The World Bank. Cambodia MONITOR

Transcription

1 The World Bank Cambodia ENVIR NMENT MONITOR 2003

2 Cambodia ENVIR NMENT MONITOR 2003 The World Bank

3 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC World Bank Phnom Penh Office 113 Norodom Boulevard Phnom Penh, Cambodia All rights reserved. First printing April 2003 This document was prepared by a World Bank Team led by Glenn Morgan and comprised of Giovanna Dore and Kirsten Fehrenkamp. The team gratefully acknowledges assistance from His Excellency Dr. Mok Mareth, Minister of Environment, and staff of his Ministry including Mr. Khieu Muth, Director General; Sam Chamroeun, Director of Planning and Legal Affairs; and Chrin Sokha, Chief of Water and Soil Quality Management Office. The team also acknowledges valuable input from Rob Crooks. Jeffrey Lecksell was responsible for map design. Photos were taken by Glenn Morgan. Cover and layout design were done by Jim Cantrell. The views expressed in the Cambodia Environment Monitor are entirely those of the authors and should not be cited without permission. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank Group, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. The material contained herein has been obtained from sources believed reliable, but may not necessarily be complete and cannot be guaranteed. Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

4 PREFACE iv ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS MAP OF REGIONAL ISSUES 1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCORECARD 2 v THE GREEN AGENDA FOREST RESOURCES 3 FOREST RESOURCES POLICY RESPONSES 6 BIODIVERSITY AND PROTECTED AREAS 8 LAND 13 LAND POLICY RESPONSES 18 THE BLUE AGENDA FRESHWATER AND MARINE RESOURCES 20 THE BROWN AGENDA WATER QUALITY 24 WATER QUALITY POLICY RESPONSES 25 SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE 27 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS, LEGISLATIONS, AND BUDGET ALLOCATIONS 29 GLOSSARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL TERMS 32 NOTES 34 REFERENCES 35 CAMBODIA AT A GLANCE 37

5 The Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003 is one in a series of environmental reports prepared for East Asian countries under an initiativesponsored by the World Bank. The objective of this report is to present a snapshot of environmental trends across a range of issues. Its purpose is to engage and inform interested stakeholders of key environmental changes as they occur. The format is intended to be easy to understand and accessible to a wide audience. Subsequent monitor reports will focus on specific themes and will highlight critical and emerging problems. The Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003 is the outcome of a collaborative effort involving the World Bank and the Cambodia Ministry of Environment (MoE). The information presented in this report has been compiled from a variety of previously published materials, available from domestic and international sources, including government, research institute, donor organizations, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The MoE has been a key counterpart agency during the preparation of the report. In addition to sponsoring a workshop of key government and NGO agencies, the MoE helped facilitate an inter-agency dialog and was instrumental in the review and validation of the findings and data presented in the report. Information on environmental trends and status is not well developed in the Cambodian context. Much of the information is held throughout multiple agencies and agencies, and data are often not immediately comparable in terms of timeliness, accuracy, and level of detail. Environmental changes vary with respect to the time frame and urgency of issues. Unlike other statistical measures, annual variations are not easy to assess. Still, the end result of this compilation of trends and statistics creates a compelling story of environmental challenges and constraints to sustainable growth and development. Like many of its South East Asian neighbors, Cambodia is confronted with a dynamic situation with regard to environmental challenges. Forest management policy, land accessibility and productivity, water resource management, air and water quality issues, and sustainable development of basic infrastructure such as energy alternatives, roads, and growth of cities and towns are among the most important environmental challenges faced by Cambodia today. This report aims at broadening the understanding and appreciation of the extent to which these problems affect national development. Ian C. Porter Country Director for Cambodia East Asia and Pacific Region World Bank Maria Teresa Serra Sector Director Environment and Social Development Unit East Asia and Pacific Region World Bank H. E. Mok Mareth Minister Ministry of Environment Royal Government of Cambodia Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

6 ADB BOD CEDAC CIAP CITES DDT DFW DO DoF EEPSEA EEZ EJF FAO FCMRP GEF GDP ha IMSCEE IPM IRRI IUCN kg Asian Development Bank biochemical oxygen demand Cambodia Center for Study and Development in Agriculture Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project Convention on Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane Department of Forest and Wildlife Dissolved Oxygen Department of Fisheries Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia Exclusive Economic Zone Environmental Justice Foundation Food and Agriculture Organization Forest Crimes Monitoring and Reporting Project Global Environmental Facility Gross Domestic Product Hectare (1 ha = 10,000 m²) Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee for Environmental Education integrated pest management International Rice Research Institute World Conservation Union kilogram km kilometer (1 km² = 100 hectares) LAMP Land Administration and Management Project m³ cubic meter MAFF Ministry of Agriculture Forest and Fisheries mg/m³ milligram per cubic meter MoE Ministry of Environment MRC Mekong River Commission MT metric tons NEAP National Environmental Action Plan NGO nongovernmental organization NO 2 nitrogen dioxide NTFP non-timber forest products PA protected area POPs persistent organic pollutants PPM Phnom Penh Municipality SO 2 sulfur dioxide TCB total coliform bacteria UNDP United Nations Development Program UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization VAT value added tax WCS World Conservation Society WHO World Health Organization WWF World Wildlife Fund

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8 IBRD To Bangkok THAILAND LAO P.D.R. CAMBODIA REGIONAL ISSUES 14 To Bangkok Poipet Sisophon Banteay Chhmar BANTEAY CHHMAR BANTEAY MEANCHEY Samrong SIEMREAP-ODDAR MEANCHEY Ankor PHNOM KULEN PREAH VIHEAR KULEN - PROMTEP Phnom Thbeng Meanchey PREAH VIHEAR To Paxé STUNG TRENG Stung Treng VIRACHEY RATANAKIRI Lomphat 14 To Qui Nhg'n WATER QUALITY AND MANAGEMENT ISSUES SOLID WASTE AIR POLLUTION DEFORESTATION/UNSUSTAINABLE LOGGING LANDMINES INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ISSUES ACCESS TO LAND/TENURE ISSUES PESTICIDES RONIEM DAUN SAM BATTAMBANG Battambang Siem Reap Tonle Sap BENG PER KOMPONG THOM Mekong LOMPHAT MONDULKIRI PROTECTED LANDSCAPES NATIONAL PARKS WILDLIFE RESERVES MULTIPURPOSE LAND FLOODED FORESTS SAMLAUT Kompong Thom KRATIE PHNOM PRICH SELECTED CITIES PROVINCE CAPITALS NATIONAL CAPITAL 12 PHNOM SAMKOS PEAM KRASOP Krong Koh Kong PURSAT KOH KONG DONG PENG Pursat PHNOM AURAL KIRIROM K.Chhnang KOMPONG CHHNANG Kompong Speu KOMPONG SPEU To nle Sap KOMPONG CHAM Takhmau Kompong Cham PREY VENG PHNOM PENH KANDAL Prey Veng SVAY RIENG Kratie SNUOL To Ho Chi Min City VIETNAM Senmonorom PHNOM NAMLEAR To Ho Chi Min City 12 MYANMAR RUINS MAIN ROADS RAILROADS RIVERS PROVINCE BOUNDARIES INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES LAO P.D.R. CHINA 20 Gulf of Thailand BOTUM - SAKOR Sihanoukville The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. PREAH SIHANOUK PHNOM BOKOR 104 KAMPOT Kampot Takeo TAKEO To Ho Chi Min City Bassac Mekong Svay Rieng To Ho Chi Min City 106 To Ho Chi Min City Kilometers Miles MARCH THAILAND Gulf of Thailand CAMBODIA Phnom Penh VIETNAM SOUTH CHINA SEA

9 Issues Trends/Values Causes Green Declining forest cover Between 70,000 and 100,000 ha of forests are lost every year Incorrect policies Poor technical and infrastructure support for sustainable logging regimes Increasing domestic demand for fuel-wood and timber Land clearing for agriculture and human settlements Loss of critical habitats/biodiversity Bamboo forests and savannah increasingly replacing dipterocarp and evergreen forests Land use changes Deforestation Land degradation Increasing soil infertility Shortened rotation in swidden agriculture Decreasing agricultural holdings (ha/household) Inappropriate land use practices Land clearing Natural disasters Blue Water supply unable to keep up with demand Increasing sedimentation Overfishing Brown Declining air quality in Phnom Penh and other urban centers Declining water quality in major rivers Increasing solid and hazardous waste generation Increasing seasonal variations in water flows Falling groundwater table Growing fishing lot operations Rising seasonal migration to the Tonle Sap areas Steadily increasing levels of SO 2 and NO 2 Increasing number of children suffering from respiratory diseases Rising pollution from small and medium enterprises Growing toxic and hazardous waste Percentage of population with access to sanitation 17.7% of total population, 5% urban, and 10% rural Increased generation of solid waste over the last 10 years Increased generation of toxic and hazardous waste Average annual urban solid waste generation 650 tonnes Fragmented water resources management Limited and worn out infrastructure Urbanization Migration Industry Transportation sources Garbage burning Industrial effluents Domestic sewage Solid waste Urbanization Lack of an integrated solid waste management system Limited public awareness Absence of toxic and hazardous waste disposal facilities Improper management This scorecard represents the first attempt at benchmarking key environmental trends and values from the availability of credible data. The values are classified under Green, Blue, and Brown Agendas. The Green Agenda describes environmental impacts caused by agriculture, deforestation, land use changes, and destruction of protected species and related protection measures. The Blue Agenda refers to all forms of water resources management. The Brown Agenda is a term commonly used to address pollution caused by industrial, urban, transport, and energy sources and their single or collective impacts and protection measures. The Environmental Scorecard will be the basis to record future improvement or deterioration of environmental quality. Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

