivated varieties have been lost, and most Conventional Agriculture now involves the use of a great many synthetic agricultural chemicals and chemical fertilizers. However, is this sort of Conventional Agriculture sustainable? Would not the complete loss of Indigenous Agriculture pose a major problem in the long term? This is why Japanese Organic Agriculture aims to revitalize Indigenous Agriculture, tailoring it to the individual environments and cultures of Japan. (2) Local Resources Recycling and Self-sufficiency for Farms Conventional Agriculture pursues methods which are labor-saving and economically efficient within a market economy. Should the future of small-scale farms, however, also be considered within the same framework? In terms of market economic principles, large-scale farms have capital strength and competitive power, making it far from easy for small-scale farms to compete with them. The first thing that Japanese Organic Agriculture aims to achieve is a healthy, stable lifestyle for families engaged in agriculture. And this is being achieved not through economic efficiency but by maximizing local resource recycling (i.e., resources belonging to the farm or those which can be procured from the local region). Instead of being worn down by market competition and other external forces, Japanese organic farmers seek to establish their independence and to engage in farming based upon their own choices and decisions to provide their households with stability and happiness. (3) Rebuilding the Relationship between Producers and Consumers and Achieving Regional Self-sufficiency and Autonomy One feature of the Japanese Organic Agriculture movement that occurred in the 1970s was the beginning of a coalition between producers and consumers. Premised on farm self-sufficiency, the further step of creating a visible relationship between the lives of those who cultivate food and those who eat it was 1 7 Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Module 2 Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 3 Organic Agricultural Technology Module 4 Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers

14 Module 0 Principles of Organic Agriculture Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Module 1 [1] Principles of Organic Agriculture built upon the idea that the ample dining table of the urban consumer was an extension of the ample dining table of the self-reliant farmer. This effort to connect producers and consumers continues, deepening the level of interaction between urban and rural areas; however, today, this coalition is becoming increasingly diverse, linking consumers with not only producers but also farming associations, co-ops, processors and distributors, direct-from-the-farm suppliers and more. In this way, with the development of organic, personal connections based on a foundation of trust, a self-sustaining market can be created through Organic Agriculture, making the outlook increasingly optimistic for achieving regional self-sufficiency and autonomy. (4) Moving towards the Thinking Farmer It is fair to say that the history of Japanese Organic Agriculture is the history of thinking. The important question is, it would seem, What are farmers thinking of? One answer could be increasing convenience and economic efficiency, but those engaged in Japanese Organic Agriculture have a more long-term perspective, asking themselves what is best in terms of agriculture, food, society and culture. Module 2 Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 3 Organic Agricultural Technology Box [1] Rolex Awards - Revival of Traditional Andean Agriculture - Peruvian agronomist Zenón Porfidio Gomel Apaza has been selected as an Associate Laureate for the 2006 Rolex Awards. He found that modern agricultural techniques increase the risk of reduced biodiversity, deteriorated and depleted soil and social breakdown in farming communities. He also came to the conviction that nearly all of the knowledge necessary for increasing crop yields is to be found in ancestral cultures passed down over many generations. These methods involved the diversification of seeds and tubers together with traditional methods of preparing the soil. Furthermore, Gomel Apaza goes on to state that, When residents are able to reaccept their local culture, passed down over many generations, which emphasizes caring for the environment and respect for one s neighbor, then the condition of the local community will change. It would seem that Mr. Gomel Apaza s thoughts echo the principles of Japanese organic agriculture. Source: Rolex Awards 2006 Laureates web page < Reference Literature Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4 Norikaze Nakajima. (2006) Chiiki ni hirogaru Yuki-nogyo Inochi to No no Ronri [The Spread of Local Organic Agriculture: The Logic of Life and Agriculture]. Commons Japan Organic Agriculture Association, ed. (1999) Yuki-nogyo Handobuku Tsuchi-dzukuri kara Tabekata made [The Organic Agriculture Handbook: From Soil Preparation to Eating]. Rural Culture Association Kaneko Yoshinori. (2003) Kaneko-sanchi no Yuki-katei Sai-en [Ms. Kaneko s Organic Home Gardening]. Ie-no-Hikari Association 1 8

15 CASE Case Study [1]-1: Case Title: Yoshinori Kaneko s Shimosato Farm [1] Principles of Organic Agriculture CASE 1-1 Case Overview / Explanation Yoshinori Kaneko has spent more than 30 years engaged in Organic Agriculture, seeking to cultivate an abundance of safe, healthy agricultural products that provide him with food self-sufficiency in an environmentally-friendly manner. Currently, he has more than 60 different agricultural products that he cultivates regularly. He has created an Open Price System for consumers and works to build organic personal relationships based on trust with them. Kaneko says, Organic Agriculture is about protecting the natural ecosystem and practicing farming that does not damage or destroy the environment; it is about returning to this fundamental principle as the means for achieving sustainable agriculture. Since 1971, Yoshinori Kaneko has practiced Organic Agriculture at his farm in Ogawa-machi, Saitama Prefecture, located about 60km northwest of Tokyo. Blessed with mountains, clear streams and rich soil, Ogawa-machi has long had the appearance of a traditional Japanese farming village; and for the past 36 years it has been home to Shimosato Farm, Kaneko s organic farm. At the time that Kaneko first began practicing Organic Agriculture, Japanese Conventional Agriculture was focused on streamlining and economic efficiency; it was also the period when agrochemical-related public health problems were beginning to surface. Kaneko felt that agriculture should focus on cultivating safe, good tasting and nutritious foods and should strive to achieve environmentally-friendly food self-sufficiency. The means for accomplishing this, he believed, was through Organic Agriculture. Module 0 Principles of Organic Agriculture Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 Although he has practiced Organic Agriculture for many years, Kaneko is still struck by the amazing ability of the nature to recycle itself. Kaneko describes his idea on Organic Agriculture as follows. In order to cultivate food which is safe, good tasting and nutritious, it is important not to use chemical fertilizers or synthetic agricultural chemicals, but, instead, to make use of Nature s organic cycle. With modern agriculture, plants only absorb inorganic substances, which is a terrible mistake. At locations that practice Conventional Agriculture, disease and pest damage are frequent problems, and they noticeably suffer from replant failure, lower productivity, and degraded quality. And despite the inability of modern agronomics to understand the problems of Conventional Agriculture, farmers use even more chemical fertilizers and synthetic agricultural chemicals, creating a vicious cycle which ultimately results in lethal soil and lethal farming methods which wipe out the habitat for living organisms in the soil. Shimosato Farm is a bustling place, with 1.3ha of fields, 1.5ha of rice paddies, 1.7ha of forest, 2 head of 1 9 Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4

