Biotechnology Education in India: an overview

Transcription

1 Policy Futures in Education Volume 11 Number Biotechnology Education in India: an overview KIRTI JOSHI Uttarakhand State Council for Science & Technology, Dehradun, India KAVITA MEHRA National Institute of Science Technology and Development Studies (CSIR), New Delhi, India SUMAN GOVIL Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, New Delhi, India NITU SINGH National Institute of Science Technology and Development Studies (CSIR), New Delhi, India ABSTRACT Among the developing countries, India is one of those that recognises the importance of biotechnology. The trajectory of different policies being formulated over time is proof that the government is progressing towards achieving self-sufficiency. However, to cater to the ever-growing biotech industry, skilled manpower is required. This article therefore brings together reflections on the evolution of biotech education in India with the aim of giving an exposition on the diversity of issues concerning its growth and expansion within the country. Introduction The source of innovation, performance and sustainable competitive advantage is knowledge. The acquisition of knowledge and the process of learning are crucial for creating a mass of capable and proficient human resources. To trigger development, knowledge therefore becomes a prerequisite. The confluence of globalisation and the growing importance of knowledge flows has made knowledge management an important concern for building and maintaining human capital. Apparently knowledge has replaced land, labour and capital as the key source of wealth. As a result, we have to channel our energies into generating value from our intellectual and knowledge-based assets. As education breeds a skilled population, the thrust is therefore on imparting focused and quality education which is technical and domain specific. Education then takes centre stage. In building a structure of knowledge creation, a solid base is needed, and this can be in the form of quality education, infrastructure, budgetary allocations, intellectual property rights, etc. This article looks at the knowledge restructuring happening in India with particular focus on the field of biotechnology. Sine biotechnology is a knowledge-intensive sector, one of the most notable trends in conceptual research in this field is the increased focus on knowledge. This article therefore brings together reflections on the evolution of biotech education in India as well as its diversification, and addresses questions that are arising in the sector about its foundations, its extent and its validity. Science and Technology Education in India Science and technology (S&T) to a large extent defines the capability and growth occurring in the country. With rapid advancements in S&T, this field has become strategically important and a vulnerable subject. Policy interventions for generating a critical mass of skilled manpower and large 19

2 Kirti Joshi et al investments in S&T appear to be essential ingredients. This, however, relies on a high quality of education being delivered at school and in higher education. S&T education has been a part of the Indian national agenda since the country s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was in office. His vision was translated into working plans through a policy frame which is still evolving.[1] Science education in schools and higher science education have received great emphasis. The pragmatic policies followed over the years ensured that the country came to possess one of the largest and most diverse science education infrastructures. Being responsible for the major policies relating to higher education, the central government so far has formulated two national education policies, one in 1968 and the other in 1986, further modified in In 1968, the education policy stressed quality improvement, a planned, more equitable expansion of educational facilities, and the need to focus on the education of girls, while the 1986 policy provided for a comprehensive policy framework for the development of education up to the end of the century, as well as, in 1992, a Plan of Action (PoA) assigning specific responsibilities for organising, implementing and financing its proposals. Currently the government is considering a proposal for the setting up of a National Commission/Council for Higher Education and Research for prescribing standards of academic quality and defining policies for the advancement of knowledge in higher education institutions based on the principle of enhancing the autonomy of universities and institutions of higher learning and research. In 2010 the National Accreditation Regulatory Authority for Higher Educational Institutions Bill was introduced into Parliament, proposing to make accreditation mandatory for all higher education institutes. A major revamp of the higher education system is being contemplated with a recent upsurge in the education sector. In the past 50 years, science and technology institutions in India have acquired global recognition; these include the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) and the Indian Institute of Science (IISC). Hence, with a huge infrastructural base to its education system, India stands a chance of acquiring the status of a knowledge economy. It is being realised that further improvement in the nation s competitiveness is possible by having a better-educated population. Especially for technology-based science subjects, higher education assumes great importance. There are three principal levels of qualification within the higher education system in India -- the bachelor/undergraduate level, the masters/postgraduate level, and the doctoral/predoctoral level. As one goes higher up the ladder, the course becomes more channeled and area specific. School education is mandatory if one wishes to pursue higher education. According to the census of 2001, the literacy rate of India is 64.84%.[2] Despite an impressive growth in the literacy rate, students in India generally do not opt for higher studies. Enrolment in higher education in India is growing steadily at a rate of 6.1%, but this is quite low when compared with the boom in the economy. There is a steep dropout rate. Only 2.5 % of the population enrols in post-graduation studies, while only % go for doctorate-level studies. Of the total enrolment, just 20.45% of students are in the faculty of science, while the major chunk opts for the arts stream (45.13%).[3] This dismissal rate of production of qualified, trained manpower in S&T, even when there is such a large potential population to draw on, demands a serious look into the situation. India still has to harness its knowledge potential to be placed on the global map. The major strength of the country is in the availability of young human capital. According to UN population data, 19.1% of India s population is between the ages of 15 and 24.[4] This would amount to nearly crores of people (Figure 1). If this huge mass is provided with the right mix of knowledge, the foundation developed would be strong enough to propel India into a strategic position globally. Equally, this means that India will be more dynamic and capable of sustaining the economic growth that is needed to create a superpower. It is asserted by the World Bank that, on the basis of the general educational atmosphere and knowledge-based skill around the world, S&T improvement will be most important deciding factor in terms of how well India does as a country. Hence, knowledge management has become an integral part of the national agenda. With this perspective in mind, recently a National Knowledge Commission (NKC) was constituted with a mandate to focus on the provision of easy access to knowledge, the creation and preservation of knowledge systems, the dissemination of knowledge and the creation of better knowledge services. This entails both a radical improvement in existing systems of knowledge and the creation of avenues for generating new forms of knowledge. 20

