OTC PP. Copyright 2011, Offshore Technology Conference

Transcription

1 OTC PP BOEMRE's Environmental Studies Program: Utilizing Science to Inform Decisionmaking and Environmental Analyses Related to Production and Development of Oil and Gas and Renewable Energy Resources on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Melanie Damour, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE) Copyright 2011, Offshore Technology Conference This paper was prepared for presentation at the Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, Texas, USA, 2 5 May This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Offshore Technology Conference, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Offshore Technology Conference is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of OTC copyright. Abstract The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement s (BOEMRE) Environmental Studies Program has funded more than $750 million in environmental studies since 1973 to support decisionmaking as it relates to offshore oil and gas and most recently, renewable energy production. Each regional office within the agency developed its own studies program to support environmental research for information needs specific to that region. The regions studies programs evolve as new information needs and environmental concerns arise. The Gulf of Mexico Region s (GOMR) Environmental Studies Program funds studies related to air quality, biology, protected species, physical oceanography, oil spills, socioeconomics, and marine archaeology as well as other topics. This paper will discuss BOEMRE s Environmental Studies Program in the GOMR and highlight studies that focused on or included a marine archaeology component to illustrate how science is used to inform decisionmaking and ensure that industry activities do not impact sensitive resources. It will also discuss the program s continual evolution in response to changing information needs such as studying the impacts from the Macondo oil spill. Study results aid in the analyses incorporated into our environmental impact statements and environmental assessments required by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), and the development of survey requirements. Study results are also used to create or modify environmental mitigations that may be assigned to permits as a condition of approval where sensitive features such as live-bottom habitats, chemosynthetic communities, or archaeological resources could potentially be impacted by industry activities. The BOEMRE s Environmental Studies Program and the results of agency-funded environmental studies as they relate to analyses and management of offshore resources have not been previously presented at OTC. This paper will inform industry about the Environmental Studies Program and how study results are used to support agency decisionmaking. Introduction In 1973, the Environmental Studies Program (ESP) was developed to support the oil and gas leasing program administered by the US Department of the Interior (DOI). The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) of 1953 as amended, authorized the program and established its goals, while the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) imparted additional statutory authority. The goals of the ESP, provided in Section 20 of OCSLA, are to: 1) Establish the information needed for assessment and management of environmental impacts on the human, marine, and coastal environments of the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) and the potentially affected coastal areas; 2) Predict impacts on the marine biota which may result from chronic, low-level pollution or large spills associated with OCS production, from drilling fluids and cuttings discharges, pipeline emplacement, or onshore facilities; and 3) Monitor human, marine, and coastal environments to provide time series and data trend information for identification of significant changes in the quality and productivity of these environments, and to identify the causes of these changes. From its inception in 1973 until the early 1980s, the ESP was housed within the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), which was responsible for managing prelease oil and gas activities on the OCS, including leasing and environmental

2 2 OTC PP analyses. Postlease activities, such as permitting, inspections, and resource evaluation, fell under the purview of the US Geological Survey (USGS). In 1982, the formation of the Minerals Management Service (MMS) combined the ESP with the administration of prelease and postlease oil and gas activities under a single agency within the DOI (Avent 2004). The Energy Policy Act of 2005 added oversight of OCS renewable energy development to the MMS. In June 2010, Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar changed the name of the agency from MMS to the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE). The BOEMRE s jurisdiction begins at the State/Federal waters demarcation and extends out to approximately 200 nautical miles in the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, Pacific, and Alaska Regions. The bureau is responsible for overseeing and regulating offshore energy extraction and development in an area totaling 1.76 billion acres of submerged bottomlands. In the Gulf of Mexico (GOM), federal jurisdiction begins at 3 nautical miles off the coasts of Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi, and 9 nautical miles off the coast of Texas and the west coast of Florida. The ESP annually focuses on a myriad of information needs from various scientific disciplines such as air quality, biology, physical oceanography, socioeconomics, and marine archaeology. The results of these studies provide important information to the bureau for decisionmaking and to ensure compliance with Federal laws such as the Marine Mammal Protection Act, Clean Air Act, Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, Coastal Zone Management Act, and for marine