16 Module 0 Principles of Organic Agriculture Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 Module 4 [1] Principles of Organic Agriculture CASE 1-1 dairy cattle, 200 chickens, an assortment of other animals, and an abundance of over 60 kinds of safe, tasty, and nutritious vegetables grown throughout the year. Kaneko believes that the key to the Organic Agriculture that makes all of this possible lies in soil preparation. Thus, he makes and uses compost, fermented and liquid fertilizers. He uses a variety of organic matters, including grass and weeds and animal manure from his farm and branches and leaves from the surrounding area, to make fertilizer. This is what Kaneko means by soil prepared through utilization of the farm and local area s organic cycle. In addition to soil preparation, 1 seeds are selected based on their suitableness to soil, weather, season and other environmental conditions at Shimosato Farm, 2 mix cropping and crop rotation are practiced in order to approach the diversity found in Nature, and 3 wild birds and beneficial insects are respected as a natural part of the environment. All of this is done in order to respect the ecosystem and Nature s cycle and to achieve sustainable farming which in turn produces agricultural autonomy and a harmonious existence within Nature. Shimosato Farm sells products directly to about 40 consumers who share its Organic Agriculture philosophy. Kaneko uses an Open Price System to foster good relations with his customers. This Open Price System is not a traditional system where the seller (i.e., Kaneko) sets the price; the buyer judges how much the produce they receive is worth and then pay this amount to Kaneko. If I provide consumers with good quality products, they will recognize this and will pay me enough money so that I can continue farming. More important than the financial aspect, however, is using this system to get consumers to recognize the true value of products cultivated through Organic Agriculture and being able to organically develop relationships of trust with consumers. Kaneko s Organic Agriculture has steadily caught on and grown in Ogawa-machi over the past 36 years. Currently, there is an organic farmers group in Ogawa-machi which exchanges techniques and information and which helps one another to expand the prevalence of Organic Agriculture. Furthermore, a variety of different initiatives are being started which aim to help both organic farmers and local food processors, with the support of local consumers, to achieve local food self-sufficiency and encourage spontaneous development. Kaneko and the Organic Agriculture efforts of Ogawa-machi are attracting attention from people and groups both within Japan and overseas. They have been and continue to be visited by a number of researchers and laypeople. The Organic Agriculture practiced by Kaneko is not simply about employing non- Conventional Agricultural techniques; it is about reevaluating the life of a farmer, including such issues as production, 1 10

17 [1] Principles of Organic Agriculture CASE 1-1 distribution, consumption, and the environment, and moving towards a new idea of agriculture. Here is Yoshinori Kaneko s message: Organic Agriculture supports human life and human health as well as protects and cultivates our food and environment. It requires the creation of living soil full of small life and microorganisms. Soil capable of growing healthy crops is not made simply from inorganic materials collected from the erosion of rocks; it has to be living soil saturated with sunlight and water and tended by constantly active microorganisms, plants and animals. In short, the most fertile soil for good crop cultivation is that which has a crumbled structure, is soft, moist and well irrigated, is home to numerous living organisms, and has a balance of nutrients. The longer Organic Agriculture is continued, the warmer soil becomes, like a futon mattress dried in the sun, becoming softer and lighter. The result is that it becomes easier to cultivate crops while, at the same time, their quality improves. They say that perseverance prevails. Someone who switches over to Organic Agriculture right now will still face a few years of disease and pests, and it will take more than a few years before they have good living soil that can sustain stable production. Module 0 Principles of Organic Agriculture Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 1 Module 2 Organic Agriculture is about protecting the natural ecosystem and practicing farming that does not damage or destroy the environment; it is about returning to this fundamental principle as the means for achieving sustainable farming. Organic Agricultural Technology Module Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4

18 Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers

19 Module 1: Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Table of Contents [2] Unit 1.1.1: Overview of Organic Agriculture Problems with Conventional Agriculture...1 Is Conventional Agriculture sustainable?...1 Effects on Agricultural Products...2 Effects on the Environment...2 Effects on the Human Body...3 Effects on Society...4 Effects on the Economy...4 Features of Organic Agriculture...5 Features of Organic Agriculture...5 Benefits of Organic Agriculture...6 Problems of Transitioning to Organic Agriculture...7 Mechanisms of Organic Agriculture...8 Mechanisms enabling Healthy Crop Production...8 Mechanisms of the Organic Cycle...10 [3] Unit 1.2.1: Definition and Status of Organic Agriculture Definition of Organic Agriculture...1 Definition by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)...1 Definition according to the Codex Alimentarius...4 Inspection and Certification System for Organic Food...5 What is the inspection and certification system for organic food?...5 Component Parts of the Inspection and Certification System...6 Organic Certification Process...6 Participatory Guarantee System...9 Global Status of Organic Agriculture...10 Global Status...10 Status within Selected Countries...11 [4] Unit 1.3.1: Overview of Support for Small-scale Farmers through Organic Agriculture Introduction...1 Foundation of Farm Management...2 Marketing Overview...4

20 Organization and Extension...6 Farm Structure...6 Organization and Extension...7 Forming Organizations and Support for Organizations...8 Farm Management System Overview...9 Definition of Small-scale Farmers...9 Small-scale Farm Management Systems...9 Small-scale Farm Management Systems and Organic Agriculture...10 Three Categories of Organic Agriculture...10 Three Categories...10