3 Biotechnology Education in India Figure 1. Projected total young population of India. Source: UN Population Division 2008 ( In order to unleash India s innovation potential, an essential step is the systematic reform of the higher education system in India, since this would act as an enabler for developing the required intellectual capital. According to the NKC report, education is one of the grand pillars, along with innovation and entrepreneurship, on which the country s progress rests. Reforms in the higher education system, focusing on expansion, excellence and inclusion, have been already recommended to the Prime Minister. Education reforms are hence crucial in enabling innovationled economic growth in the country. Technology-oriented streams of science and technology have taken a lead in the economic development of the country. Upcoming fields of education such as information technology, nanotechnology and biotechnology will be prominent in the future. Among them, biotechnology has the potential for unlocking new technological combinations to develop new value-added products, processes and techniques/tools in the area of agriculture, human and animal health and environment protection. The following section focuses on the overall S&T policies as well as those dedicated to the development of biotechnology. It looks at the role of government at central and state level in terms of the programmes developed in biotechnology and the funds being allocated. It then turns to the education system and infrastructure, and finally to the involvement of the industry in shaping the sector. At the end there is a brief account of the existing biotechnology infrastructure in India, followed by some concluding remarks. Biotechnology Policies India was one of the small number of developing countries to have recognised the importance of biotechnology as a tool to advance the growth of the agricultural and health sectors as early as the 1980s.[5] Since then, the Indian government has been working on developing its biotechnology sector, with policies focused on numerous technology promotion programmes that have created infrastructure along with evolving organisational structures. The trajectory of the different policies that have been formulated over this time is proof that the government is progressing towards achieving self-sufficiency in the biotechnology sector.[6] A diagnosis of the socio-economic situation and the technological position of the country has prompted the government to define the components involved and to create policies stressing biotechnology development. At this point it is important to mention the government policies that promote the development of this field. This is because the congenial environment that has been developed for the promotion of biotechnology has encouraged the participation of industry and academia, which has increased the ambit of its utilisation. This reflects and projects the inherent need for skilled manpower by both sectors, thereby implicitly and explicitly affecting the 21

4 Kirti Joshi et al advancement of human resource development for the sectors. Certain institutional factors that have encouraged the development of biotechnology in India are depicted in Table I. Policies 1 Technology policy statement, 1983 Temporal progress Impetus on the development of indigenous technology and efficient absorption and adaptation of imported technology appropriate to national priorities and resources 2 S&T policy 2003 Emphasis on innovations to solve national problems on a sustainable basis. 3 Department of Science Technology - Drugs and Pharmaceutical Research Programme National Biotechnology Development strategy 2007 Promoting collaborative R&D in drugs and pharmaceuticals sector. To facilitate drug research, a scheme PRDSF (Pharmaceutical Research and Development Support Fund) had been launched which is managed by Drug Development Promotion Board (DDPB). Under this programme financial support is given to R&D projects jointly proposed by industry and academic institutions/laboratories and soft loans extended for R&D in the drugs and pharmaceuticals sector. Promoting growth of overall biotech sector by resolving bottlenecks. This strategy reserves up to 30% of the Department of Biotechnology s budget for public-private partnerships and oversees the launch of various programmes (BIPP for advanced technologies, SBIRI for supporting SME innovation, etc.) to deal with issues related to R&D, creation of investment capital, technology transfer, absorption and diffusion, intellectual property rights. Generating skilled human resources through improvement in quality of teaching and curriculum, facilitating R&D in universities & attracting talent to life sciences by providing fellowships and career opportunities. Providing infrastructure for R&D through establishment of biotech parks and incubators. Promoting industry and trade by providing fiscal incentives and tax benefits on R&D expenditures. For regulatory issues, a competent national biotechnology regulatory authority will be established. Table I. Appropriate government policies. The need for an integrated biotech policy with concurrent attention to education, social mobilisation and regulation is an essential pre-requisite for the progress of the Indian biotech sector. The National Science and Technology Policy (2003) of the Government and the Vision Statement on Biotechnology issued by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) provide a framework and give strategic direction to different sectors to accelerate the pace of development of biotechnology in India over the next ten years. Further, the policy has directed notable interventions in the public and private sectors, the key being a quadrilateral agreement between academia, industry, laboratories, and the state. These interventions were initiated recently, and the industry is in a phase where new models of organisation are emerging. Government Role: ministries involved in the biotech sector The outsourcing of the benefits of these policies to generate an educated mass in areas related to biotechnology is managed through various ministries of central government, including the Ministry of Human Resources and Development (MHRD), the Ministry of Science and Technology (MST), the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MHFW) and the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). Their involvement with biotechnology is either in the form of providing education (graduate, post-graduate, doctoral or post-doctoral) or training (faculty training or industrial training), or through allocating funds, fellowships for R&D and infrastructure development, etc. (a) MHRD: With the mandate of laying down the national policy on education and overseeing its implementation, MHRD is the nodal agency in the planned development of imparting quality education. It is divided into two separate departments, one looking into school-level education (the Department of School Education and Literacy), while the other looks into higher-level education (the Department of Higher Education [DHE]). Within the ambit of the DHE is the University Grants Commission (UGC), a statutory organisation established by an act of Parliament in