10 OVERVIEW The forests of Cambodia are diverse and comprise a variety of evergreen, deciduous, mixed, and mangrove forest types. A forest inventory of half a hectare of forest in Ratanakiri Province revealed some 200 tree species and 300 species of ground flora and saplings. The condition of these forests is not uniform and varies throughout the country. The forests of Cambodia are under direct threat from internal factors as well as from pressures for wood demand created from outside the country. Unsustainable harvesting, selective logging of high-value species, permanent conversion of forest to agricultural lands, creation of new settlements, demand from neighboring countries, and shifting cultivation all contribute to the syndrome of the dwindling resource base STATE OF THE RESOURCE Current estimates of remaining natural forest cover vary considerably, since no formal inventory has been carried out since Estimates of current forest cover range from to around 60%. The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) of 1998 estimated total forest cover at 62%, and in 1997 the Cambodia Department of Forests and Wildlife (DFW) estimated forest cover to be approximately 58% of the country s land area (DFW, 1997). Current consensus suggest that about 50% of Cambodia has some form of forest cover. Estimates of the rate of forest loss per year also differ considerably. The frequently cited statistic from the DFW estimates that forest loss during the period has declined from 13 million hectares to million hectares or about 100,000 ha per year during that period. Annual rates of deforestation are estimated to be in the range of 1 2% of forest area per year. Stock and yield tables are not generally available for different forest types. The environmental implications of poor forest management have been well articulated in many publications. They include increased soil erosion and subsequent loss of fertile topsoil, sedimentation in rivers and subsequent impacts on aquatic life, changes to river flow, flooding changes, and forest habitat loss. LANDSAT images taken near Virachey National Park in Ratanakiri Province depict rapid land use conversion that has taken place from 1989 to In general, forested areas are green and agricultural lands are pink. Source: Finnmap. FORESTS IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY Forests are among the most important of Cambodia s natural resources, and forestry has traditionally been a leading economic sector. If properly managed, the country s forests could be a significant element of any national poverty alleviation strategy. Forests not only have the potential for generating significant government revenues but, perhaps more important, they provide sustainable livelihoods for many rural communities through provision of essential

11 timber as well as non-timber forest products (NTFP). In many areas, forests are also an essential element of local culture and spiritual beliefs and thus underpin any socially acceptable long-term sustainability strategies. Regardless of differences in forest cover estimates, the adverse effects of poor forest management on the local and national economy can be substantial. Demand for forest resources comes from Cambodia s internal demand as well as its regional neighbors such as Thailand, Taiwan, Malaysia, and Vietnam, among others. Internal population growth rates of 2.4 to 3% during the decade of the 1990s, coupled with increasing economic, social, and political stability, have led to a period of reconstruction and consequent increase in demands for forest products. Growth in regional demand for forest products has also fueled demand for Cambodian timber. CONCESSION MANAGEMENT The management of Cambodia s forest concessions has, for some time, been the subject of intense domestic and international scrutiny. By the mid-1990s the number of both foreign and domestic concessionaires increased to 32. By 1995 more than 6.4 million hectares (35%) of Cambodia s land area was under forest concession control (Global Witness, 2002). Today there are approximately 21 concessions controlling about 26% of the nation s land area (Global Witness, 2002). Concerns over forest concessions relate to a range of issues such as transparency in the system of granting concessions; need for improved concessions management planning; security of land tenure for communities living within concessions; and the scale, pace, and nature of forest exploitation. The international donor community and the Government of Cambodia have agreed on the need for fundamental reforms of what is widely seen as a systemic failure of the country s concession management practices and subsequent implications for forest royalties and revenue management systems. Some observers and analysts remain critical of the underlying rationale of the national concessions system and question whether the country could ever achieve sustained results on the ground. The country s forest practices have generated considerable criticism from human rights and environmental advocacy groups who are concerned about the effects of illegal and poorly planned logging on indigenous ethnic minority people. Million hectares Change in Area Under Concessions Forest Agriculture Fishing Mid to late 1990s 2001 This chart shows that while the area under concessions has decreased in the forestry sector, it has rather suddenly increased in the fishing sector and minimally increased in the agricultural sector. Source: Sovannarith, Sophal, and Acharya, Often, forest communities lack basic land tenure security and frequently find themselves in conflict with logging concessionaires who have historically logged with little consideration of the social or environmental context of their operations. Particular concerns have been raised over logging operations that adversely affect the access of local communities to non-timber forest products. NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS For many rural Cambodians the value of the forests lies not in the timber but in the wide array of non-timber products on which they depend for survival. Foods from a variety of plant and animal products from the forests are major components of the daily diet for many rural inhabitants. Bamboo, rattan, and resins are used for housing, agricultural tools, and hunting equipment. Most rural families rely heavily on traditional medicines derived from forest plants as well as on forest plants for animal feed. Historically, forest planners and forest managers have overlooked the importance of non-timber forest resources. Much of the inertia in developing more meaningful NTFP initiatives is due to lack of knowledge, as well as the Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

12 overwhelming short-term incentives for timber harvesting. Access to NTFP has become a key source of conflict over the use of the forests. In Ratanakiri, conflicts between local communities and outside logging interests are directly related to both land tenure security and access to traditional use areas. Experiences from studies such as the 1997 Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA) evaluation of Ratanakiri Province have shown that the promotion of forest conservation and sustainable use of forest products is enhanced through programs targeting improved management of NTFP (Bann, 1997). In addition, it has been shown that local people have the knowledge and understanding to assess the forests and determine what types of management regimes are most appropriate. While the value of these products is difficult to measure, the EEPSEA study from Ratanakiri estimates that annual returns from NTFP collection could match returns for timber harvesting alone. Cambodia s ethnic minorities typically use the forest for swidden agriculture. Under the rotational system of swidden, forests are cleared to establish crops. Areas are farmed for varying periods interspersed with periods of fallow. According to some estimates swidden practitioners cultivate dozens of crop varieties, and when well maintained these systems can remain productive for many years. Clearly the secure access and use of forests is critical for the sustainability of village economies. FUELWOOD It is estimated that approximately 90 95% of Cambodia s population relies on fuelwood as a major energy source (Phat et al., 1998), typically in the form of wood or charcoal. Firewood and charcoal are the main fuels for cooking and domestic household usage, but are also use extensively by industry (Burgess, 2000). Biomass from agricultural residues is also a significant source of fuel energy. Burgess suggests that about 80% of the national energy supply comes from firewood or charcoal. It is estimated that the annual per capita consumption of fuel-wood is on the order of 207 kg. While consumption is crucial in rural areas, cities also have an important role. For example, the volume of fuel-wood arriving in Phnom Penh annually was estimated by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to be 23,802,000 kg. As a result of population growth, demand for fuel-wood grew almost four times from 1.6 m 3 to some 6 m 3 from the 1960s to the 1990s. Complicating the growth in fuel-wood consumption are the uneven distribution of wood fuel and affordability of resources, which have led to fuelwood scarcities in some parts of the country. Studies indicate that there are significant differences in fuel choice among households with various income levels, and that poorer families commonly use wood for fuel. Since the use of fuelwood is linked to poor indoor air quality, economic disparities may affect fuelwood consumption and air quality. Fuel switching is possible, but for the medium term it is likely that alternative fuels will only supplement wood fuel rather than replace it. Nevertheless, in spite of its national importance, fuel-wood energy policy is not generally viewed as a national priority, and the Forestry Department, to which responsibility for fuel-wood has been assigned, has yet to develop a formal policy or strategy on this issue.

13 FOREST LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS Forest policy reform is essential to Cambodia s future. The importance of forests to the nation s future economic and social welfare prospectsis being increasingly recognized by senior officials. The highest levels of government have established their commitment to forest sector reform. Nevertheless, the regulatory framework for forest management remains incomplete and does not provide sufficient legal backing for strong sanctions. National leaders have taken strong public positions on a range of issues such as restrictions on log harvesting and transport. The 1999 crackdown on illegal logging has had a tangible impact. This was followed up with a moratorium on logging in early The government, with donor support, has implemented a Forest Crimes Monitoring and Reporting Project (FCMRP), part of which involves the use of independent monitors. While Government has made efforts to curb illegal logging and to introduce more sustainable forest management approaches, there are still mixed results on the ground. There have been important efforts such as the drafting of the national Forest Law and the drafting of codes of practice for concession management, but sustained success on the ground has been harder to achieve in practice. In 2001, Government drafted the new Forest Law, which spells out in a much clearer manner the nation s objectives and policy commitments in the management of the resource. This law has been passed by the National Assembly and is currently in force. Without a doubt, the extent of illegal logging has been reduced through government efforts; unfortunately, there are still numerous reports of continued illegal logging and conflicts between concessionaires and local communities. The Royal Government, through its Sub-Decree on Forest Concession Management, has proposed strict sanctions on concessionaires who do not follow new procedures for concession management, including implementation of environmental and social impact assessment as part of Many Cambodian villages rely on the forests of protected areas for their subsistence and spiritual needs. initiatives to prepare Sustainable Forest Management Plans. A 1996 strategy paper prepared by the World Bank, United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and the FAO identified a range of economic, social, and environmental issues in the forest sector. The donor community has worked with the Cambodian Government to recommended strategies addressing improved regulatory and legal frameworks, the examination of the concession system, and reform of log and forest products trade policy. Since that time, the country s strategic focus has been on trying to put sustainable forest management principles into operational practice. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has supported the Government through the preparation of a technical evaluation report on the nation s forest concession management system. Recently, Government announced a moratorium on all logging in the absence of a government-approved concession management plan. The overall effectiveness or sustainability of this moratorium has not been fully demonstrated at this time. In addition, Cambodia issued a Forest Concession Management Sub-Decree in February 2000 and continues with initiatives aimed at monitoring forest crime. Government has to varying degrees accepted the participation of independent monitoring groups to verify that its commitments are being followed up with ground activities. Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