21 [2] Overview of Organic Agriculture Module 0 [2] Unit 1.1.1: Overview of Organic Agriculture Objective: To provide a general understanding of the features and techniques of Organic Agriculture Principles of Organic Agriculture Goals: 1. To be able to explain the effects of Organic Agriculture as well as the difficulties encountered when transitioning over to Organic Agriculture. 2. To be able to explain the mechanisms for cultivating healthy crops. 3. To be able to explain the mechanisms of the organic cycle. Reference Job Aid: Healthy Crop Cultivation Mechanism Chart 1 Problems with Conventional Agriculture Is Conventional Agriculture sustainable? At the beginning, let us think about the differences between the terms of Conventional Agriculture, Indigenous Agriculture and Organic Agriculture. For countless ages, humans have used agriculture to ensure the stability of their food supply, creating a special environment which is not found in Nature and using it to produce crops. However, until the advent of Conventional Agriculture, people throughout the world practiced Indigenous Agriculture, where farmers attempt to create a cyclical system suited to and closely mimicking the surrounding environment. Indigenous Agriculture is a highly sustainable form of agriculture thanks to the knowledge and experience acquired by indigenous farmers over the centuries; and it is well regarded by those connected with Organic Agriculture, such as the International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements (IFOAM). However, this Indigenous Agriculture has been disappearing around the world as modernized farming method prevails. The modernized farming is more common farming style in these days. The English term of Conventional Agriculture usually implies the modern commercialized farming style, rather than the Indigenous Agriculture. We use the Conventional Agriculture as the same meaning. Conventional Agriculture is able to achieve higher yields, is less labor intensive and increases the economic efficiency of agriculture due to its use of chemical fertilizers, synthetic agricultural chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides (hereinafter referred to as synthetic agricultural chemicals ). Certainly there are many people who insist that Conventional Agriculture is necessary 2 1 Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 2 Module 3 Module 4

22 Module 0 [2] Overview of Organic Agriculture Principles of Organic Agriculture in order to provide enough food to for the world s rapidly expanding population. However, it is clear that Conventional Agriculture is prone to a number of problems, such as replant failure, damage from disease and pests, environmental contamination and pesticide poisoning of agricultural producers. As these problems become more and more apparent, the sustainability of Conventional Agriculture is being called into question. Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 2 Before we learn about Organic Agriculture, let us examine some of the problems that exist in Conventional Agriculture. Effects on Agricultural Products In a nutshell, the main problem with Conventional Agriculture is that it dramatically upsets the ecological balance. In particular, it makes soil inhospitable to small and micro-organic life. The main reasons for this are as follows. (1) Chemical fertilizers are designed to be easily absorbable by plants, which means they contain only inorganic nutrients and not the organic matters that small and micro-organic soil organisms need. Thus, over time, there is less and less food available for microorganisms. (2) Synthetic agricultural chemicals affect not only pests; they harm beneficial soil organisms as well. Organic Agricultural Technology Module 3 These factors lower the activity of soil organisms which, in turn, prevents soil from forming a crumbled structure and lowers the amount of nutrients that these organisms provide plants. As a result, crops are weaker and have less resistance to disease and pests. Also, monocropping and continuous cropping are frequently performed as part of Conventional Agriculture in order to increase its effectiveness and economic efficiency. These two practices destroy the balance of nutrients and biota in the soil, result in replant failure and, furthermore, make crops more prone to disease and pests. Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4 Effects on the Environment Environmental contamination caused by synthetic agricultural chemicals and chemical fertilizers is 2 2

23 [2] Overview of Organic Agriculture Module 0 also a major problem. If there is a mistake made in the amount of synthetic agricultural chemicals used, the excess synthetic agricultural chemicals and chemical fertilizers can become contaminants that will pollute the soil, rivers, and/or seas. Also, because chemical fertilizers are easily dissolved in water, using more than can be absorbed by the crops being cultivated will result in the excess fertilizer getting into rivers and groundwater. In addition, Conventional Agriculture is becoming increasingly specialized and compartmentalized, meaning that farmers and farming organizations are increasingly engaged in either crop cultivation or livestock breeding only. This severs the organic matter cycle between plants and livestock and leaves manure to become a water quality contaminant. In developing countries where, even now, rivers and groundwater are important sources of drinking water, the spread of this sort of water quality contamination will have a direct, negative effect on the health of residents. Another danger of synthetic agricultural chemicals is the appearance of diseases, pests and weeds which are resistant to them. When these pests, etc., appear, even stronger synthetic agricultural chemicals must be used, contaminating the environment and harming the ecosystem. Recently, genetic manipulation has been used to develop beans and corn which are resistant to certain herbicides as well as tomatoes which keep longer. However, there is an undeniable risk present in introducing new, genetically modified plants into the nature, as no one knows how they will affect the ecosystem. Prior to the start of Conventional Agriculture, farmers followed indigenous, comprehensive and sustainable production methods which combine soil preparation, crop cultivation, and other techniques suited to the local environments. Conventional Agriculture, however, is full of coping techniques and produces short-term, limited results. In addition, when farmers have insufficient knowledge and are overly concerned with short-term economic efficiency, these techniques are frequently employed inappropriately. This is why problems such as soil degradation, erosion and biodiversity reduction are occurring throughout the world. Effects on the Human Body Principles of Organic Agriculture Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Module 2 Module 3 Synthetic agricultural chemicals are not only harmful to weeds and pests; they are also harmful to humans. They have been blamed for illnesses such as poisoning and cancer, miscarriages, disabilities and birth defects. Japan strictly regulates the types and usage of synthetic agricultural chemicals, especially limiting the use of strong chemicals. This has resulted in the nearly complete absence of agrochemical-related health problems amongst producers, etc. However, in developing countries, where highly poisonous synthetic agricultural chemicals can be used or where 2 3 Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4

24 Module 0 [2] Overview of Organic Agriculture Principles of Organic Agriculture Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Module 2 Module 3 agrochemicals are used incorrectly, there is concern about the negative effects these synthetic agricultural chemicals have on producers and ordinal citizens alike. In a joint report produced by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the UN Environmental Program (UNEP), and the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2004, it was estimated that between 1 and 5 million cases of pesticide poisoning occur annually, resulting the death of thousands of people including children. In particular, despite the fact that developing countries comprise only 25% of the world s pesticide usage, they account for 99% of pesticide poisoning deaths worldwide 1. Effects on Society Conventional Agriculture also has a variety of effects on rural communities, specifically the loss of Indigenous Agricultural techniques, a decrease in the number of available jobs due to increased farm mechanization, and increased land ownership within farming communities by the wealthy and investors. This results in decreased community cohesiveness and increased income gap disparities. For example, the Yaqui tribe in Sonora, Mexico was once a close-knit farming community that practiced Indigenous Agriculture requiring little water. However, in the 1940s, a modern water management project was begun. This project made it so that if the Yaqui did not participate in it, they would not have access to water for farming; thus, the Yaqui agreed to participate. Furthermore, they were compelled to stay settled in one place which created a new collective organization. In addition, they were compelled to cultivate primarily wheat and cotton. All of this resulted in a variety of social changes, such as the loss of traditional ceremonies, which had contributed to a lessening of the gap between rich and poor, and the creation of landless farmers. At the same time, outsiders were able to increase their own wealth. By the beginning of the 1970s, the Indigenous Agriculture, society and culture of the Taqui had collapsed 2. Effects on the Economy Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4 Conventional Agriculture is thought to increase yield size, make it easier to equalize quality and improve the economic efficiency of agriculture. However, in light of the various issues and problems 1 UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Children face higher risks from pesticide poisoning web page < 2 Jules N Pretty [1995] REGENERATING AGRICULTURE. Earthscan Publications P85,86 2 4