5 Biotechnology Education in India aimed at the coordination, determination and maintenance of standards of university education. As well as providing grants to eligible universities and colleges, the Commission also advises the central and state governments on the measures which are necessary for the development of higher education. (b) MST: Under the MST three departments have a stake in the biotech sector -- namely: (i) DBT: The DBT is the nodal agency in the country for evolving enabling policies and for conceiving and implementing research and development (R&D) programmes in the biotechnology sector. Established in 1986, the department is ensuring that applications of biotechnology occur in the broad areas of agriculture, health care, animal sciences, the environment and industry. (ii) DST: The Department of Science & Technology (DST), established in May 1971, is primarily entrusted with the responsibility of formulating S&T policies, with their implementation, and with the identification and promotion of thrust areas of research in different sectors of S&T, such as technology information, forecasting and assessment; international collaboration and the promotion of science and society programmes; and the coordination of S&T activities in the country. (iii) DSIR: The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) has a mandate to carry out the activities relating to indigenous technology promotion, development, utilisation and transfer. The primary endeavour of DSIR is to promote R&D by the industries, support a larger cross section of small and medium industrial units to develop state-of-the art globally competitive technologies of high commercial potential, catalyse faster commercialisation of lab-scale R&D, enhance the share of technology-intensive exports in relation to overall exports, strengthen industrial consultancy and technology management capabilities and establish a userfriendly information network to facilitate scientific and industrial research in the country. (c) MoA: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is an autonomous organisation under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education, the MoA. The Council is the apex body for coordinating, guiding and managing research and education in agriculture in the entire country, including horticulture, fisheries and animal sciences. (d) MOHFW (Ministry of Health and Family Welfare): The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) is the apex body in India for the formulation, coordination and promotion of biomedical research. It is funded by the government of India through the Department of Health Research. Intramural research is carried out currently through the Council s 29 research institutes/centres/units. These include: (i) 18 mission-oriented national institutes; (ii) 6 regional medical research centres; and (iii) 5 units/centres. Biotechnology depends heavily on qualified technicians. A major thrust in the area of biotech education has come from the government by setting up the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) under the Ministry of Science & Technology to give impetus to the development of biology and biotechnology. Since this is a multidisciplinary area on the educational scene, programmes have been developed to meet the growing demand for trained manpower for any meaningful biotechnology activity in the country. To expose the students to recent developments in the area of genetic engineering and biotechnology and their exploitation in industry, agriculture and medicine, the programmes developed at various levels are: (a) School level: the Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research (INSPIRE) programme by the DST provides financial assistance to students covering: the Scheme for Early Attraction of Talent for Science (SEATS); Scholarship for Higher education (SHE); and Assured Opportunity for Research Careers (AORC). (b) Undergraduate: the Star College Scheme (by the DBT), set up to improve hands-on-exposure and practical training of the biotechnology component in existing life science courses; Centers with Potential for Excellence, set up by the UGC; post-metric scholarship for Schedule Caste/ Schedule Tribe (SC/ST); Metric Cum Means (MCM) scholarships and National Talent Scholarships (NTS) by ICAR; Fund for Improvement for S&T Infrastructure (FIST) for colleges, set up by the DST. 23