archaeology, the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (NHPA). Environmental Studies Program Overview The ESP operates by acquiring data and analyses from external contracted sources rather than through internal, in-house research. Studies are funded through a competitive process, cooperative agreement, interagency agreement, or less frequently through a sole source or a Joint Industry Project. Each regional studies program submits a studies development plan to the BOEMRE Headquarters office to communicate anticipated information needs for the next two fiscal years. Every year, this plan is updated to reflect the prioritized information needs for that specific region. Individual studies from all of the studies plans are reviewed by management to assess their scientific need, relevance to the bureau s mission, estimated cost, and priority in relation to the available funding for that year. Studies are approved for further development and implementation, deferred to a subsequent year, or cancelled. The BOEMRE scientists, an integral part of the studies program, identify information needs, develop study profiles and nominate them to the region s studies plan, participate in the procurement process for funding approved studies, and coordinate with the contractor to ensure contractual obligations are fulfilled and the government receives the best information in return. Another funding mechanism within the Gulf Region s ESP is the Louisiana State University (LSU) Coastal Marine Institute (CMI) program, a cooperative agreement supported through equally contributed State and Federal matching funds since Nominated studies can be selected for funding through CMI, which allows BOEMRE to utilize locally available and highly-qualified scientific expertise from LSU and its partnering universities and institutions. Another avenue for funding the bureau s environmental studies is through the Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit (CESU), a nationwide network of cooperative units that include federal and state agencies, universities, and research and environmental groups. Members of these units share science-based goals within a particular region. In May 2010, BOEMRE joined the Gulf Coast CESU, which includes all or portions of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas. Biological Sciences in the Gulf of Mexico. The BOEMRE s studies in the biological sciences have typically related to one of three areas: coastal and shallow waters fisheries and benthic ecology; protected species such as marine mammals, sea turtles, and birds; and corals and chemosynthetic communities in deepwater (defined as 300 m of water or greater). Studies are often funded through cooperative agreements and interagency agreements with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration s (NOAA) National Marine Fisheries Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Geological Survey and other state agencies and universities. Over the last four decades, studies in the GOM have focused more on biology than the other disciplines though many of these studies had a multidisciplinary purpose. Many of the 1970s studies provided an overview of the Gulf s environment and its baseline conditions for comparison with later studies that analyzed the direct and indirect anthropogenic impacts of oil and gas development on the OCS. Studies in the 1980s began to examine specific species or habitats in shallow waters on the shelf where offshore oil and gas development occurred (Avent 2004). With the discovery of chemosynthetic communities in the deepwater in the mid-1980s, the focus of the bureau s biological studies moved farther offshore. Today, biological studies continue to explore the shallow, coastal waters of the shelf as well as the frontier of the deepwater environment with multidisciplinary research goals. Results from biological studies, especially where analyses of impacts from oil and gas development are concerned, inform NEPA analyses and, ultimately, decisionmaking by BOEMRE management. Physical Sciences in the Gulf of Mexico. Studies in the physical sciences comprise topics within oceanography, air quality and meteorology, water quality, and oil spills. Similar to the biological studies, the bureau s studies in the physical sciences began by exploring the continental shelf and upper slope areas to understand the various processes at work in the GOM. As oil and gas exploration and development pushed into deeper waters, physical sciences studies followed. Oceanographic studies over the decades have focused on the Loop Current as well as other processes that influence circulation, transport, and cross-shelf mixing in the Gulf (Lugo-Fernández and Green 2010). Observations, current measurements, and modeling studies have shown that the GOM is truly a dynamic body of water. Understanding these processes and how they interrelate has great

3 OTC PP 3 implications for understanding various biological processes as well as the fate and effects of oil released into the deepwater environment (e.g. the Macondo well site). Air quality studies examine the effects of air emissions from BOEMRE-permitted OCS activities as well as conduct emissions inventories. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 assigned jurisdiction of OCS air quality issues to the Environmental Protection Agency except for the Western and Central GOM, where jurisdiction remains under BOEMRE. Both agencies conduct studies of air quality issues and consult with one another to ensure coordination of air emissions and pollution regulations on the OCS (Defenbaugh 1995). Meteorological studies examine and model the different atmospheric processes occurring throughout the Gulf to identify how these processes, in turn, affect various oceanographic processes. Climatology, wave modeling, and other atmospheric studies have contributed much information on the nature of the Gulf, including the dispersion of pollutants. Over the years, some of these studies have utilized data from the National Weather Service and other sources to understand tropical cyclone development in order to assess their potential impacts on OCS activities. Water quality and oil-related studies (i.e. oil spills, natural seeps, etc.) examine wastewater discharges associated with oil and gas operations as well as studies of oil spill impacts, oil spill modeling, and natural seeps in the GOM. Socioeconomic Studies in the Gulf of Mexico. For several decades, the bureau s socioeconomic studies have investigated the social, cultural, and economic impacts, both positive and negative, of the oil and gas industry on the Gulf s coastal communities. These studies focused on short-term and long-term effects of oil spills, petroleum prices, oil and gas exploration and development, commuting and migration patterns of the labor force, and the impacts of oil and gas development on other industries such as shipbuilding and fishing/seafood gathering, among other topics. One recent study documented the history of the oil and gas industry by recording oral histories from various participants, examining photographic collections, and reviewing academic papers and reports over the years. Socioeconomic studies allow BOEMRE to quantify and qualify social and economic trends related to the oil and gas industry, which further inform NEPA analyses to understand the effects of offshore energy development. Under the umbrella of social sciences, studies in marine archaeology focus on the physical remains of past human behavior by investigating historic shipwrecks and submerged prehistoric sites to understand how these unique and non-renewable resources are affected by energy development on the OCS (Fig. 1). Fig. 1 Selection of MMS-funded marine archaeology studies in the Gulf of Mexico.

4 4 OTC PP Marine Archaeology in the Gulf of Mexico The BOEMRE, like all federal agencies, is required by the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 to consider the potential effects of its permitted or funded activities on cultural resources, including archaeological sites within BOEMREadministered Federal waters. By passing the NHPA into law, Congress declared that the preservation of this irreplaceable heritage is in the public interest so that its vital legacy of cultural, educational, aesthetic, inspirational, economic, and energy benefits will be maintained and enriched for future generations (16 U.S.C. s. 470[b][4]). To fulfill its requirements under NHPA and NEPA, BOEMRE funds marine archaeology studies to identify archaeological resources, document their nature and distribution, and examine any impacts from permitted offshore energy development. For more than three decades, the bureau s marine archaeology studies have not only fulfilled information needs for decisionmaking and permitting requirements, but have also contributed to a greater understanding of archaeological sites in the GOM and our collective maritime cultural heritage. Marine Archaeology Studies in the 1970s and 1980s. The BOEMRE s marine archaeology studies first focused on examining the potential for prehistoric and historic archaeological sites in the GOM. Studies in the 1970s identified areas on the OCS where archaeological resources were likely to exist. This information was used to determine where archaeological surveys should be conducted by the oil and gas industry prior to commencing exploration and development activities. In the 1980s, further studies modeled high-probability areas for archaeological site discovery which in turn informed management decisionmaking to refine offshore archaeological survey requirements. Identifying High-Probability Areas and Types of Archaeological Sites on the OCS. The BOEMRE s first significant marine archaeology study in the GOM was conducted by Coastal Environments, Inc. (CEI) and published in The BLM (now BOEMRE) and National Park Service (NPS) funded this baseline study, Cultural Resources Evaluation of the Northern Gulf of Mexico Continental Shelf, in response to a significant increase in offshore development of oil and gas resources and a growing awareness within the United States that archaeological sites were sensitive and non-renewable resources that were worth protecting. Its purpose was to create a predictive model to identify areas that were most likely to contain archaeological resources in order to limit the requirement of costly, high-resolution magnetic and acoustic surveys to those areas on the OCS (designated as Cultural Resource Management Zones 1 and 2). Focusing on the potential for prehistoric sites and shipwrecks on the OCS, CEI conducted a literature search and synthesis of available archaeological, geological, historical, and technical information. Quaternary sea level fluctuations, geomorphology, secondary historical sources, and examination of the archaeological site file records of the Gulf States provided information for development of the model. Another task within this study evaluated the then-current geophysical survey techniques and their effectiveness for identifying archaeological sites. The study hypothesized that prehistoric sites should occur along the continental shelf out to the 200 m depth contour in areas that were exposed by lower sea levels and in the vicinity of desirable landforms: quarry sites, salt domes, springs, valley margins, natural levees, point bars of meandering streams, bay margins, coastal dune lakes and ponds, shell middens, earthen mounds, and terrace margins overlooking an estuary or floodplain (CEI 1977) (Fig. 2). Assessment of geophysical survey techniques determined that bathymetric and subbottom profiler data would be more effective than magnetic or sonar data for identifying potential prehistoric sites based on detection of landforms most conducive to site preservation. The study also recommended the use of coring and other sampling techniques to identify those landforms and their composition (CEI 1977). Fig. 2 Gulf of Mexico planning areas indicating the 200 m depth contour for potential prehistoric sites on the OCS.