25 [2] Overview of Organic Agriculture Module 0 that we have considered thus far, one begins to call into question the long-term economic efficiency of Conventional Agriculture. This is because, in order to deal with all of the problems that arise from Conventional Agriculture, one must spend more money on solutions. When environmental contamination or health problems occur, money has to be spent on remedial measures and cures as well as recurrence prevention. When a pest or a weed immune to current agrochemicals appears, money has to be spent developing new synthetic agricultural chemicals. Furthermore, when these problems affect traditional communities and cultures, the loss cannot be measured in terms of money. Thus, when we take a more comprehensive, long-term view of the effects of Conventional Agriculture, we are ultimately forced to reconsider whether it is, in fact, economically efficient. 2 Features of Organic Agriculture Features of Organic Agriculture There are a variety of benefits to practicing Organic Agriculture over Conventional Agriculture, especially for small-scale farmers, because these benefits are sustainable. However, there are obstacles which must be overcome before these benefits can be realized. Below is a table of the benefits of Organic Agriculture and the issues to be faced during the period of transition over to it. Table [2]-1 Benefits of and Issues faced during the Transition to Organic Agriculture Benefits Transition Period Issues (1) Sustainable and environmentally-friendly (1) Unstable production (2) Produces safe, reliable food products (2) Increase of labor input (3) Farming methods are safe (3) Market formation (4) Rediscover the joy of farming (5) Gives new value to agriculture (6) Reduces production costs (7) Attain self-sufficiency/autonomy Next, let us examine each of these in detail. 2 5 Principles of Organic Agriculture Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 2 Module 3 Module 4

26 Module 0 [2] Overview of Organic Agriculture Principles of Organic Agriculture Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Module 2 Module 3 Benefits of Organic Agriculture (1) Sustainable and environmentally-friendly The key to Organic Agriculture is soil preparation. By using organic matters primarily compost soil organism activity is stimulated. This results in a chemical and physical improvement in soil quality. Thus, even without the use of chemical fertilizers, healthy crops that do not succumb to disease and pests can be cultivated. Organic Agriculture, which does not rely on chemical fertilizers or synthetic agricultural chemicals, takes advantage of the physical cycle in the nature to enable farming which is both sustainable and environmentally-friendly. (2) Produces safe, reliable food products Because Organic Agriculture does not use chemical fertilizers or synthetic agricultural chemicals and instead takes advantage of Nature s production capacity, healthy crops are cultivated. This is why organic agricultural products are safe and reliable, containing no materials harmful to the human body. (3) Farming methods are safe Because Conventional Agriculture makes use of a great deal of synthetic agricultural chemicals, not only the crops but also the farmer s health can be negatively affected. In developing countries, strong synthetic agricultural chemicals, which are harmful to humans are still being used as well as incorrect methods of applying synthetic agricultural chemicals. This is believed to be the reason why farmers in developing countries are more at risk of health problems than those in developed countries. Organic Agriculture uses no synthetic agricultural chemicals and is, thus, safe for those practicing it. (4) Rediscover the joy of farming Organic Agriculture is not a single, set method of agriculture; it is comprised of a diversity of cultivation methods, each adapted to the local climate and soil. In other words, Organic Agriculture allows each farmer to create their own methods of cultivation, given the environmental conditions they have. The result is high-quality, good tasting agricultural products that people are happy to eat the essential joy of farming. Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4 (5) Gives new value to agriculture As evidenced by the coalition, Teikei, which exists in Japan, Organic Agriculture is not a market based purely on economic principles; it allows, instead, for a new type of market to be created. This is why it is important that a relationship of mutual understanding and trust be built between farmers and consumers. Once this relationship is established, farmers can continue to deal with the same 2 6

27 [2] Overview of Organic Agriculture Module 0 consumers. Also, as is the case in Japan and other countries, organic products sell for more than non-organic products. This is due to the fact that consumers increasingly recognize and rightly value the safety, reliability and taste of organic agricultural products. Principles of Organic Agriculture (6) Reduces production costs With Conventional Agriculture it is necessary to purchase a number of things, such as chemical fertilizers, synthetic agricultural chemicals and seeds. Organic Agriculture, on the other hand, makes effective use of a diverse range of materials found around one s fields, such as plant remains, manure, and even weeds. This minimizes the amount of material which needs to be brought in from outside the farm. Also, seeds are, as a rule, grown on the farm itself. All of this makes it possible to keep down production costs. (7) Attain self-sufficiency/autonomy In a market economy, large farms and farms or companies with capital strength have tremendous competitive power, and it is common for small-scale farmers to work either as tenant farmers or laborers for them. However, Organic Agriculture has self-sufficiency as its basis and therefore enables even small-scale farmers to achieve autonomy through the continuous sale of agricultural products to consumers. Problems of Transitioning to Organic Agriculture Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 2 (1) Unstable production With good soil it is possible to cultivate healthy crops, reduce the amount of damage from pests and disease and achieve stable production. However, it takes time to prepare truly good soil. Although the amount of time will depend upon the specific soil in Japan it is said to take about two years at the earliest to create soil which is ideal. Soil which has a low degree of fertility to begin with will take even longer to prepare. During that time there is a danger that production volume will decrease due to the crops not receiving needed nutrients. Moreover, until the soil is thoroughly prepared, crops are at a greater risk from pests and disease, which is also likely to keep down production volume. If the amount of damage from pests and disease is large, it may be that nearly the entire harvest is lost. (2) Increase of labor input During the transition period, when the risk of damage from pests and disease is elevated, leaves and fruit must be frequently cleaned of pests and disease carrying pathogens. Also, natural agrochemicals usually offer weak protection and tend to have little adhesiveness; thus they must be applied 2 7 Module 3 Organic Agricultural Technology Module 4 Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers

28 Module 0 [2] Overview of Organic Agriculture Principles of Organic Agriculture Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 2 Module 3 Module 4 frequently. These measures take a great deal of time and effort. Moreover, during the transition period, it is necessary to apply large quantities of organic fertilizers to help prepare the soil. From gathering materials to composting and transporting them, making and applying organic fertilizers is hard work. It is not as simple a matter as purchasing and spreading chemical fertilizers. (3) Market formation With Organic Agriculture it is necessary to find and build relationships of trust with consumers who can properly appreciate the value of organic products. It will take time, however, before a stable sales relationship based on trust can be created with consumers. Until that time it may be necessary to sell one s organic products, which have taken so much time and effort to cultivate, at deeply discounted prices due to their irregular shape and small size. Thus we see that there are a number of obstacles that need to be overcome during the period of transitioning over to Organic Agriculture. However, for small-scale farmers in developing countries who are just barely making ends meet, it is no simple task to overcome these barriers. In order to reduce the risks to farmers, the switch to Organic Agriculture should be made in stages which take into consideration the specific conditions of each farm. 3 Mechanisms of Organic Agriculture Mechanisms enabling Healthy Crop Production To repeat what was said earlier, the key to Organic Agriculture is soil preparation. However, there are other important cultivation techniques which need to be taken into consideration as well, such as the selection of cultivars suited to the particular soil, preparation of the cultivating environment and putting in place a diversity of biota. By ensuring that these techniques are performed effectively, crops will produce thick, long roots which will hold the soil and will grow well without the need for chemical fertilizers or synthetic agricultural chemicals. Let us examine, in general, each of these techniques. They are discussed in more detail in Module 3. (1) Soil Preparation The key to soil preparation is increasing the amount of organic matters in the soil through the use of 2 8

29 [2] Overview of Organic Agriculture Module 0 compost and green manure. This will stimulate the activity of soil organisms (i.e., improve the biological properties of the soil). When soil organism activity increases, this in turn improves the soil s chemical and physical properties, encourages the crops to spread their roots and promotes growth and development. Principles of Organic Agriculture 1 Improvements in Physical Properties Better drainage, water retention, and air permeability 2 Improvements in Chemical Properties Better balance of needed nutrients in crops Increased cation exchange capacity Increased buffering capacity (2) Selection of Cultivars In order to cultivate healthy crops, it is important to select cultivars, which are best suited to local climate and soil. If proper cultivar selection is performed, the crops will be able to thrive sufficiently on their own and not require excessive assistance in growing. The best cultivars to choose from are those plant varieties which have been cultivated in a given region over many generations, allowing them to have adapted to the soil and to have developed resistance to local pests and disease. If no such varieties exist, it becomes necessary to carefully select and grow cultivars so that they over successive generations will become adapted to the local soil environment and cultivation methods. (3) Developing a Cropping Environment One of the fundamentals of cropping in Organic Agriculture is to combine mixed cropping, crop rotation, and intercropping during those periods best suited to the growth of each cultivar. This will protect the nutrient balance in the soil; maintain the balance of the local ecosystem; and help avoid injury by continuous cropping and damage from pests and disease. In addition, it is important to leave enough space between plants to allow each to be exposed to sufficient sunlight and air and to cultivate crops in a manner closely approximating the conditions that exist in the nature. (4) Achieving a Diversity of Biota A variety of living things exist in the nature. Some are harmful to crops, and some of them such as worms are beneficial. In the nature these organisms exist in a balance, meaning that organisms harmful to any given plant are kept in check by the nature from multiplying excessively. Within Organic Agriculture as well, it is important to maintain a balance between harmful organisms and beneficial organisms in order to ensure the healthy development of one s crops. Thus crop rotation, intercropping and mixed cropping play an active role in Organic Agriculture in order to keep the balance of biota from tipping to far to one side or the other. With organic mulch and other such aids, an environment conducive to insects and microorganisms can be created. 2 9 Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 2 Module 3 Module 4

30 Module 0 [2] Overview of Organic Agriculture Principles of Organic Agriculture Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 2 <Cultivation Techniques> Soil Preparation Application of organic materials such as compost and green manure Crop Selection Use of local varieties Select and homegrown varieties Developing a Post-planting Environment Crop diversity, crop rotation, intercropping and mixed cropping, cultivation during optimal periods, sufficient sunlight and ventilation Achieving a Diversity of Biota Utilization of natural enemies and useful microorganisms, soil preparation, crop rotation, intercropping and mixed cropping, organic mulch <Effects> Invigoration of soil organisms/microorganisms Better drainage, water retention, and air permeability Better balance of nutrients in the soil Increased cation exchange capacity Increased buffer capacity Able to grow crops suited to the local soil, climate and cultivation methods Creates an optimal nutrient balance within the soil Better growing environment Creates an environment hostile to pests Fig. [2]-1 Mechanisms for Cultivating Healthy Crops Healthy Crops Module 3 Mechanisms of the Organic Cycle Organic Agricultural Technology Successful Organic Agriculture requires the application of a variety of organic matters, such as compost, fallen leaves, and crop residue, in the field. Let us take a moment to examine how to go about securing the organic matters. Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4 First, please look at the following figure. It represents a simplified diagram of the flow of organic matters between farming families, livestock and fields. 2 10

31 [2] Overview of Organic Agriculture Module 0 Eggs and meat Raw garbage People Raw garbage Crops Principles of Organic Agriculture Livestock Insects, branches and leaves Crop residue and weeds Night soil Wild vegetables and firewood Surrounding Environment (mountains, forests, etc.) Fig [2]-2 Mechanisms of the Organic Cycle Fields Branches, leaves and mulch Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers In this manner, organic matters are superbly recycled amongst livestock, fields, humans and the surrounding environment. In particular, night soil from livestock is organic matters high in nutrient content which comprises an indispensable part of compost and other fertilizers. For this reason, Organic Agriculture is suited for being undertaken in conjunction with livestock farming. In reality, the crop residue and weeds taken from the fields are not only used as feed for livestock, they are also frequently returned to the soil by being spread directly onto fields or by being used in compost. Another valuable organic matter is fallen leaves or mulch taken from surrounding mountains and forests. Furthermore, there are other varieties of organic matters available close at hand which are usable for Organic Agriculture. Specific examples include coffee grounds, sugarcane bagasse, fish guts, and leftover food from cafeterias. In addition, each local region has some organic matters specific to it which can be used. All that is required are little bid more careful observations and a creative mind. Thus, one of the fundamentals of Organic Agriculture is creating a recycling mechanism that fully utilizes the organic matters available from one s surroundings. Module 2 Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 3 Organic Agricultural Technology Reference Literature Michinori Nishio (1997) Yuki-saibai no Kiso-chishiki [Basics of Organic Cultivation]. Rural Culture Association Japan Organic Agriculture Association, ed. (1999) Yuki-nogyo Handobuku Tsuchi-dzukuri kara Tabekata made [The Organic Agriculture Handbook From Soil Preparation to Eating]. Rural Culture Association Kaneko Yoshinori. (2003) Kaneko-sanchi no Yuki-katei Sai-en [Ms. Kaneko s Organic Home Gardening]. Ie-no-Hikari Association 2 11 Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4