6 Kirti Joshi et al (c) Post-graduate (by the DBT): 72 universities are running biotech courses; the Biotech Industrial Training Program (BITP) provides industrial exposure to biotechnology post-graduates; the Young Entrepreneurs Scheme (YES) encourages students towards entrepreneurship. Other programmes include BEST (Biotechnology Entrepreneurship Student Teams), junior research fellowships (JRF) and senior research fellowships (SRF). (d) Doctoral: The selection of candidates to pursue a JRF or SRF for a PhD is through the Biotechnology Eligibility Test (BET) conducted by the University of Pune, through the National Entrance Test by both the CSIR and the UGC, through fellowships by the ICMR, or through Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) fellowships jointly with the DBT. (e) Postdoctoral: Indian Institute of Sciences; Bangalore is the nodal point for selection for the Department of Biotechnology -- Post Doctoral Fellow (DBT-PDF) programme in India. (f) Faculty: Short-term training courses (2-3 weeks); Biotechnology Overseas Associateship programme; visiting scientists from abroad programme; distinguished biotechnology research professorship; National Energy Bioscience chair; Energy Bioscience Overseas Fellowship; Ramalingaswami fellowship; Wellcome Trust fellowships by the DBT; National Fund for Basic, Strategic and Frontier Application Research in Agriculture (NFBSFARA); and the National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) by ICAR. Similarly, the state governments have also taken up the initiative for biotech development. There has been close interaction with the state governments, particularly through state S&T councils in terms of developing biotechnology application projects, demonstrating proven technologies and providing training in human resources in states and Union Territories. Programmes have been evolved with the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir, Mizoram, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. Application centres in Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal have already been started. For example, in Gujarat the state policy is to offer a special package of incentives for mega projects having an investment of Rs.100 crore or more, on a case-by-case basis. In addition, projects making an investment in terms of setting up institutes providing high-end biotechnology education and research and incurring a minimum of 50% investment on land and buildings are also treated as mega projects.[7] This is in total conformity with the spirit and strategies of the biotechnology policy of the country. 24 Funding Source: Funds for S&T in India flow from three sources -- namely: (i) central government; (ii) state governments; and (iii) the private and business sector. Total S&T expenditure by type of work, both by central and state governments, has over the years shown marked variations in terms of the distribution of funds. Since the beginning of the decade there has been a distinct increase in funds for basic research compared with the experimental development activities (Figure 2). As regards the central and state share of funding, the contribution by state governments is minuscule and over the years has been declining (presently it is below 20 %).[8] While both the central government and the state governments spend around 4% of gross domestic product (GDP) on education each year, there has been a sharp hike in private spending on education. Between 35% and 40% of government expenditure gets spent on elementary education, another quarter on secondary education, while just a tenth goes to university and higher education.[9] This shows that the funds allocated for higher education are much smaller. Flow of funds: The central government allocates funds for biotechnology predominantly through the following departments: MHRD, DBT, DST, ICAR and ICMR. Liberal grants are provided by all the departments for human resource development through the establishment of specialised laboratory infrastructure and equipment and recurring grants for consumables, studentship, books and journals, travel, visiting faculty and contingency, as well as a thesis grant to ensure intensive hands-on training. Patterns of variation that have occurred in the allocation and utilisation of public funds for R&D and technology development by the Indian state within last five years are depicted in Table II. This table, however, does not specifically present the budget allocated for biotechnology per se, but instead shows the overall allocation. From this overall

7 Biotechnology Education in India budget a part is being utilised for biotechnological applications, but exactly how much is difficult to portray. Despite this constraint of available data, analysis of the progress of expenditure allocated to various departments provides us with some indications. It can be extrapolated from Table II that S&T issues are gaining significance over the years; this is clear from the substantial increase in fund allocations. Basic Research (Central Govt.) Basic Research (State Govt.) Applied Research (Central Govt.) Applied Research (State Govt.) Experimental Development (Central Govt.) Govt.) Experimental Development (State Figure 2. State and central share in funding different types of research. Source: R&D Statistics, Agency Indian Council of Agri. Res.(ICAR) University Grant Commission (UGC) NA NA NA Dept. Of Sci. Ind. Research (DSIR) Dept. of S&T (DST) Council of Sci. and Ind. Res. (CSIR) NA NA Dept. of Biotech. (DBT) Table II. Budget allocation for biotechnology (Rs. in crores). Source: respective annual reports Private sector: Industry is the driving force in the biotech sector. Industrial R&D and production capabilities have a strong bearing on human resource development. It is relevant to mention the role of the government in promoting industry. Having identified the potential of industry, the Indian government has earmarked separate funds which can be availed through competitive funds allocation. The funds reach the private sector through a network of programmes run by the various departments (Table III). Educational System and Infrastructure The Scientific Policy Resolution (1958), the Technology Policy Statement (1983), and the Science and Technology Policy (2003) of the government of India are indications of the continued political commitment to the support of S&T and represent a vision for its development. These policies propel the growth of higher education. This mandate led to the creation of a vast S&T 25