14 Government is beginning to address rural energy needs and specifically the role of fuel-wood in its national development strategies. However, there is a long way to go to clear up misconceptions, and there is a great need for filling information gaps to formulate a sound policy in this area. Another challenge will be finding an institutional home to deal with the wood fuels issues. With energy policy focusing on the provision of electricity and the fact that this issue crosses institutional boundaries of the Department of Energy and the Forest Department, it will likely be some time before clear institutional responsibilities are developed for the fuelwood concerns. One area where Government seems to have made relatively little progress is in the field of illegal wildlife trade. While wildlife is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Agriculture Forest and Fisheries (MAFF), efforts to control hunting and wildlife trade do not enjoy much financial support and there seems to be little political will to enforce commitments in this regard. In addition, there are institutional constraints to effective wildlife law enforcement. Since protected areas (PAs) are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Environment (MoE) but wildlife is under the MAFF, there is often confusion in the respective roles of the ministries with regard to illegal wildlife trade within PAs. One promising area of future development could be in the field of community based agro-forestry. Government has recently issued a Sub-Decree on Community Forestry. Community forestry initiatives are underway in an estimated 110 sites around the country that are testing alternative technologies and tenure arrangements. Historically, community forestry has been implemented with considerable assistance from the community of NGOs. A number of training programs aimed at sensitizing government staff to community forest issues have had some measure of success in influencing government strategy. Forest area felled and burned in preparation for agriculture planting. Land prepared for Chamkar Khmer word that refers to shifting cultivation field. Collecting firewood.

15 OVERVIEW Cambodia contains diverse plant and animal life and has a range of ecosystems. Major bioclimatic regions include a short coastline and the isolated Elephant and Cardamom mountains to the southwest, central plains surrounding the Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong River, and upland and lowland forests in the north and northeast. Many of these areas are relatively intact, but pressures, such as land clearing for agricultural purposes and forest resources, are increasingly encroaching on the land and its biodiversity. and as a valuable source of timber, resins, and oils. When disturbed by logging or burning, the original vegetation is replaced by savanna and bamboo forests. Although comprehensive inventories are not available, it is estimated that Cambodia has 15,000 species of plants, 720 bird species, 240 reptile species, and 212 species of mammals, (NEAP, 1998). Cambodia appears to be one of the world s richest countries in terms of plant family diversity, with representatives of nearly 54% of all families of seed plants. The World Conservation Monitoring Centre estimates that there are 15,000 species of plants, with at least one third being endemic. Moreover, UNDP and the World Conservation Union (IUCN) have described some 2,300 species of vascular plants (NEAP, 1998). The diversity of habitat types and the relatively intact nature of many of these habitats means that Cambodia still has significant areas that are worth protecting and conserving. Cambodia fauna has only moderate levels of endemism and is generally believed to be less diverse than that of its neighbors. Imperata cylindrica is a tenacious grass that becomes established in many agricultural areas disturbed by repeated clearing and burning. Once established it is difficult to eradicate and renders land virtually useless to farmers. In many places, farmers are forced to open new areas to agriculture production further exacerbating the problem. FORESTS The various types of forest cover that exist in Cambodia are mangrove, evergreen, and deciduous dry dipterocarp, Mangrove forest are located along the southern coast and nearby islands. Freshwater swamps are located in the flooded zones of the Tonle Sap Lake are an extremely important forest resource for rural livelihoods. Evergreen forests grow on the mountains in the southwest and are the most valuable biodiversity resource (MacKinnon, 1997). Once evergreen forests are degraded, the original vegetation is replaced by bamboo. The most extensive forest type is the deciduous dry dipterocarp forests They occupy the open plains and are widespread east of the Mekong River and north of the Tonle Sap Lake at altitudes below 500 meters. Dipterocarp forests are known for their two-winged fruit Vast area of established Imperata cylindrica. It has been reported that one plant of Imperata can produce as many as 3,000 seeds, of which 95% can germinate within one week of harvest and can remain viable for at least one year. Seeds can also be dispersed over long distances by the wind. Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

16 COASTAL AND MARINE In comparison to neighboring countries, Cambodia s coastline and mangroves are much smaller in size. Its diverse marine habitats support 435 fish species, 24 hard coral species, 14 soft coral species, seagrass beds, and mangrove forests. It is also known that the globally endangered dugong and marine dolphin inhabit the waters off Cambodia. There are several islands along the coastline which have been reported to have coral reefs, but no systematic surveys have been done so little is known about the distribution, composition or health of the coral reefs. Threats to the coral reefs in Cambodia include dynamite fishing, coral collecting, anchoring, push netting, and trawling. The areas most affected by dynamite fishing are Koh Tang, Koh Prins and Kohhmey in the waters off Sihanoukville (O Brien, 1999, p. 102). WETLANDS Environmentally, Cambodia is most significant and famous for its wetlands. The largest wetlands are the Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong River system. The country is centered around the Tonle Sap, and 86% of Cambodia lies within the catchment of the Mekong River (O Brien, 1999, p. 85). Tonle Sap is the largest permanent freshwater lake in Southeast Asia and is an important nesting and feeding site for large waterbirds, including several globally threatened species. Wetlands are the most critical habitat type in Cambodia, and are internationally recognized for their biodiversity and biological importance. Cambodia s wetlands are home to at least 57 species of animals listed on the IUCN Red List of globally threatened species, including 23 globally threatened or near threatened birds (Fisheries Action Coalition Team, 2001, p. 14). Three sites are listed in the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance and total 54,600 ha. These sites are the Koh Kapik and associated islets on the coast, the Boeng Chmar and associated river system in the Tonle Sap floodplain, and the middle stretches of the Mekong River north of Stoeng Treng in the northeast. The Tonle Sap Lake provides habitat for 500 species of freshwater fish, including many endemics and several globally endangered species (Fisheries Action Coalition Team, 2001, p. 14). One of these globally endangered species is the Mekong giant catfish (Pangasianodom gigas). It is the world s largest freshwater fish and can grow up to 3 m long and weigh 300 kg. It has suffered serious declines because of overfishing. Information and research on migratory fish species and on the feeding, breeding and migration ecology of rare waterbirds is urgently needed. The importance of Tonle Sap s biodiversity cannot be overstated. It is recognized internationally as a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Biosphere Reserve. Threats to the biodiversity of the Tonle Sap and Mekong River system include overfishing, illegal fishing practices, the increasing use of highly hazardous pesticides, unsustainable hunting, deforestation, conversion of flooded forests, and future dam and water resource projects of the Mekong. Cutting of forests around and near the Tonle Sap has caused accelerated soil erosion and increased siltation. Increased siltation of the Tonle Sap is a serious problem. Silt deposits in the main river channels are negatively affecting fish migration and spawning. Moreover, increased siltation in the Tonle Sap is rapidly decreasing the lake s depth and causing rising water temperatures and fish mortalities. There are various estimates of when the lake will be full of silt, but there is a lack of long-term data to draw any conclusions. However, it is known that siltation is occurring at a rapid rate, and if it is not controlled, it will threaten fish spawning and reduce fish productivity and freshwater biodiversity, as well as result in a loss of important protein sources and livelihoods. Since the seasonal flooding and dynamic spatial changes are particularly important to the Tonle Sap and Mekong River system, any upstream dam or water resource project on the Mekong will have significant impacts. Although Cambodia does not currently have any mainstream hydropower projects or plans in its current energy development, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Thailand, and China have all either built dams or have plans for future water resource projects along the Mekong. In light of the floods of 2000, impacts downstream to Cambodia could be considerable, and transnational water development schemes should not be dismissed lightly.