32 Module 0 [3] Definition and International Status of Organic Agriculture Principles of Organic Agriculture [3] Unit 1.2.1: Definition and Status of Organic Agriculture Objective: To gain an understanding of international standards regarding Organic Agriculture as well as its status in various countries worldwide. Goals: Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 2 Module 3 Module 4 1. To be able to explain the content and purpose of international standards regarding Organic Agriculture. 2. To be able to explain the status of Organic Agriculture in one s own country. 1 Definition of Organic Agriculture Definition by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) (1) What is the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)? The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) is an international private organization started in 1972 related to Organic Agriculture movements. Its headquarters are in Germany and, as of 2007, over 750 groups in 108 countries were participants. IFOAM concerns itself with such activities as popularizing Organic Agriculture, making policy recommendations, reflecting the opinions of Organic Agriculture practitioners, and establishing and updating standards for production, processing, and distribution. In 1982, IFOAM created the IFOAM Basic Standards for Organic Production and Processing (hereinafter, IFOAM Basic Standards ), which they regularly update. These IFOAM Basic Standards have no legal basis or binding authority; however, they are referenced in the Codex Alimentarius, the EC regulations, Organic JAS and elsewhere, meaning that they effectively are the standards for Organic Agriculture. (2) Organic Agriculture Principles according to the IFOAM Basic Standards At the beginning of the 2000 edition of the IFOAM Basic Standards, there is a section entitled The Principle Aims of Organic Production and Processing which gives 17 fundamental principles of Organic Agriculture. Here we will look at those principles which are strongly connected with mainly production techniques. To produce sufficient quantities of high quality food. To interact in a constructive and life-enhancing way with natural systems and cycles. 3 1

33 [3] Definition and International Status of Organic Agriculture Module 0 To encourage and enhance biological cycles within the farming system, involving microorganisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals. To maintain and increase long term fertility of soils. To maintain the genetic diversity of the production system and its surroundings, including the protection of plant and wildlife habitats. To use, as far as possible, renewable resources in locally organized production systems. To create a harmonious balance between crop production and animal husbandry. To give all livestock conditions of life with due consideration for the basic aspects of their innate behavior. To minimize all forms of pollution. To produce fully biodegradable organic products. Furthermore, in the revisions accompanying the 2005 edition, these principles have been condensed from 17 down to the following 4. Principles of Organic Agriculture Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Principle of health Organic Agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal and human as one and indivisible. In view of this it should avoid the use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal drugs and food additives that may have adverse health effects. Principle of ecology Organic Agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them. Principle of fairness Organic Agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities. This principle emphasizes that those involved in organic agriculture should conduct human relationships in a manner that ensures fairness to all parties; that animals should be provided with the conditions and opportunities of life that accord with their physiology, natural behavior and well-being; and, furthermore, that natural and environmental resources that are used for production and consumption should be managed in a way that is socially and ecologically just and should be held in trust for future generations. Principle of care Organic Agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment. Organic agriculture should prevent significant risks by adopting appropriate technologies and rejecting unpredictable ones, such as genetic engineering. IFOAM uses these four principles to give Organic Agriculture a solid foundation from which to grow and develop, to clarify the ability of Organic Agriculture to contribute to global development 3 2 Module 2 Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 3 Organic Agricultural Technology Module 4 Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers

34 Module 0 [3] Definition and International Status of Organic Agriculture Principles of Organic Agriculture Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 2 Module 3 Module 4 and to provide a vision for improving agriculture worldwide. (3) Content of the IFOAM Basic Standards The following is an explanation of the content of regulations relating to such production techniques as fertilizer application; seed and plant variety management; disease/pest damage and weed management. Each regulation is broken down into General Principles which express the basic thinking underlying the regulation; Recommendations for desirable methods and techniques; and Standards for the minimum level of compliance. Let us begin by examining some specific production techniques, starting with the chapter on Crop Production Choice of Crops and Varieties This section deals with seeds and cultivars. The General Principle states that, All seeds and plant materials (including saplings, grafts, rootstock, etc.) are certified organic. Under Standards the use of genetically manipulated seeds, pollen, transgenic plants or seedlings is clearly forbidden Length of Conversion Period The conversion period length is explained under General Principle as the period necessary for enabling the establishment of an organic management system and for building soil fertility. During the conversion period all processes for improving soil fertility and re-establishing the balance of the ecosystem are begun, although these objectives may not be achieved before the end of the conversion period. As for the specific period required until plant products are certified as organic, the Standards state that, Plant products from annual production shall only be considered organic when a conversion period of at least 12 months has elapsed prior to the start of the production cycle. In the case of perennials a period of at least 18 months prior to the first harvest shall be required Diversity in Crop Production The General Principle states that, Soil and soil management is the foundation of organic production. Organic growing systems are soil based, care for the soil and surrounding ecosystems and provide support for a diversity of species, while encouraging nutrient cycling and mitigating soil and nutrient losses. As for specific methods, the Recommendations explain that, Diversity in crop production is achieved by a combination of: 1) a diverse and versatile crop rotation that includes legumes and 2) appropriate coverage of the soil with diverse plant species for as much of the year as possible Soil Fertility and Fertilization The General Principle for soil fertility and fertilization states that, Organic Agriculture 3 3