8 Kirti Joshi et al infrastructure within the government R&D institutions, universities, NGOs and industries, providing the base for the development of new scientific and technological knowledge in various fields of S&T. Organisation DBT DST Programmes BIRAP (Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Programme) BIPP (Biotechnology Industry Partnership Programme) SBIRI (Small Business Innovation Research Initiative) Fund for Improvement of S&T Infrastructure in Higher Educational Institutions (FIST) SERC (Infrastructure development and Training) Technology Development Board Drugs and Pharmaceutical Research Technology Systems Development Programme A programme of DBT in partnership with ABLE & BCIL, facilitating innovative R&D in biotech in existing industries as well as start-ups. Manages capacity-building programmes to build human resources, infrastructure, etc. Promoting industries for breakthrough research which generate innovative products/processes having major economic potential. This scheme is available for any industries, whether small, medium or large, that are involved in R&D in the biotech field. Industry retains its intellectual property. Promoting small- and medium-sector companies led by innovators with science backgrounds through PPP(public-private partnership) for development of high-risk research-based products/processes having high societal relevance. Launched in to provide support for basic equipment necessary for imparting quality teaching and modernisation of laboratories and creation of a few major facilities in departments of institutes for a period of 5 years. Has already covered 337 institutions out of 1350 identified departments, supported at a total budget of almost Rs crores. The Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC) was established in 1974 through which the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Govt. of India promotes R&D programmes in newly emerging and challenging areas of science and engineering. It gives special encouragement to projects from relatively small and less endowed university departments and institutions. SERC funding provides sophisticated equipment, instruments and facilities to academic institutions as part of R&D activities/programmes, and training to young scientists through fellowships, workshops, summer/winter schools in a few selected areas, and student fellowships Promoting development and commercialisation of home-grown technology. Promoting collaborative R&D in drugs and pharmaceuticals sectors. Providing support to industry for R&D in drugs and pharmaceuticals sector and clinical trials for developing drugs for neglected diseases. Promoting development and integration of technologies in glass technology, bio-fuels, water purification, bio-molecular electronics, etc. - areas having relevance to the Indian need. Promoting application of ICT for rural development. ICMR Medical innovation fund Speeding up medical innovation by promoting original and validating ideas having far-reaching scientific and medical importance. DSIR Technology Development and Demonstration Programme Technopreneur Promoting development of technologies related to conservation of natural resources and sustainable development, natural hazards mitigation and societal welfare. Facilitating individual innovators having original ideas, to convert their 26

9 Biotechnology Education in India Promotion Programme Technology Information Facilitation Programme Industrial R&D Promotion Programme Technology Development Utilization Programme for Women ideas into working models. Generating indigenous knowledge base, promoting content development, development & utilisation of digital information resources. Promoting R&D in in-house R&D units in industry, Scientific and Industrial Research Organizations (SIROs), public-funded research institutions, universities. Making available duty-free import of specified goods related to selected research areas for R&D organisations. This programme is especially for women. It promotes the implementation of new technologies by women and the development of technologies for women, and supports technology upgrading of SME (small and medium sized enterprises) run by women entrepreneurs. Table III. Major programmes by different departments India s R&D infrastructure is comprised of 400 national laboratories, 1300 recognised in-house industrial units, several government departments, and private institutions and foundations that are engaged in scientific research. R&D is also undertaken in the 358 universities in the country. Having one of the largest systems of higher education, which includes colleges, universities, institutions of national importance and autonomous institutions with the status of deemed universities, India stands at an advantageous position. The system is generally governed and ruled by the public sector. Lately even the private sector has ventured into this sector and opened numerous colleges all over India. Though a nascent field, biotechnology has been evolving at a faster pace, as is evident from the sporadic eruption of a large number of educational hubs offering graduate, post-graduate and doctoral programmes in various areas of biotechnology throughout the country. This growth depicts the increase in demand for biotechnologists in India. The academic base of human resources is developed through a university/institute framework which is divided into central universities and state universities, and inter-university centres deemed to be universities. (a) MHRD (Ministry of Human Resources and Development) Central universities: There are 39 central universities under the purview of the Ministry of Human Resource Development, created by an act of Parliament. Among them, 15 new ones had been established with effect from the beginning of 2009 in hitherto uncovered states (except Goa), by an ordinance promulgated by the President of India. The ordinance has since been replaced by an act of Parliament, the Central Universities Act, 2009, which was assented to by the President of India on 20 March Of these, 38 are getting maintenance and development grants by the central government through the UGC. State universities: There are 251 state universities, of which the UGC has been making budgetary plan allocation for only 123. It does not allocate plan funds to exclusive medical and agriculture universities. Special grants are being provided to other state universities, including agricultural universities having engineering and technology departments. Although development of state universities is primarily the concern of state governments, development grants, including grants under special schemes, are provided to all eligible state universities. Such grants facilitate the creation, augmentation and upgrading of infrastructural facilities, which is not normally possible through the state government or other sources of funds. Deemed to be : An institute of higher education, other than universities, operating at a very high standard in a specific area of study can be declared by the central government on the advice of the UGC to be a deemed-to-be-university institution. Such institutions enjoy the academic status and privileges of a university. 27