17 MANGROVES Mangroves grow along most of Cambodia s coastline and cover 85,000 ha. In Cambodia, mangroves are cut and harvested for firewood, charcoal, and building materials and burned to repel mosquitoes and other insects. Impacts of unsustainable harvesting include loss of habitat and shelter for marine stocks, reduced shoreline protection from storms and erosion, increased siltation, and acid soils. It has been estimated that marine fisheries catch from mangrove areas is in excess of 30,000 tonnes per year, and if mangrove habitats are destroyed this could be greatly reduced (O Brien, 1999, p. 110). Mangrove forests in Cambodia are relatively intact, but recent activities may harm their habitat and if left unchecked could undercut local livelihoods and food security. In Koh Kong Province, mangroves are cut predominantly for charcoal production and intensive shrimp farming, and in Kampot Province trees are felled for fuelwood and conversion to salt farms. Charcoal production is increasing in scale, and charcoal is illegally exported. In 1992, there were 300 charcoal kilns that produced 24,000 tonnes of charcoal. Ninety-five percent of this was illegally exported (O Brien, 1999, p. 112). Intensive shrimp farming is a recent practice. There were no intensive shrimp farms before 1985, but by ha of shrimp farm licenses had been issued (O Brien, 1999, p. 112). Although mangrove destruction is minimal, this trend of mangrove felling will accelerate if controlling measures are not taken, and rich biodiverse habitats and local livelihoods will be threatened. Flowering vine in Ratanakiri Province. the first country in Southeast Asia to declare a protected area and establish a 10,800-ha national park around the Angkor Temple complex (NEAP, 1998). In recent times, the country has identified 23 protected areas, including 7 national parks, 10 wildlife sanctuaries, 3 protected landscapes, and 3 multiple use zones. In total about 3.3 million ha, representing close to 18% of the total land area, is declared protected. In spite of this, numerous threats to Cambodia s biodiversity exist within its PAs. Common to many developing nations, land conversion for agriculture, urban, and industrial purposes; poorly planned forest management; illegal logging; hunting; illegal wildlife trade (see box); and forest fires all contribute to the increased pressure on the country s protected areas. Cambodia s ability to counteract these threats is limited due to poor law enforcement capability; weak capacity to plan, manage, and implement a national system of protected areas; and low public awareness and political commitment. As a result, there are few examples of sustained efforts to protect a single national park. Government capacity is constrained by the lack of a well-developed legal PROTECTED AREAS Cambodia has set ambitious targets for its national protected areas system. In 1925, Cambodia was Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

18 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE Ongoing surveys and trade research reveal that wildlife populations throughout Cambodia are being poached at an alarming rate. Few PAs are patrolled on any consistent basis and there is, at present, no national system in place to identify and arrest illegal wildlife traders. Institutional responsibility for controlling wildlife hunting rests with the MAFF Forest Department and the Ministry of Environment. One of the most difficult challenges in controlling wildlife hunting is that the same people who use the forest for subsistence needs are often the ones laying traps and snares to service the wildlife trade. In Bokor National Park, rangers estimate that thousands of traps have been set to snare deer, wild pig, monitor lizards, and pheasants. Hunters are often creative in the use of tools. Dogs are often a preferred hunting tool in the forests of Bokor National Park. In some parts of the country, tigers are hunted using landmines. In spite of the pressures, many wildlife specialists believe the populations of threatened animals could recover given sufficient protection. However, with no data on the scale of wildlife trade, the effect on biodiversity is currently unknown. Despite the presence of illegal wildlife trade, Cambodia is a signatory to and has ratified the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Source: Authors assessment. framework, poor staff incentives, and lack of financial resources to implement necessary programs. The challenges to establishing an effective system of national parks also include the great diversity of social contexts in which the parks are set. The human pressures vary considerably from one area to another and in areas like the northeast are complicated by the presence of indigenous ethnic minorities who depend on the forests for their subsistence and many spiritual needs. For the most part, effective conservation of biological diversity is not so much an issue of managing natural areas as managing the people who inhabit and utilize these areas. Cambodia currently lacks clear rules and guidelines on what is allowable and what is not with regard to hunting and utilization of natural resources within protected areas. Public education and awareness raising are thus critical elements of any national strategy. For the most part the country lacks good systematically collected and evaluated data on the distribution, populations and dynamics of major species. The dearth of scientific information has created problems for reaching agreement on national priorities. The effective management of protected areas will require the collaboration of numerous institutions nationally. Often these national bodies have conflicting interests, as between government, private business, military, and provincial and central government authorities.

19 AMBITIOUS NATIONAL GOALS To meet its ambitious conservation goals, the Government of Cambodia, through the MoE, has taken a number of important steps. First, it has declared its intention to establish a national parks and protected areas system through the Royal Decree of Cambodia has ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the MoE has recently undertaken a Biodiversity Enabling Activity. Cambodia has sought to clarify its national strategy through a new National Biodiversity Action Plan. It has also established a national Biodiversity Steering Committee. Moreover, the MoE is leading the way on the development of new protected areas legislation which would complement the recently passed Land and Forest Laws. In addition, Government is actively seeking to develop working partnerships with leading conservation groups such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), Wild Aid, and others to develop more effective working relationships and to build on the limited staff skills and resources available for conservation purposes. OPERATIONAL CHALLENGES The jurisdiction for managing the country s biological assets is currently split between the MAFF and the MoE. The MoE is responsible for administering the system of protected areas. The MoE s Department of Nature Conservation is the nodal agency department responsible for biodiversity conservation. The Department of Forests within the MAFF, on the other hand, is responsible for enforcing wildlife protection regulations. In some cases, split jurisdiction is necessary because there are many parts of the country that have significant habitat value but are not within formally established protected areas. This split jurisdiction has caused some confusion on roles and responsibilities and has led to institutional rivalries in the past. Greater inter-agency collaboration is highly desirable, and a recent example is the Forest Crimes Monitoring Program. The country s conservation goals are closely related to forest management, and the MoE is seeking to work in partnership with the MAFF and the Forest Department to monitor and deter forest crime particularly illegal logging. For the foreseeable future, Cambodia s national programs for biodiversity conservation will need substantial donor assistance. The MoE is aggressively seeking external donor support for biodiversity conservation. The MoE has secured a World Bank loan and a Global Environmental Facility (GEF) to help develop its national system and to implement an working plan for Virachey National Park in Ratanakiri. The MoE is also seeking additional GEF resources to support other priority national conservation programs. One of the biggest impediments to successful management of a national system of PAs is the fact that the MoE is essentially bankrupt and does not have sufficient funding to carry out its mandated functions. Securing sustainable financing for the country s PA system will remain a major problem. Virtually all operational budgets for PA work in the MoE come from external donors in the form of grants and loans. Ecologically based tourism is one area where there is great promise, although, with the exception of the Temples of Angkor Wat, this has not yet been explored in any substantial way. While eco-tourism holds some promise, there are many inherent dangers to be avoided, such as adverse effects on indigenous communities, disproportionate benefits flowing to external individuals and businesses, and ensuring equitable benefits sharing. Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

20 OVERVIEW The land resources of Cambodia are an integral element of the country s future development potential.approximately 75 80% of the country s population is directly engaged in agriculture and is directly dependent upon the continued productivity of the land for daily subsistence needs. Agriculture is the largest economic sector accounting for about 40% of the gross domestic product (GDP) (National Institute of Statistics, 1999). AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES There are more than 1.2 million farming households in Cambodia. Agriculture is dominated by lowland rice production. More than 88% of the country s developed agricultural land is used for rice production. Rice is the staple food of Cambodia, providing 75% of the daily caloric intake. Its role in the national economy cannot be underestimated. Rice alone accounts for about 17% of national GDP (Nesbitt, 1998). Other important crops include maize, soybean, mung bean, and sweet potato; rubber is the country s biggest export earner. Crop diversification and intensification (especially rice production) is the central focus of Cambodia s agricultural policy. Although there have been recent increases in rice production, food security and malnutrition are serious issues in several parts of the country. The FAO estimates that 50% of children under five are stunted and up to 20% suffer severe malnutrition (Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF), 2002). Despite the importance of rice in the national economy, yields are low compared with other countries in the region. Rice production has stabilized over the last few years, but regional inequalities persist. Rice is grown throughout the country including, many areas with poor soils and inadequate access to water. Although irrigated rice yields are higher than wet-season rain-fed rice, irrigated rice accounts for only 15 20% of total production (EJF, 2002). Cambodia s percentage of irrigated agricultural land is one of the lowest in the region. While rainfall may be plentiful in aggregate terms, the unpredictable nature of rainfall 5,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 0 Source: FAOSTAT Database, Cambodia Philippines Indonesia Lao PDR Thailand Vietnam Region 1985 Thailand Lao PDR Philipppines Indonesia Vietnam Region Source: FAOSTAT Database, Source: World Bank, Paddy Rice Production (Mt) Comparison of Rice Paddy Fields ,000 Percentage of Irrigated Land ,714 30,606 31,866 42,479 42,565 39,350 60,000 40, Yield (Hg/Ha) Percent

21 complicates farming in Cambodia. The FAO World Food Program estimates that major crop losses (of rice and other crops) occur every three to four years because of droughts or floods (EJF, 2002). The floods of 2000 were the worst in recent history, causing several hundred deaths and destroying crops and infrastructure. It is estimated that 400,000 ha of wet-season rice were affected. Exacerbating floods are deforestation and soil erosion. Causes of deforestation are unsustainable logging, increased demand for wood and charcoal, and expansion of agricultural land. In the northeast, upland rice is produced using traditional swidden agricultural practices, which include slash and burn of forests with long-rotation cropping systems. With increasing demands for agricultural land, fallow periods that allow land to rejuvenate have decreased from years to 3 5 years, thereby increasing soil degradation and erosion (O Brien, 1999, p. 255). LAND DEGRADATION General indications are that many of Cambodia s soils are prone to drought. They tend to have low moisture-holding capacity and physical characteristics, such as low organic matter content, which restrict effective rooting depth and subsequent yields (Nesbitt, 1998). Unfertilized rice yields vary widely depending on soil type. On poorer soils, such as in Prey Khmer and Prateah Lang, yields are as low as 600 to 900 kg/ha. Some good soils do exist in the active floodplain of the Mekong, but it is in these areas where development pressures are also most intense. Unfertilized yields on better soil types can reach as high as 2,000 2,500 kg/ha (Nesbitt, 1998). In addition, Cambodia s fertilizer use is one of the lowest in the region. Indigenous farmers use shifting cultivation techniques to clear forest land for cultivation. PLANTED AREA PER CROP TYPE Crop type Planted area (ha) Rice 2,079,440 Maize 59,740 Rubber 36,720 Soybean 34,950 Vegetables other 31,240 Mung bean 26,750 Sesame 16,410 Cassava 14,000 Peanut 10,560 Sweet potato 9,320 Sugar cane 8,370 Tobacco 8,290 Jute 260 Total Crop 2,336,050 Source: Cambodia Statistical Yearbook, Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