35 [3] Definition and International Status of Organic Agriculture Module 0 returns microbial plant or animal material to the soil to increase or at least maintain its fertility and biological activity, and Biodegradable material of microbial, plant or animal origin produced from organic practices should form the basis of the fertility program. Principles of Organic Agriculture Pest, Disease, Weed, and Growth Management Concerning pest, disease, weed and growth management the General Principle states that Organic Agriculture systems apply biological and cultural means to prevent unacceptable losses from pests, diseases and weeds. They use crops and varieties that are well-adapted to the environment and a balanced fertility program to maintain fertile soils with high biological activity, locally adapted rotations, companion planting, green manures, and other recognized organic practices. As for specific methods, the Standards allow physical methods, such as the application of heat, and forbid the use of synthetic herbicides, etc. Definition according to the Codex Alimentarius (1) Codex Alimentarius Commission The Codex Alimentarius Commission is an international, intergovernmental body created in 1962 by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in order to protect the health of consumers, to ensure fair trade practices in the food trade, and to promote international coordination of all food standards. Among other duties, the commission is responsible for creating international food regulations (Codex Alimentarius). Japan has been a participant in this commission since 1966, and, as of 2006, the total number of member countries has grown to 173. The Codex Alimentarius Commission has its headquarters within the headquarters of the FAO in Rome. (2) International Regulations on Organic Food In 1999, the Codex Alimentarius Commission drafted and adopted its Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organic Food (Guidelines for Organic Food). The IFOAM Basic Standards were used as a reference in creating these guidelines, and, as a result, they are almost identical in content. In other words, such practices as the improvement of soil fertility through the use of organic nmatters, the increase and maintenance of microbial activity, the creation of a multi-variety crop rotation system that includes the use of green manure are all regulated, as well as such prohibitions against the use of genetic-recombination technology. The creation of these organic food guidelines by the Codex Alimentarius is a significant event, as they have legal force, unlike the IFOAM Basic Standards. Originally, the Codex Alimentarius did 3 4 Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 2 Module 3 Module 4

36 Module 0 [3] Definition and International Status of Organic Agriculture Principles of Organic Agriculture not have this legal force; however, after the WTO began using the Codex Alimentarius as a standard for providing consistency in dispute settlements, it became the de facto regulations used by the world s different countries. Organic JAS are also designed so that they conform with the Codex Alimentarius. Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 2 Module 3 2 Inspection and Certification System for Organic Food What is the inspection and certification system for organic food? The concept of and cultivation methods for Organic Agriculture are varied. However, if the label organic is allowed to be applied to the products of producers, organizations and others with different ideas of what organic is supposed to mean, consumers will have difficulty making adequate decisions about which products to purchase. In fact, during the latter half of the 1980s in Japan, as Organic Agriculture started to garner attention for its safe, reliable and good tasting produce, the market was inundated with products falsely identifying themselves as organic. Thus it became necessary to establish a clear and specific set of requirements for products seeking to be labeled as organic. A system was also needed for verifying that products have been produced, processed and handled in a manner consistent with these requirements. The concept of and requirements for Organic Agriculture as well as the specific inspection and certification process to be followed were dictated by Organic JAS. The EU and the United States have also established similar inspection and certification systems. Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4 The demand worldwide for Organic products is growing, and this has resulted in an expansion in the amount of organic products being exported and imported. The inspection and certification system is also used to certify that organic products are, in fact, organic. Since the establishment of Organic JAS in Japan in 2000, the amount of imported organic vegetables has increased to the point where, in 2005, 29 tons of domestic produce was certified as organic in contrast with 79 tons from overseas, i.e., Japan imports more than 2.5 times as much organic produce as it cultivates. Thus, by having a clear definition of what constitutes organic products, the inspection and certification system for organic food promotes trade. The internationally standardized basis for inspection and certification systems comes from the IFOAM Basic Standards and Codex Alimentarius organic food guidelines described earlier. 3 5

37 [3] Definition and International Status of Organic Agriculture Module 0 Component Parts of the Inspection and Certification System The following are the common constituent elements between organic food inspection and certification systems worldwide. Principles of Organic Agriculture 1 Organic standards (written clarification of requirements for production, processing, and handling methods) 2 Documentation and procedural regulations for the entire certification program 3 Inspection 4 Certification assessment 5 Operation of a certification program 6 Labeling (certification logo) 7 Publicity relating to certification 8 Certification expenses 3 Inspection does not refer to quality inspections of the products (produce) themselves; rather; it refers to direct visits to farms, etc., where the products are cultivated to perform observations, checks and verifications based on the documents submitted at the time of application for certification that the production, processing, and handling methods being employed conform to the standards set for Organic Agriculture. In other words, it is an inspection and certification of the organic production system (process). Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 2 Organic Certification Process Module 3 The organic certification process (from the application for certification to the acquisition of certification) is virtually identical for all countries certification programs, following the order shown in Figure [3]-1. Prior to application for organic certification, it is important to ensure that one s farm, etc., clears all the requisite conditions, that the production process management system is being maintained and that records are being kept. Let us look more closely at these three as they pertain to Organic JAS. 3 6 Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4

38 [3] Definition and International Status of Organic Agriculture Request for documentation from the certification body by the organic farmer The organic certification body sends an application form set, etc. The organic producer completes the application forms The organic certification body reviews the application Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers A certification agreement is signed The certification body appoints an inspector(s) Farm, etc., visited and inspected Inspection report evaluated Certification assessment made Certification sent to the organic producer Module 2 Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 3 Organic Agricultural Technology Fig [3]-1 Organic Certification Process (Reference: Toshio Oyama Yuki-shokuhin-shisutemu no Kokusaiteki-kensho Shoku no Shinrai-kochiku no Kanosei wo Saguru [Organic Food System International Verification Searching for the Potential to build Confidence in Food]. Nihon Keizai Hyoronsha ) (1) Farming field conditions Issuance of certification Inspection Submission of report by organic producer Monitoring of program compliance (These steps are necessary for renewals, as well) Standards exist for farming fields, which are to be used for organic agriculture. It is not enough to have simply avoided using synthetic agricultural chemicals or chemical fertilizers for the year. The history of the farming field will be called into question and examined. In addition, if synthetic agricultural chemicals drift or seep in from the surrounding environment, this will disqualify a farming field from being certified as organic. Standards have been established regarding this. Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4 1 Prevention of chemical contamination from adjoining land Organic JAS has established the following regarding this point. Organic areas must be kept clearly separated from surrounding areas where disallowed materials (i.e., fertilizers, soil improving materials and pesticides disallowed under organic regulations) are used in order to prevent contamination Necessary measures must be put in place in order to prevent contamination of water used for rice paddies by disallowed materials 3 7