10 Kirti Joshi et al (b) ICAR With 97 ICAR institutes and 45 agricultural universities spread across the country, this is one of the largest national agricultural systems in the world. The ICAR-Agricultural Universities (AUs) system comprises State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), Deemed to be Universities (DUs), the Central Agricultural University (CAU) and central universities (CUs) with an agriculture faculty. Out of 45 universities, five have deemed status and two are central. ICAR has played a major role in promoting excellence in higher education in agriculture and related fields. With the increase in population and concern about the quality of food, agriculture biotechnology has gained focus in the recent past in India. Sustained growth in agricultural productivity will depend upon continuous improvements in germplasm (plants and animals, including fish and microbes) and in improved nutritional value of staple foods, as well as control of crop and livestock disease and pests.[10] Biotechnology plays an important role in enhancing agricultural productivity. Genetically modified (GM) seeds, biofertilisers, biopesticides, biofuels, etc. are requirements of the new generation. Many agricultural institutes are running agricultural biotechnology courses to provide specialised resources for agricultural research. (c) MST (Ministry of Science and Technology) Although the MST is not directly involved in the structuring of universities, it provides funds for human resource development and infrastructural development. The HRD programme of the Department of Biotechnology encompasses the intensive teaching and training of young students, the training of scientists and technicians at various levels, from research associateships to midcareer scientists, and exposing visiting scientists from advanced countries to newly developed techniques used in biotechnology.[11] The DBT in had initiated courses in six universities, and these have, in just two and a half decades, expanded to over 72 universities today, as shown in Figure 3. Similarly, the DST is running programmes such as FIST, etc. Figure 3. Growth in number of DBT-funded biotech teaching programmes. Source: respective annual reports. Industry Involvement As mentioned earlier, the rapidly evolving biotechnology sector of India is currently industry driven. The revenue generated within the last seven years has grown by nearly five times. According to the journal Biospectrum (vol. IV, no. 2, 2009), the biotechnology industry in India notched up a growth rate of 18% during However, compared with previous years, the growth was substantially low, and the major leap was observed in the year (Table IV). The profile of Indian companies is undergoing a change. They are dividing into various domains. The biotech industry has compartmentalised on the basis of the nature of the work involved into the following sectors: biopharma, bioservices, bioagriculture, bioindustrial and bioinformatics. The biopharma sector accounted for the major share, followed by services and the agrisector. 28

11 Biotechnology Education in India Sector/Year Biopharma (53.74) Bioservices (103.70) Bioagri (18.18) Bioindustrial (1.28) Bioinformatics (6.67) Total (48.19) Note: % growth within brackets. Table IV. Biotech Industry (Rs in millions). Source: Biospectrum issues 2008 & (29.72) 425 (54.55) 330 (153.85) 320 (34.45) 100 (25.00) 4745 (36.55) 4708 (31.88) 720 (69.41) 598 (81.21) 375 (17.19) 120 (20.00) 6521 (37.43) 5973 (26.87) 1102 (53.06) 926 (54.85) 395 (5.33) 145 (20.83) 8541 (30.98) 6900 (15.52) 1572 (42.65) 1201 (29.70) 410 (3.80) 190 (31.03) (20.28) 7883 (14.25) 2062 (31.17) 1494 (24.40) 478 (16.59) 220 (15.79) 12,137 (18.14) This growth demands huge infrastructure as well as skilled human capital. These firms consist of those that have in-house R&D, those that contract out R&D and those that acquire new technology from other firms (these ones are known as technology adopters ). Since this is a highly specialised, multidisciplinary and laboratory-intensive field, capable and trained manpower is required. Because of the demand for trained manpower, many government programmes were initiated, as mentioned above. But to garner expertise, industrial exposure and on-the-ground training are needed. The DBT, through its Biotech Industrial Training Program (BITP), has been providing this. Over the years this programme has become increasingly popular, as is evident from the number of applications being received. Selection is very stringent and only around 20% of eligible candidates finally undergo the training with a stipend. Among the trained students, approximately 30% find permanent placements in industry (Figure 4). Figure 4. BITP at a glance. Source: Biospectrum and DBT annual reports As regards the industries, 112 companies scattered in 11 states and 3 Union Territories are part of the BITP (Table V). During last four years a total of 252 trainees were absorbed by these companies, as depicted in Table V. The major share of training was offered by healthcare 29