22 4,000 3,000 2,000 1, ,464 Region 3,365 Vietnam Source: World Bank, Fetilizer Consumption (100 g/ha arable land) 1,482 1,336 1,226 Indonesia P hilippines T hailand Lao PDR Cambodia There have been relatively few studies on the soil resources of the country. There is growing concern in Cambodia over land degradation. Land clearing for agriculture and other development initiatives is increasingly exposing Cambodia s sandy soils to erosional forces, leading to significant problems in some areas. Of particular concern, there appears to be low potential for yield increases across approximately 50% of Cambodia s cultivated areas due to severe soil quality problems (McKenney and Prom Tola, forthcoming). Soil infertility has been recognized as one of the most serious constraints to crop yield improvement in Cambodia (Desbarats and Boreak, 2000). The Cambodia- IRRI-Australia-Project has made significant contributions to the soil knowledge base, but much remains to be done to improve the understanding and productivity of soil management. Further limiting arable land for agriculture is the presence of an estimated 4 to 6 million landmines (EJF, 2002). It is estimated that landmines limit access to approximately 40% of arable land (O Brien, 1999, p. 257). The Cambodia Landmine Impact Survey completed in 2002 determined that all 24 provinces have areas affected by mines, and that nearly half of all villages are either known or suspected of being contaminated by mines (International Campaign to Ban Landmines, 2002). The marking of mine areas is still in progress. LAND ADMINISTRATION Land remains a contentious issue nationally. Conflicts over land are commonplace in Cambodia. A number of factors contribute to the emergence of land as a predominant environmental and social issue. Among the most important land issues are: Population growth places high demographic pressure on land. Land tenure is not secure for many of the country s rural poor. Repatriation of refugees and military demobilization place increased demand on land. Land speculation is uncontrolled and ownership is driven by outside interests. Large areas of potentially productive land are still affected by landmines. Natural hazards, especially flooding, affect sustained land productivity. Land allocation for agricultural, forestry, industrial, and other purposes still lacks transparency. There are competing land claims, even between government ministries. There is uncertainty over land boundaries under control by various entities. Information and understanding of laws and procedures governing land is inadequate. Demand for land, especially agricultural land, is increasing and is expected to continue. The baby boom that followed the Khmer Rouge regime is now reaching marriageable age and is escalating the demand for rural arable land. An Oxfam study concluded that the expanding rural population is the largest single cause of landlessness (Desbarats and Boreak, 2000). Landlessness is increasingly becoming a problem, and the same Oxfam study recently estimated that approximately 13% of rural households in Cambodia are landless. Consequently, the search for land is resulting in migrations to the northwest or northeast frontiers, and family landholdings are being divided into smaller parcels. The average size of agricultural holdings in Cambodia is quite small, only one ha per family (Boreak, 2000). This is highly unequally distributed, with female-headed households and marginal groups having much less. The 1999 Socio-economic Survey found that 48% of rural populations had less than.75 ha of land, and the FAO recently estimated that food security becomes a problem when households have less than.75 ha of land (Desbarats and Boreak, 2000).

23 The problems are exacerbated by the lack of rigorous, transparent, and credible dispute resolution mechanisms. The dispute resolution system is laboring under a large backlog of cases that can often take years to resolve. PESTICIDES AND AGRICULTURE CHEMICALS It is difficult to determine the level of agricultural chemical use in Cambodia. Cambodia does not produce pesticides and all agricultural chemicals must be imported, and there are no important agrochemical distributors in the country. It is claimed that a value added tax (VAT) of 10% on all authorized imports is a disincentive for establishing a responsible distribution system; consequently, there are high levels of illegal imports from neighboring countries. It is estimated that as little as 40% and possibly as low as 20% of pesticides used are official authorized imports (Morton, unpublished 1999). There is growing evidence that agricultural chemical use has increased over the last few years. The Cambodia Center for Study and Development in Agriculture (CEDAC) interviewed 933 farmers in the Tonle Sap region and found that 67% used pesticides; of those, 44% started using pesticides in the 80s and 55% in the 90s (CEDAC, 2001). In 1994, there were 30 types of pesticides in the market, but by 1998 this grew to 63 types (CEDAC, 2000). However, it is not so much the level of pesticides use that is of concern but rather the inappropriate and highly toxic agricultural chemical use that is increasingly recognized as problematic. All pesticides used in Cambodia are manufactured outside of the country and imported, mostly through Thailand or Vietnam. Up to 97.5% of chemical labels are written in non-khmer languages such as Thai and Vietnamese (CEDAC, 2000). Thus, even the minority of literate farmers find most labels in a foreign language or script. Consequently, frequent inappropriate pesticide use occurs, such as fungicides being used for insects. A CEDAC study further discovered that only 5% of farmers surveyed in the Tonle Sap region had received advice on pesticide use from extension workers, and that 95% learned through neighbors, their own experience, or from pesticide traders. Moreover, it was revealed that only 8 out of 77 pesticide traders, whom farmers frequently rely on for advice, could read the foreign labels. In addition, it was found that a majority of farmers (63%) mix one to two pesticide products together, while 30% mix three to four pesticides together, and 7% mix five to six different products together before spraying (CEDAC, 2001). Therefore, users frequently do not know what chemicals they are using, what the application rates are, and what dangers exist. A significant portion of pesticides used in Cambodia are classified as extremely to highly hazardous (Class I) by the World Health Organization (WHO). These toxic chemicals are being used and traded despite their prohibition under the Sub-Decree on Standards and Management of Agricultural Materials issued by the Cambodian Government in Moreover, persistent organic pesticides such as DDT and chlordane are also available and still used in spite of Cambodia being a signatory to the Stockholm Convention banning persistent organic pollutants (POPs). In addition, a study of the pesticide market in the Tonle Sap region found that 42 out of 241 pesticide products available are banned in Vietnam and that another 16 are banned in Thailand (CEDAC, 2001). Some fear that Cambodia is becoming a dumping ground for unwanted and dangerous pesticides banned in other countries, while others believe that because of the absence of any significant local distribution system, pesticides from neighboring countries take several years to move down through the long distribution chain and are either near or beyond their expiry dates when they reach Cambodia. Because of the absence of a top-down distribution system, there is a lack of control over what is sold, and the quality of some pesticides has been found to be poor. There are reports of adulteration, dilution, false labeling, and repackaging in unsuitable containers. Many challenges face Cambodian farmers in this regard: poor product quality, poor enforcement of existing regulations, lack of awareness of pesticide dangers, and poor understanding of the use and application of pesticides. Pesticides, particularly persistent and highly toxic compounds, pose both human and ecological dangers. With limited knowledge of the chemicals they are using and little or no safety gear, farmers are at risk from pesticide poisonings through inhalation and dermal contact. There is Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

24 also a risk of pesticide residues on foods consumed by Cambodians. These residues could ultimately limit Cambodia s future export potential of agricultural products to countries that have residue limits. Extremely hazardous pesticides are increasingly used in the Tonle Sap catchment, which endangers fish and other aquatic life in the lake, as well as migratory waterbirds that feed on contaminated fish and water. Pesticides are also used in the Tonle Sap to illegally catch and kill fish and to protect dried fish from insects. Pesticide pollution, especially in the Tonle Sap region, could severely disrupt the ecosystem and diminish fish populations and protein consumption of the rural population. Without any actions or controls, pesticide use in Cambodia will almost assuredly continue rapidly upward. Since the greatest intensity of pesticide use in Cambodia is on vegetables and dry-season rice, the national goals of crop intensification and diversification will more than likely lead to increased agro-chemical use. Women from local ethnic groups selling produce at the Ban Lung market in Ratanakiri.

25 AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES The Cambodian Government through the MAFF has outlined its major agricultural goals in its current fiveyear Agricultural Development Plan ( ). Among other objectives, high on the list of priorities are ensuring food security, increasing the value of agricultural products, and practicing sustainable resource management. Government hopes to achieve these goals by implementing policies to increase the productivity of existing land through investments in infrastructure (irrigation), expand cultivated areas, improve water policy, and increase private sector involvement across a range of sub-sectors. Significant efforts have been made to promote technical packages, which include increased agro-chemical use and introduction of improved seed varieties. The MAFF strategy also aims at curbing unsustainable, illegal activities, particularly in the areas of fisheries and forest management. However, the Government s promotion of large-scale agricultural concessions deserves closer scrutiny to determine potential benefits and costs to rural livelihoods. Recent information suggests that 64% (16 out of 25) of the concessions with contracts are currently having problems with protests and/or land encroachment from local people (McKenney and Tola, forthcoming). A key element of any successful strategy will be increasing farmer self-reliance and promoting community participation in rural development initiatives. There is growing evidence that consultative processes are being used to a far greater extent, such as EEPSEA s community program and other emerging types of community-driven rural development initiatives. By utilizing and building upon community interests, rural program delivery can be better targeted, more relevant, and better sustained. In the area of pest management, Government, with the help of two organizations International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and FAO has recognized the importance of integrated pest management (IPM) approaches. An IPM program in rice was started in 1993, and a vegetable IPM program was begun in The programs are working to increase farmer awareness and to build the capacity of agricultural extension workers by providing training in IPM techniques. However, without the enforcement of the Sub-Decree on Standards and Management of Agricultural Materials (1998) and the Stockholm Convention banning POPS, the extremely to highly hazardous and persistent chemicals will still be readily available in Cambodia. In addition, the lack of a central distribution system for pesticides will mean that chemicals will continue to filter into the mass market at the bottom through porous borders and will go unregulated. LAND ADMINISTRATION An important element in Government s overall land management strategy is the provision of improved tenure security. Government is focusing on accelerating the provision of private land title in the hopes that secure title will lead to improved management of natural resources, improved land husbandry, and poverty alleviation. The assumption is that farmers will be more likely to invest in land improvements in a situation where secure tenure is ensured, and that land improvements will contribute to increased yields and reduced poverty. However, caution will need to be exercised to ensure that efforts to promote private land titling do not have unintended effects. For example, Oxfam has reported that numerous cases of land expropriation of large tracts by powerful individuals and institutional interests have been observed, even in cases where private title has been issued in the past (Oxfam, 1998). According to Oxfam, fertile land suitable for commercial production is especially at risk of expropriation. In addition, the issuance of private titles will need to be executed carefully in situations where customary community land use by ethnic minorities may be undermined. Significant problems can also emerge when Government declares large tracts of land as protected areas. Care will need to be taken when declaring the management rights, responsibilities, and obligations with the country s PA system. Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