5 OTC PP 5 The study additionally reported on shipwrecks identified during archival research and examination of historic records of loss, known shipwrecks indicated on nautical charts and maps, and compiled a database containing more than 1,900 reported vessel losses in the GOM between 1500 and According to the authors, more than 70% of the known/reported shipwrecks date to the 19th and 20th centuries. CEI estimated that the majority of all shipwrecks in the northern GOM occurred close to shore and in association with ports, straits, shoals, reefs, or along traditional sailing routes (CEI 1977). Though the study considered the possibility of shipwrecks occurring in deepwater along sailing routes, the authors stated that it is not believed that these areas warrant special treatment (CEI 1977). The study also considered geophysical survey requirements and equipment for oil and gas surveys as outlined in NTL 75-3 issued by the USGS. The study concluded that the magnetometer was the most effective remote sensing device for detecting shipwrecks; however, the proximity of the sensor to the seafloor, sensor deployment, and the speed of the vessel towing the device were important considerations for ensuring data accuracy. The study also concluded that the survey lane spacing of 150 m required by BLM was insufficient for detecting shipwrecks; rather, no greater than 50 m lane spacing was more appropriate for designated high-probability areas and in water depths no greater than 60 m. The results of this study identified high-probability areas where archaeological resources were most likely to exist; shipwrecks would be found in Cultural Resource Management Zone 1, while prehistoric sites would be found in Cultural Resource Management Zone 2. In these high-probability areas alone, archaeological survey and assessments were required before industry exploration and development activities could occur. Reevaluating the High-Probability Areas for Archaeological Resources. In 1989, MMS published a second study that evaluated and redefined CEI s 1977 high-probability model and developed an interpretive framework for identifying the nature of magnetic anomalies and side scan sonar targets recorded during industry surveys. Entitled Historic Shipwrecks and Magnetic Anomalies of the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Reevaluation of Archaeological Resource Management Zone 1, the study, conducted by the Texas A&M Research Foundation, completed three objectives (Garrison et al. 1989a). The first objective reevaluated the location and extent of Cultural Resource Management Zone 1, delineated by the 1977 CEI study. The second objective examined the relationship between magnetometer and side scan sonar lane spacing and detection of anomalies at or below the seafloor. The third objective investigated whether or not remote sensing data gathered under thencurrent survey requirements could be used to distinguish submerged cultural resources from modern debris. In fulfillment of the first objective, the study compiled a shipwreck database containing more than 4,000 losses in the GOM, primarily in state waters, gathered from primary and secondary sources which built upon the CEI shipwreck database. Garrison et al. (1989a) also considered archaeological, historical, geological, and geophysical research conducted since 1977 to assist with their reevaluation of CEI s model. The authors concluded that approximately 75% of those vessels wrecked near shore and, similar to CEI s 1977 model, in association with ports, straits, shoals, reefs, or along sailing routes (Garrison et al. 1989a). The authors also considered the likelihood of site preservation and discovery when defining high-probability areas. Regarding site discovery, Garrison et al. (1989a) concluded that shipwrecks lost in the vicinity of the mouth of the Mississippi River, while substantial in number, would have been quickly covered by riverine sediments and were unlikely to be discovered. Additionally, the authors determined that areas containing a large number of vessel losses but a low potential for site preservation, such as the eastern GOM, could be excluded from the designated high-probability areas. Garrison et al. (1989a) identified high-, moderate-, and low-probability areas on the OCS for historic shipwrecks. Where high-probability blocks outside of Zone 1 reportedly contained a shipwreck, the authors recommended that the eight contiguous surrounding blocks should also be designated as high-probability with the requirement of archaeological survey and assessment before exploration