12 Kirti Joshi et al companies, followed by agriculture-based ones, bioservices, pharmaceuticals, etc. Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh absorbed the maximum number of candidates, as most biotech-based companies are housed there. The biopharma sector accounts for nearly two-thirds of the industry share, followed by bioservices and bioagriculture. The bioagri sector, whose main product was Bt cotton (genetically modified cotton where the Bt gene is spliced into cotton seeds) marketed by more than 25 companies, has catapulted, with a 30% growth in revenues. This sector is looking forward to more products coming onto the market following the approval and entry into the system of other GM crops. State/UT Cities No. of companies No. of trainees Karnataka Bangalore, Mysore, Hosur, Bidar, Hubli Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad Maharashtra Mumbai, Pune, Jalna, Aurangabad Delhi Tamil Nadu Chennai, Marthandam 6 13 Haryana Gurgaon 9 21 Uttar Pradesh Ghaziabad, Noida, Lucknow 6 13 Gujarat Ahmedabad, Baroda, Surat 5 10 Punjab Ludhiana, Mastgarh, Mohali 3 6 Kerala Cochin, Cherthala 3 7 Orissa Bhubaneswar 1 1 Goa 1 1 Pondicherry 1 1 Madhya Pradesh Ratlam 1 1 Table V. Number of companies that absorbed BITP trainees during Source: Biospectrum, 2009 Biotech Infrastructure Biotech educational courses: The areas where biotechnology has grown in India include the medical field (healthcare/pharma), bioinformatics, agricultural biotechnology, biofertilisers, biopesticides, national bioresource development, plant biology, marine biotechnology, etc. The skill set of biotechnology is imparted through such courses as the BSc, BE, BTech, the 5-year integrated BTech/MTech) and is also provided at post-graduate level (Msc/MTech). For all higher education institutions in India, approval by the UGC or the AICTE is required. This article, however, will not touch upon AICTE-approved institutes and will limit the study to UGC-recognised institutes only. The DBT has already covered general biotechnology, agricultural biotechnology, medical biotechnology, marine biotechnology, bioinformatics, industrial biotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Newer areas, such as functional genomics/proteomics, cleaner technologies, gene therapy, bio-safety, molecular and human genetics, rational drug designing, upstream and downstream processing for recombinant products, IPR and patenting in biotechnology, etc. are the forthcoming areas that have top priority as per the national biotechnology development strategy.[12] Until recently, biotechnology was offered only at the post-graduate level. Now, with the sector emerging as the new hope of the modern world, the need to prepare a body of researchers and scientists at the undergraduate level has been strongly felt. A few universities have started BSc Biotech programmes, although the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has taken the view that biotechnology at undergraduate level narrows down the options of students and, moreover, the colleges may not have the expertise and infrastructure to deliver practical training in such a specialised field. Many prestigious institutes such as Indian Institutes of Technology have been offering a four-year BTech course in biotechnology and biochemical engineering for quite some time. Admission to these IIT undergraduate programmes is through the Joint Entrance Examination (JEE). 30

13 Biotechnology Education in India Over the last few years, the number of courses has increased, with 1-3 courses being added to the list every year. In 1985, when the DBT was established, formal education on biotechnology was initiated with just four different courses. States Agriculture institutes DBT-funded institutes UGC-funded institutes Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Chandigarh Chhattisgarh Delhi Gujarat Goa Himachal Pradesh Haryana Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Mizoram Meghalaya Orissa Pondicherry Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal Total Table VI. Statewide distribution of DBT-, UGC-funded institutes and agriculture institutes running BT courses. Source: information compiled from respective institutes websites. Institutes: The distribution pattern of institutes funded by UGC, DBT and ICAR and imparting biotech courses across Indian states is shown in Table VI. There is a total of 228 institutes, out of which 131 are UGC funded, 71 are DBT funded and 26 are agricultural institutes. The UGC has the highest number of institutes in Tamil Nadu, followed by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Delhi. Similarly, a large number of DBT-funded courses are being run at Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Delhi and Karnataka. The distribution is quite uneven across the states. The states having more institutes basically also have a large biotech industrial base. This might be one of the plausible reasons why there is concentration of institutes in these areas. As regards publicly funded agriculture institutes devoted solely to agribiotech research, the highest number are housed in Rajasthan, followed by Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. At the same time, the north-eastern states such as Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir and Union territories such as Chandigarh, Goa and Pondicherry are devoid of agriculture institutes. The course distribution in UGC-affiliated universities and ICAR agriculture institutes shows that a high number have post-graduate programs (43% and 56 % respectively), followed by the doctoral programs (28% and 29% respectively), while the DBT-funded ones have mostly post-graduate, post-diploma and certificate courses in biotechnology. 31