26 A significant challenge to government policy makers is that of landlessness. Government will need to address issues that exacerbate the poverty trap (such as illnesses, successive years of flooding, and indebtedness) whereby poor rural households find it necessary to sell off their land assets to make ends meet. Indications are that landlessness is rapidly emerging in many parts of the country. Future land demands will depend on the growth of the rural population Some significant reforms are emerging in Cambodia, including the establishment of the Council for Land Policy, which is responsible for developing a comprehensive land policy framework; the emergence of a National Settlement of Land Disputes Program; increased commitment to consultations between Government, civil society, and the private sector; support for raising awareness about the new land law and the drafting of implementing sub-decrees; and assistance to Government from donors such as the World Bank in supporting land administration project (NGO Statement to 2001 Consultative Group Meeting). In addition, in August 2001, Government passed a new Land Law. Government will also need to improve its overall coordination of land use planning and land allocation. This includes improving the land inventory system and the national classification system and developing land use plans for forests, agricultural development areas, key urban areas, and road corridors. To help ensure that land allocations are done in an environmentally sustainable way, Government will also need to take steps to improve its overall Environmental and Social Assessment procedures. LAND ADMINISTRATION PROJECT When the Khmer Rouge came into power in 1975, they collectivized land and destroyed land records such as cadastral maps and land titles. Under this regime, hundreds of thousands of people were forced to move from cities into the countryside. Rights to private ownership were reintroduced in 1989, but the situation has been chaotic. Administration of the country s property rights is spread across several government agencies. Land tenure security remains a major national issue affecting private landholders as well as the administration of the public land estate. It is estimated that by mid-2001, only 15% of the estimated 4 million individual applications for land tenure certificates had been processed. In an effort to accelerate provision of private land titling and modernization of the country s land administration systems, the World Bank is supporting a major land administration initiative. Under the Bank-financed Land Administration and Management Project (LAMP), Government will develop national land policies and regulatory and institutional frameworks for land administration. The project aims to issue title in urban and rural areas and to establish a more transparent system of land administration. Source: Authors assessment.

27 OVERVIEW Cambodia possesses abundant water resources. The Mekong River, the Tonle Sap River, and the Tonle Sap Lake are the most important sources of freshwater, which supports agriculture, fisheries, and transportation. THE MEKONG RIVER The Mekong is the sixth largest river in the world, and it flows from southwest China to the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. The Cambodia portion of the Mekong River Basin is still relatively untouched; however, regional development is leading to increased water usage for urban and industrial development and irrigation schemes as well as intensified pressure on the river ecosystem. Wild fish production takes place in a wetland ecosystem that is driven by the annual flooding of the Mekong under the influence of the southwest monsoon (June October). Large and medium-scale fisheries, located along the river, are designed to intercept fish migrations taking place when the flood start receding. THE TONLE SAP RIVER AND LAKE The Tonle Sap River and Lake are important symbols of national identity. About 3 million people, in six provinces, depend on the lake and its floodplain for their livelihood. The unique hydrology of the lake allows it to act as a natural flood retention basin, regulating floodwater from the Annual Renewable Water Resources Country Total Resources (km³) 1995 (m³/person) World 30,712 22,544 Asia 13,207 3,680 Thailand 110 1,845 Cambodia 88 8,195 Lao PDR ,392 Indonesia 2,530 12,251 Malaysia ,259 Myanmar 1,082 22,719 Philippines 323 4,476 Vietnam 376 4,827 Source: The State of the Environment in Thailand in a Decade of Change, TDRI, Life s activities along the water s edge. Mekong River. During the dry season, the lake is about 120 km long, 35 km wide, and 1 to 2 meters deep; in the rainy season it enlarges to about 250 km long and 100 km wide, and the depth reaches 8 to 10 meters, to become the largest freshwater lake in Asia. The lake is surrounded by a floodplain km wide, dominated by inundated forests and rice fields. The areas periodically flooded play a key role in maintaining and reviewing the lake s productivity, which is one of the highest in the world, as the inundated forests provide the breeding and feeding habitat for fish and other forms of life. The lake alone contributes 53 to 68% of the total fish catch of the Tonle Sap area, and has a potential reported fish production of 65 kg/ha/year (based in the dry season area), which is more than five times that of most tropical freshwater bodies. 1 The annual total value of the fish catch ranges between US$ 44 and 58 million, and amounts to about 5% of GDP. The lake, however, provides much more than fish; it has significant potential for eco-tourism because it complements the Angkor complex; it is a reservoir of biological diversity, which includes birds with many migratory birds moving back and forth within the Tonle Sap floodplain and wild animals, besides fish species. This makes the management of the lake an issue of both national and regional importance, and has resulted in the Tonle Sap area been given the status of international biosphere reserve. Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

28 Cambodia Annual Inland Fishery Harvest, 2001 Estimated catch Type of fishery (tonnes) Large-scale fisheries Floodplain lots Dais (bag nets) Open access Middle scale Family scale 75, ,000 10,000 16,000 85, , , ,000 Total 290, ,000* Note: * The total figure includes an estimated 43,000 to 100,000 tonnes from ricefields fisheries. Source: Adapted from Olesen, Despite its international and protected status, the Tonle Sap has come under increasing threats, among which the most pressing ones include: Increasing demand for fuel-wood and briquette production; Crescent marginalization of the riparian communities, traditionally dependent on fishing, as areas of open access have diminished at the expense of fishing-lot operations; Growing seasonal migration toward the lake and conversion of inundated forest to farming due to lack of alternative income earning opportunities; Rising risk of fertilizer and pesticide runoff that could devastate the lake s fishing potential; Increasing occurrence of illegal fishing practices (Fisheries Action Coalition, 2001); and Sedimentation. COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES Cambodia s 435-km coastline is shared by the provinces of Koh Kong, Kampong Som, Kamot, and Kep City, where about 5% of the population lives, and an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) covering 55,600 square km. Cambodia s coastal zone supports diverse habitats and species significant to biodiversity, including mangrove forests, coral reefs, and seagrass beds. The mangroves are estimated to cover 85,100 ha, with the largest undistributed area (63,000 ha) being in the Koh Kong coast and its offshore islands. Charcoal making, shrimp aquaculture, and offshore oil and gas development are regarded as growing threats to the well-being of coastal resources. MARINE FISH STOCKS The EEZ is an important fishing ground, although the participation of Cambodian fishermen is limited because of the population s preference for freshwater fish. In 1996, the reported annual catch from marine fisheries was about 30,000 tonnes; the actual catch, however, may be higher as this figure does not include the harvest of foreign fleets that land their catch outside Cambodia, illegal commercial boats, and subsistence fisheries. Limited information is currently available on the status of marine fish stocks as no extensive research, on the fish population, has been carried out since Catch statistics indicate that total annual harvests grew between 1980 and 1990 (going from 1,200 to 39,000 tonnes), then declined to about 30,000 tonnes in IRRIGATION AND CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT Water resources planning and utilization has always been a main national concern. In 1993 there were 920 irrigation schemes throughout the country, covering 310,000 ha. While a few projects have been implemented in selected areas of the country (Stung Mongkol, Borey, Stung Chinit, and Prek Thnot), rehabilitation of existing systems remains preferable and more economically viable. As a result, low-lift pumps and shallow tube wells, and individual rather than collective management of irrigation schemes, are seen as the most suitable options for Cambodia for the years to come. In a number of cases, however, the legacy of technically unsound irrigation structures built between 1975 to 1979 has increased the cost of rehabilitation of irrigation schemes. To strengthen the long-term sustainability of these rehabilitation efforts, Government is working with local communities to ensure proper management and maintenance of these facilities by identifying explicit targets for financial management and creating viable user groups. Source: Adapted from Environment in Transition, Asia Development Bank, Manila 2000.