39 [3] Definition and International Status of Organic Agriculture Module 0 In order to meet these requirements, areas used for organic cultivation must be clearly segregated from other areas through the use of furrows, etc.; a sufficient buffer zone must be ensured; and preventive measures such as windbreak nets and planted hedges, etc., must be put in place. Principles of Organic Agriculture 2 Field history In order to be labeled as organic the following conversion periods are required. Table [3]-1 Conversion Periods established by Organic JAS Crop (Location) Segregation Conversion Period Perennial crops (fruits, teas, asparagus, etc.) 3 years or more must have elapsed since the start of conversion until the first harvest Other crops (annual crops such as rice, vegetables harvested multiple times 2 years or more must have elapsed since the start of conversion until the first seeding or planting throughout the year, etc.) Fields upon which disallowed materials have not been used for 2 or more years and which are reclaimed fields or fields Organic cultivation has been practiced for 1 or more years prior to the start of the first seeding or planting not claimed for the purpose of cultivation Fields for picking (naturally growing No disallowed materials have been used or have mushrooms, etc.) contaminated the area for 3 or more years prior to picking Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 2 (2) Production Process Management System In order to receive organic certification, a system is needed which enables the management of a planned production process. Towards this end control standards (internal regulations) which carefully specify cultivation methods, machinery and equipment handling, post-harvest crop handling, shipment methods, etc., and an annual plan must be established. For example, internal regulations must specify how the following items are specifically and systematically maintained. 1 Acquisition of seeds, seedlings and materials 2 Fertility management and disease, pest and weed elimination 3 Machinery and equipment used in production 4 Transport, selection, coordination, cleaning, storage, etc. 5 Shipping 6 Annual plan creation and notifications to the certification body 7 Items required for the appropriate implementation of certification work by the certification body 3 8 Module 3 Organic Agricultural Technology Module 4 Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers

40 Module 0 [3] Definition and International Status of Organic Agriculture Principles of Organic Agriculture Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 2 Module 3 Module 4 (3) Record keeping According to Organic JAS, in order to confirm whether or not the conditions for fields producing organic agricultural products are being met, records detailing the materials used over the past three years or more prior to harvest, or two years or more prior to fixed seeding/planting, are required. Even if a farm has been practicing organic cultivation over the past several years, without the records demonstrating that their cultivation methods, etc., have been organic, they will not be able to receive certification. As all of this shows that a great deal of effort, time and money are required in order to obtain organic certification. One needs to examine the market, status and certification system of Organic Agriculture in their home country and thoroughly consider all relevant factors before attempting to obtain such certification. Participatory Guarantee System As has already been explained, in the majority of countries primarily developed countries inspection and certification systems have been established. However, these systems are based on third party certification, which is difficult to introduce for small-scale farmers due to the complicated nature of the application process and the costs involved, and the merits of such a system are not necessarily significant. However, the market requires that some system be used to verify the quality and authenticity of organic agricultural products. Thus, the Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) 3, which involves producers and consumers in the inspection and certification process in a bilateral manner, was born. PGS are carried out in a variety of ways in order to ensure that they incorporate local considerations, such as the community, local climate, cultural differences and market conditions. Nevertheless, PGS production standards are still based on IFOAM Basic Standards. Also, no matter which PGS is employed, the shared goals of producers and consumers with regard to Organic Agriculture are emphasized, as well as such considerations as participation and transparency. PGS seek not only to ensure that the quality of organic agricultural products is maintained or improved, these systems are also appreciated for their potential to act as a learning process for those connected with Organic Agriculture and as an approach for creating new markets. PGS are already being implemented in the United States, New Zealand, India, Brazil and others, and IFOAM sponsors workshops in Central and South America to promote understanding about PGS. 3 Ref: IFOAM homepage ( Masahiro Moritaka Ninsho-seido no Hikaku-bunseki [Comparative Analysis of Certification Systems], Gendai-seisaku no Keizai-bunseki [Economic Analysis of Modern Policy], Kyushu University Press, 2005; etc. 3 9

41 [3] Definition and International Status of Organic Agriculture Module 0 3 Global Status Global Status of Organic Agriculture Principles of Organic Agriculture (1) Organic Agriculture Growing Area Organic Agriculture, now practiced in more than 120 countries worldwide, has expanded rapidly around the globe. According to a 2006 IFOAM report 4, the amount of farming area devoted to Organic Agriculture worldwide is over 31.5 million hectares, and there are more than 620,000 people involved in Organic Agriculture. A comparison by continent of the land area devoted to Organic Agriculture is given below. Australia / Oceania 39 % Europe 21 % Fig [3]-2 Comparison by Global Region of Land Area devoted to Organic Agriculture (Source: Willer, Helga and Minou Yussefi, The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends Reprinted with permission from IFOAM, Charles-de-Gaulle-Str. 5, Bonn, Germany) Although this figure shows Australia / Oceania to have the largest land area devoted to Organic Agriculture, the vast majority of this is devoted to pasture land; in terms of the largest amount of land actually devoted to crop cultivation, Europe is in the number one position, as the figure below shows. Africa 3 % North America 4 % Asia 13 % Latin America 20 % Module 1 Overview of Organic Agriculture by Small-scale Farmers Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Organic Agricultural Technology Module 2 Module 3 4 Willer, Helga and Minou Yussefi [2006] The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends IFOAM &FiBL 3 10 Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4

42 Module 0 [3] Definition and International Status of Organic Agriculture Principles of Organic Agriculture 2 % Africa Latin America3 % Asia 13 % 65 % Europe North America 17 % Fig [3]-3Comparison by Global Region of Cultivated Land Area devoted to Organic Agriculture (Source: Willer, Helga and Minou Yussefi, The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends Reprinted with permission from IFOAM, Charles-de-Gaulle-Str. 5, Bonn, Germany) (2) Markets Overview of Management for Small-scale Farms Module 2 Similarly, a report 5 by IFOAM states that sales worldwide of organic food and beverage products in 2004 totaled 27.8 billion dollars. Make sure to note the comparison of sales by region. 96% of this 27.8 billion dollars and sales was the combined share of North America and Europe a virtual monopoly. As concern about health and environmental issues increases, so too does the scale of the global market for organic products. North America Europe 46.6 % 49.3 % Organic Agricultural Technology Module 3 Fig [3]-4 Market Ratios by Global Region for Organic Food Products (Source: Willer, Helga and Minou Yussefi, The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends Reprinted with permission from IFOAM, Charles-de-Gaulle-Str. 5, Bonn, Germany) Status within Selected Countries Other 3.8 % (1) Europe Overview of Support and Extension for Small-scale Farmers Module 4 Europe is considered as a leading area for Organic Agriculture. According to statistical data compiled by IFOAM for 2006, the amount of farmland devoted to Organic Agriculture was 6.5 million hectares, and the size of the market was 13.7 billion dollars, making it the world s largest organic market with a 49.3% share. The following are said to be the underlying reasons for the 5 Willer, Helga and Minou Yussefi [2006], The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends IFOAM &FiBL 3 11