14 Kirti Joshi et al (a) UGC affiliated universities. (b) Agriculture institutes. 32

15 Biotechnology Education in India (c) DBT funded institutes. Figure 5(a, b, c). Type of biotechnology courses running as per grants from different departments. Source: Data compiled from Annual Reports. Concluding Remarks The past five years have witnessed a spectacular growth rate of more than 30% for the India biotech sector, with the biopharma segment hogging the lion s share of 67%.[13] Considering the size of the whole Indian biotech industry, the growth can be effectively managed by pooling resources like research facilities, technological competence, manpower requirements, risk-taking ability, etc. Technological competence in terms of human resources and research facilities coexisting with the educational infrastructure signifies the need for skilled manpower in this sector. During the last 25 years, the transition occurring in biotechnology has invariably experienced different degrees of transformation in terms of policy, education structure, infrastructure, human resources, etc. It has changed the character of the education structure from an exclusively formal and public one to an extremely area-specific, super-specialised one with hands-on training requirements. The last decade basically belonged to biotechnology as areas like health, industry, agriculture, environment and animal husbandry had some or the other biotechnological applications. The pharmaceutical industry, a prominent provider of health-care products, meeting almost 95% of country s pharmaceutical needs, has been the largest user of this technology for developing vaccines, medicines and diagnostics, clinical and contract research, etc. Similarly, with the approval of the Bt gene being spliced into cotton seeds, genetically modified crops are on the verge of being marketed. This has resulted in the eruption of numerous seed firms and tissue culture laboratories. Nonetheless, the biotech industry is largely based on manufacturing and services. The opening-up of industry, the increasing availability of markets and the launching of new products onto the market give an impression of a sunrise sector requiring a huge mass of skilled labour. The government strategy intended to nurture human capital and build a foundation of knowledge and capability by assembling a high-tech infrastructure and handholding with the 33

16 Kirti Joshi et al industry to provide hands-on training to the aspirants. Despite the fact that the sector is booming, two main riders came to the fore during the writing of this article. (a) Employment avenues/absorption rate: India is progressing towards structured formal training in biotechnology, as is evident from the springing up of colleges delivering biotech-oriented courses. Each subject, be it related to agriculture, medicine or industry, has its own set of subjectspecific courses. However, as mentioned by Wiig (1999) [14], emphasis should be on building and also exploiting intellectual capital effectively and gainfully. But the applicability of this statement in our context is debatable. To take the case of the BITP programme, there are large numbers of applicants, out of which 20% get the opportunity to pursue the training, of which only 30% are ultimately absorbed. Absorption rates varying from 3-4.5% seem quite low. Very dim career prospects and low remuneration offered by companies act a dissuader for pursuing the course. Unfortunately students consider R&D as the only option and are not willing to consider even better-paying job offers in production/manufacturing, quality control and analysis, marketing, consultancy, intellectual property rights and regulatory affairs, etc. Employability is therefore a major issue for these super-specialty high tech areas. Generating more avenues and increasing the absorption rate are necessary to accelerate the keenness and interest among the aspirants. However, what is more a matter of concern is that many people employed in science-centred jobs are not sufficiently qualified, which leads us to a situation where optimal efficiency gets compromised. Therefore, corrective measures are required to ensure optimal utilisation of the scientific stock.[15] Evidently, there is a mismatch either in terms of demand by industry or in terms of quality of manpower being generated and required by industry. The projected values are undoubtedly inflated. The demand is there to impart need-based education. Since it is a super-specialised stream, the courses devised should be such that they cater to the areas in demand. Industry should be sufficiently involved in the structuring of the curriculum that their input assists in stipulating the key subject areas in demand. This would validate the core areas where skilled labour is required, thereby justifying the quantitative demand. As regards the quality of education, a lot depends upon the infrastructural facilities, the presence of competent and trained faculty and the type of industrial exposure. Though programmes have been initiated to upgrade the infrastructure and industrial training for biotech aspirants, not much has been done to raising faculty proficiency and adeptness. Especially in view of the upsurge of private institutes, the check on the quality and commitment of faculty still remains a merely a mirage. (b) Funds: Despite the impressive growth in S&T areas, the funds directed towards R&D are less than 1% of GDP. This is dismal in comparison with other countries such as the USA and China, which devote, respectively, around 2.76% and 1.61% of GDP to this area. Although India and China have an almost equal share of the global population, India spends much less on R&D. As India has a sovereign system of governance, states play an essential role in overall development in the country. How active a part a state plays in S&T issues and their promotion depends on the willingness of that particular state. It has been observed that states share in S&T funding is decreasing. This is a major cause for concern. States should be encouraged to increase their share in R&D funding for balanced development across all the states. This is one of the reasons why a geographical concentration of institutes is seen in India. Preventing R&D concentration in particular states would require the active participation specifically of the least research-intensive states. This could be achieved by initiating competitive research programmes where states compete for funds from a pool, developed for such activities. To maintain steady growth in the biotechnology sector, the tag of a new and innovative industry with innumerable career options has to be retained. The potential and the challenges have to be identified, isolated and then developed in such as way that biotechnology grows into a global industry with global responsibilities. More importantly, the government and industry should work in tandem in formulating policies for the future. 34 References [1] Shukla, R. & Kakar, P. (2006) Role of Science and Technology, Higher Education and Research in Regional Socio-economic Development. Working paper 98, National Council of Applied Economic Research.