29 The effectiveness of the Department of Fisheries (DoF) in managing the marine fisheries has been limited so far due to lack of skilled personnel and budget constraints, which further weaken the DoF s capacity to enforce existing laws and regulations. Though the DoF generates substantial revenues from the national treasury and the issuing of fishing permits, fines, and other fees (US$ 4 million in 1995), its current budget remains insufficient to meet its operational requirements (US$ 200,000 in 1995). The 1987 Fisheries Law is aimed at conserving the fisheries resources and regulating the exploitation of Cambodia s freshwater and marine resources. The law addresses access control, gear restrictions, closed season, and the designation of fish sanctuaries and/or protected areas. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, through the DoF, is responsible for the use, management, and protection of marine and freshwater resources. However, the Ministry of Tourism, the Ministry of Industry, Mining and Energy, the Ministry of Environment, and the Ministry of Rural Development also participate in some aspects of management and protection of coastal and freshwater resources. The Coastal Coordination Unit, formed in 1996 as part of the MoE, coordinates the activities relating to coastal and marine environmental management with other members of the international marine community, such as the Coordinating Body of the Seas of East Asia, the Southeast Asian Progamme in Ocean Law, Policy and Management, the International Maritime Organization, and the International Development Research Centre. The National Coastal Steering Committee, created in 1997, is responsible for the overall direction of coastal projects and activities, and seeks cooperation among line ministries and provincial authorities in matters related to coastal and freshwater resources management. The Cambodian Government has developed integrated approaches to manage the Tonle Sap area. Notable among them is the creation of the Coordination Unit within the MoE and the formulation of the National Wetlands Action Plan by the MAFF and the MoE. In addition, several initiatives assisted by international organizations and NGOs have aimed at safeguarding the inundated forests by a combination of measures that include forest regeneration, controlled farming, and a more secure access for the lakeshore communities to fishing. Net fishing. Preparing for the day s fishing activities. Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

30 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEKONG RIVER BASIN In 1995, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Vietnam signed an agreement on Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin. This agreement acknowledges the life-sustaining links that transcend the boundaries between the countries tributaries of the Mekong River, and that the future management of the Mekong river basin has to consider these important transnational issues and address them in a cooperation framework. China and Myanmar, also sharing Mekong waters, have so far declined to join the agreement. The Mekong River Commission (MRC) coordinates and promotes the sustainable management of the river basin and its resources to avoid potential conflicts that are likely to arise with increasing water and food needs. In 1998, the MRC established the contribution of each country to the average river flow as follows: Cambodia 19%; China 16%; Lao PDR 35%; Myanmar 2%; Thailand 17%; and Vietnam 11%. With the establishment of the percentage contribution, the MRC started advocating the need for national natural resources policies, which would reflect the implications of a shared vision of the objectives for water management and regional cooperation, and an institutional framework to strengthen the knowledge base, hydrological modeling, benchmark survey, and community awareness and participation in river basin management. Source: Adapted from Project for Management of the Freshwater Capture Fisheries of Cambodia.

31 OVERVIEW Domestic sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and untreated solid waste are polluting surface and groundwater in Cambodia. In addition, improper storage of chemicals and fertilizers and violations of regulations to protect sanitary zones further exacerbate the problem. As of 2000, 29.4% of total population had access to safe water (53% of urban and 25% of rural population); 17.6% to sanitation facilities (58% of urban and 10% of rural population). 3 WATER QUALITY In 2001, a water quality survey conducted by the Department of Environmental Pollution Control of the MoE reported that water quality is declining, especially in the lower reaches of the Bassac, Mekong, and Tonle Sap rivers, owing to the concentration of economic activity around the nation s capital. The annual average level of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the Bassac, the upper and lower reaches of the Mekong, and the Tonle Sap rivers was better (higher) than the standard levels. Concentration of biological oxygen demand (BOD) consistently exceeded the standard lower bound value for water quality standard; overall BOD concentrations, however, remained below the upper bound of the water quality standard. 4 Increasing concentrations of total coliform bacteria (TCB) represent a significant health risk. Between BOD Annual Average Bassac Mekong - Upper Reaches BOD Mekong - Lower Reaches Tonle Sap Standard Value (lower bound) Source: Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Ministry of Environment, April and July, the standard was often exceed by a factor of at least 2 (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Water and Soil Management Office, 2002). In addition to increased levels of agricultural herbicides, fertilizers, and pesticides, sedimentation, resulting from land clearing for agricultural purposes (both large-scale commercial plantation and small-scale subsistence farming) is contributing to the overall decrease in water quality. The expansion of marine-based activities, especially oil/gas exploration, shipping, and hotel business, represents an increasing threat to coastal water quality. Important tourist sites, such as Sihanoukville, report TCB levels over the standards for swimming DO Annual Average Bassac Mekong - Upper Reaches Mekong - Lower Reaches Tonle Sap The quantity and quality of groundwater have also been adversely affected by pollution; increasing groundwater use has led to pollution from domestic sewage, factory waste, and agricultural chemicals. SANITATION Throughout the country, sewerage coverage is limited and/ or no longer functioning (Asia Development Bank, 2000), with Phnom Penh covered for only about 10%. No investments solely dedicated to upgrade and/or expand the existing sewage network have been made over the past 10 years. DO Standard Value (lower bound) Source: Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Ministry of Environment, The lack of appropriate sewage treatment becomes evident during the dry season, when untreated sewage is directly Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

32 discharged into the rivers. In addition, during the wet season, a mixture of sewage and stormwater backs up into houses in low-lying areas, posing a significant health threat. The cost of connecting private houses to the sewerage system is high; this prevents the poor from connecting their houses sewers to the public system, and is resulting in human waste being discharged indiscriminately near residential areas, tensions between neighbors, and hazardous health conditions. Under such circumstances, diarrhea and cholera have become endemic in the country. In 1998, some 1,200 cases of both diseases were registered, with 66 of them resulting in death. In 1999, a cholera outbreak in the province of Rottanankiri claimed 56 lives of the 874 people infected (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Water and Soil Management Office, 2002). In addition, continuing migration to urban centers and unplanned settlement outside the main levee of Phnom Penh are increasing pressure on the existing wastewater infrastructure and the system of natural drainage, which has served as the traditional environmental safeguard against floods until now. Sections of flood protection sleeves in fact have been occupied by squatters, many of them migrants; land over natural drainage paths and canals is restricting water flows and creating sanitation problems INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION The industrial sector has been identified as one of the priority areas deputed to support the socioeconomic development of the country. of water quality, increased turbidity and presence of silt and heavy metal in the Stung Sangker River (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Water and Soil Management Office, 2002). Cambodia is a signatory of the 1995 Agreement on the Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin, together with Lao PDR, Thailand, and Vietnam. Member countries agree to cooperate in all fields of sustainable development, utilization, management and conservation of the water and related resources of the Mekong River Basin, such as navigation, flood control, fisheries, agriculture, hydropower, and environmental protection. In 1996, the MoE set the Surface Water Quality Standards and Wastewater Effluent Standards, and the requirement of a effluent discharge permit, to be issued by the MoE, for the industrial sector. To date, however, only 11 factories out of 365 have complied with the discharge permit requirements and thus received the permit. In 1999, Government passed the Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control, whose enforcement, however, is still weak. The MoE is also taking the necessary steps to address people s complaints against allegedly improper disposal of liquid industrial waste. To date, several cases are being investigated, and in eight cases, where the pollution levels were above standards, violators have been fined for a total amount of 3.5 million riel. In addition, in 2001, the MoE As a result of the accelerating pace of industrial development, since 1996, factories throughout Cambodia are required to have a wastewater discharge permit that certifies that the pollution levels of their effluent discharges are within the limits stated by the Effluent Ambient Level Standards. Particular attention is currently given to the textile, dyeing, manufacturing, and extractive industries, which are seen as the most problematic ones in terms of impact on water quality (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Water and Soil Management Office, 2002). Gemstone mining, especially in the Northwestern provinces, has been identified as the main cause of the overall lowering Washing along the water s edge.

33 developed a national and local training program to update and strengthen staff skills for water pollution prevention and abatement. After the reestablishment of government control over the gem mining area around Pailin, Government has started an assessment of the environmental dimensions of the mining operations in terms of modification of existing practices and land rehabilitation, in addition to the analysis of revenue and employment potential of the mining areas. Government intends to use the findings of this assessment to strengthen the environmental provisions of the current Law on Mineral Resources as well as to clarify the roles the MoE and Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy should play in regulating and supervising the mining industry. Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

34 OVERVIEW Waste generation has increased significantly over the past five years; its dispersion to the environment is seen as a growing threat to the quality of water, air, and land, which is compounded by the lack of environmentally sound waste disposal and treatment facilities. In 1999, an average of 650 tonnes of waste were generated daily in the main urban centers across the country; Phnom Penh Municipality (PPM) alone generates some 465 tonnes per day, and it is projected to triple by 2010 (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Water and Soil Management Office, 2002). Of the total solid waste generated in PPM, households account for 66%, and markets, restaurants, and hotels combined account for 25%. Solid waste generation in Siem Reap and Sihanoukville ranges between 17 and 15 tonnes per day (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Water and Soil Management Office, 2002). Despite an increase in the total volume of waste generation, the amount of recyclable material, which was generally sold to neighboring countries, has shrunk significantly and/or disappeared with the exception of very high-value materials (aluminum and other selected metals). The introduction of export duties on recyclable material has further reduced the profitability of the existing market for recyclable waste, and is resulting in an increase in the amount of solid waste not properly disposed. 5 Industry 6% Agriculture 1% Solid Waste Generation by Sector Hospital 2% Commerce 25% Residential 66% Source: Waste Management Program in Cambodia ; Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Ministry of Environment; January Local authorities are responsible for the collection of solid waste; to improve this service, local authorities in several urban centers across the country have started contracting it to small, private companies. In 1996, Phnom Penh city government granted a 50-year franchise to Phnom Penh Clearing to collect solid waste for a yearly fee. Neighborhood leaders assist franchised companies and receive a commission on the user fees collected in their neighborhoods. The franchising scheme has led to some improvement in solid waste collection in Phnom Penh, as nearly 70% of all the waste generated in the city is collected. This scheme, however, appears to be cost-effective for the city government but not for the private companies, 6 which tend to withdraw early from the franchise agreement. As a result, the city governments of Siem Reap and Sihanoukville continue to manage solid waste collection and disposal. There are no special dump sites or other treatment facilities for toxic and hazardous waste, and only a few hospitals have onsite incinerators (Office of Solid and Hazardous Substance Management, 1999, 2001). Thus, toxic, hazardous, and hospital waste is burned at the open dump sites, together with solid waste. This practice is generating increasing concerns as it represents a health hazard and could result in groundwater pollution and soil contamination (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Water and Soil Management Office, 2002). The disposal of hazardous waste, mostly industrial waste, is mostly a issue of concern in Phnom Penh, due to the 200 large-scale and 4,000 smallscale industries, mostly involved in food processing and textile manufacturing, located in the PPM. The overall level of service remains low due to a shortage of skilled staff, lack of appropriate equipment, and inefficient revenue generation. In addition, the transportation of solid waste from temporary storage areas to the dump sites is not well organized and rather inefficient, as access to these areas is not easy for garbage trucks. There have been cases of illegal smuggling of toxic and hazardous waste into the country; Government is concerned that the lack of proper enforcement of existing regulations

35 THE CHILDREN SCAVENGERS OF THE STUNG MEANCHEY DUMP The garbage dump at Stung Meanchey, in Phnom Penh is a favorite haunt for children scavengers. More than a hundred children come to the dump site every day to sift the garbage to find recycling material to be sold in the market. The majority of the children work in the dump through the evening to midnight, as the evening is when many garbage trucks arrive at Meanchey. A good day at the dump can be worth up to 2,000 riel (0.52 US$); however, children on average do not make more than riel ( US$) per day. Generally, children scavengers come from poor or broken families in the rural areas of the country who have migrated to the slums of Phnom Penh. A few of these children go to school in the afternoon; however, the majority of them have dropped out of school completely because their families cannot afford to pay the enrollment fees. Several local NGOs have joined forces to organize an informal education program to give these children have an opportunity to continue their schooling, and also to provide drinking water supplies, first aid care, and counseling for them and their families The NEAP identifies urban waste management as one of the emerging environmental challenges for Cambodia. The NEAP focuses on the problems related mainly to the collection, management, and disposal of industrial, domestic, and toxic and hazardous waste. The NEAP s action plan includes (i) the development of an effective policy and regulatory framework on environmental and sanitation standards for waste disposal and privatization of waste collection and disposal and (ii) the improvement of disposal of residential and commercial solid waste to minimize adverse public health and environmental impacts. In 1999, Government approved the Sub-Decree on Solid Waste Management, and in 2002, the Department of Environmental Pollution Control of the MoE drafted the Cambodia Waste Management Program for This program is meant to help translate into action the NEAP and Sub-Decree on Solid Waste Management guidelines and recommendations. In 2000, a two-year Japanese study confirmed serious levels of dioxin (1,700 picograms; the WHO maximum allowed concentration of dioxin in soil is 1,000 picograms) in the soil as a result of garbage containing plastic being burned. In addition, high levels of mercury, cesium, and cadmium have been found in the metabolism of the children scavenging the dump. Dioxin is unsafe to humans in any concdentration, regardless how small, and heavy metals have detrimental effects on the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems. The Japanese government, in collaboration with the Ehime University Center for Marine Environmental Studies (which conducted the study), is lobbying for international support to remove the dioxin-laced topsoil at the dump site, and urging Government to devise a garbage separation and recycling program to ensure that toxic wastes are properly handled and disposed. Source: Adapted from Phnom Penh Post, for the disposal of toxic and hazardous waste could make Cambodia a preferred illegal dumping ground for toxic and hazardous waste coming from foreign countries (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Water and Soil Management Office, 2002). Refuse from Ban Lung Central Market, Ratanakiri Province. Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

36 POLICIES AND LAWS Article 58 of the 1993 Constitution states that natural resources are the property of the State, and that their control, use, and management should be determined by law. Article 59 emphasizes that the State should protect the environment and prepare a plan for the protection of natural resources. Between 1993 and 1996, Government drafted and passed several key pieces of environmental legislation to establish the legal framework to be able to translate into action Articles 58 and 59 of the Constitution. The Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources Management, the Royal Decree on the Creation and Designation of Protected Areas, the Sub-Decree on the Organization and Function of Ministry of Environment, and Sub-Decree on Environmental Impact Assessment are considered the cornerstones of this framework. In 1995, the MoE drafted the first NEAP for the period. The NEAP was designed to develop and implement guidelines to assist policy makers and the private and public sectors to integrate environmental consideration into national and local development policies, economic decisionmaking, and investment planning. The NEAP focuses on the following priority themes: Forest Policy, Fisheries and Floodplain Agriculture in the Tonle Sap Region, Coastal Fisheries Management, Biodiversity and Protected Areas, Energy Development and the Environment, and Urban Waste Management. The NEAP was prepared through an extensive consultative and participatory process involving government and nongovernment stakeholders. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS At the beginning of 1998, Cambodia acceded to the Conventions on Wetlands of International Importance, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Marine Pollution and the Law of the Sea. In addition, RGC is working toward fulfilling the policy requirements to become a party to the Basel and Desertification Conventions and the Montreal Protocol. INSTITUTIONS The MoE was created in July 1993; since its inception, it has developed and strengthened a policy system and legal KEY ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION Petroleum Regulation, 1991 Creation and Designation of Protected Areas, 1993 Annulment of the Existing Procedure for Timber Export, 1994 Forestry Administration and Management, 1994 Land Management of Urbanization and Construction, 1994 Protection of Natural Areas, 1994 Regulation of Industrial Solid and Liquid Waste Management, 1994 Environmental Impact Assessment, Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management, 1996 Prohibition of Hunting and Catching of Wildlife Animals, 1996 Land Law, 1992/2001 Water Pollution Control, 1997 framework to strengthen environmental protection and natural resources conservation. Within the MoE, the General Technical Directorate is responsible for coordinating and managing the activities of the ministry s line departments: Department of Planning and Legal Affairs, Nature Conservation and Protection, Pollution Control, Natural Resources Assessment and Environmental Data Management, Environmental Impact Assessment. The provincial environmental department and district environmental offices are responsible for the implementation and coordination of the MoE s activities at the local level. Currently, the MoE employs 1,301 staff. About 428 (32.9%) employees work in MoE headquarters in Phnom Penh, while 873 (67.1%) are employed in the provincial and district offices. Overall, coordination among ministries and government agencies remains limited, with no systematic dialogue nor formal communication or feedback on sectoral issues. Human and financial capacity is inadequate to perform implementation, monitoring, and enforcement responsibilities properly. The continuing loss of professional staff to the private sector and bilateral and multilateral donor agencies further exacerbates this problem. Environmental agencies at the local level are weak, and

37 ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS The citizens of Cambodia are becoming increasingly aware of the deteriorating environmental conditions in their country. However, the knowledge and understanding of the root causes of the current environmental degradation are still limited, thus preventing the public from playing a more active role in managing and protecting natural resources. In 1993, with the financial and technical support of the UNDP, the Cambodian Government established the Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee for Environmental Education (IMSCEE) to organize and coordinate environmental education programs for primary, secondary, and monk schools. Since then, other international organizations have been providing direct and/or indirect assistance to Government with environmental education and awareness-raising initiatives. Between 1994 and 1999, IMSCEE organized capacity-building workshops and training seminars for teachers to strengthen and advance environmental education and awareness. In addition, IMSCEE began preparing the first Manual for Environmental Education for Primary School Teachers, which was finally distributed in schools at the beginning of the 1998/1999 academic year. The international donor community and international NGOs are concentrating their efforts to raise environmental awareness at the grassroots and community levels through literacy and vocational skills training. Initiatives such as the FAO-supported education program on Integrated Pest Management and the UNDP and UNESCO initiative promoting community-based environmental learning and activities through the Buddhist wat communities in the country are ongoing success stories, whose replication is currently being considered by Government. Source: Authors assessment. coordination with the national authorities on overall policy direction is done on an ad hoc basis. The MoE shares some environmental and natural resources management responsibilities with other branches of Government such as the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Water Resources Management, and the Ministry of Health. BUDGET ALLOCATION In 2001, Government allocated 4,800,000 riel (US$ 1,251,841.8) 7 ; about 66.5% of the total budget allocation MoE Budget for 2001 (Riel millions) Budget expenditure MoE Central Office MoE Provincial / Municipal Office Budget expenditure as % of alloaction MoE Provincial MoE / Central Municipal Office Office Expense Classification Total Total allocation 4,800 3,200 1, Total expenses 4,800 3,200 1, Salary payment 1, Outlay for running the administration and small repairs Outlay for social and cultural expenses 3,400 2,390 1, Source: Strategic Plan, ; Strategic Plan Office, Department of Planning and Legal Affairs, Ministry of Environment, Royal Government of Cambodia, Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

38 (3,200,000,000 riel or US$ 834,561) went to MoE headquarters and 33.5% (1,600,000,000 riel or US$ 417,280) to provincial and district offices. Government s allocation is used to cover the administrative costs related to the management of the MoE s offices at the national and local levels. The MoE contributes in kind (generally office space, electricity, and water charges) to the management and implementation of environmental and natural resources management projects financed by international organizations and bilateral donors.