and development of those lease blocks. For the second objective, the study reexamined MMS existing archaeological survey requirement of 150 m lane spacing in high-probability areas. The authors surmised that the 150 m lane spacing requirement, in accordance with NTL 75-3, presumed that all magnetic and sonar anomalies in a survey area could be detected and avoided by industry activities, thereby protecting any potentially significant archaeological sites. In order to test the validity of this assumption, Garrison et al. (1989a) resurveyed two previously-surveyed lease blocks using a magnetometer and side scan sonar: one lease block that was later developed after the original survey, and another block that was not subsequently developed after its initial survey. Both blocks were originally surveyed at 150 m lane spacing. The resurveying efforts, however, employed 50 m lane spacing to quantify the percentage of anomalies recorded at 50 m and 100 m lane spacing that also appeared in the original survey and identify additional anomalies that were not detected at 150 m lane spacing. The results of the resurvey indicated that of the total number of anomalies, only one-third were detected at 150 m lane spacing. In conclusion, the study recommended reducing the extent of Cultural Resource Management Zone 1 by moving the boundary to within 10 km of the coast, but reiterated CEI s 1977 recommendation to reduce the archaeological survey requirement from 150 m to no greater than 50 m lane spacing in order to increase the likelihood of detecting potentially significant submerged cultural resources. A 1989 companion study by Garrison et al. (1989b), An Eighteenth Century Ballast Pile Site, Chandeleur Islands, Louisiana: An Instrumental and Archaeological Study, further tested the recommendation of using no greater than 50 m lane spacing. This study utilized a magnetometer and side scan sonar to relocate the site, conducted a groundtruthing and reconnaissance-level survey using divers, and mapped and collected several diagnostic artifacts to assist with identifying the site. Originally discovered in 1988 near Louisiana s Chandeleur Islands, the ballast pile site presented an opportunity to test the hypothesis that 50 m lane spacing would be much more effective and appropriate for identifying shipwrecks than 150 m

6 6 OTC PP lane spacing. After returning to the reported location, Garrison et al. (1989b) resurveyed the site first at 150 m lane spacing (per NTL 75-3) then again at 50 m lane spacing (per CEI 1977 and Garrison et al. 1989a recommendations). As theorized, the authors found that the 50 m survey detected more anomalies and provided greater detail on their size and distribution than the 150 m survey. Additionally, use of the side scan sonar proved essential for identifying potential shipwreck sites based on the limitation of the magnetometer s range for detecting ferrous metals. As a result of these studies, MMS issued NTL which reduced the archaeological survey lane spacing requirement in high-probability blocks for shipwrecks from 150 m to 50 m (Fig. 3). In high-probability blocks for prehistoric sites, the NTL required 300 m lane spacing with the use of a subbottom profiler to identify buried features that could indicate the presence of preserved habitation sites. Several years later, NTL refined the archaeological survey requirements for pipelines by requiring a survey along the centerline of the proposed route plus a minimum of two offsets of either 50 m or 300 m spacing (depending on the block s high probability designation) to cover the extent of bottom-disturbing activities within these highprobability areas. In 2002, NTL 2002-G01 limited the requirement for magnetometer surveys to those high-probability blocks in less than 200 m water depth. Fig. 3 High probability blocks for historic shipwrecks based on Garrison et al, Marine Archaeology Studies Since In 2000, MMS funded a third study to refine the predictive model for archaeological sites on the OCS due to the number of shipwreck discoveries in areas outside of designated high-probability blocks and the body of information gathered from more than 2,800 archaeological survey reports received by the agency since the 1970s. Additionally, the steady movement of industry to deeper waters led to the discovery of shipwrecks in areas once considered unlikely to contain them. Another purpose for funding this study pertained to advances in geophysical survey technology since the 1980s to assess their potential application for agency-required archaeological surveys in the GOM. In the mid-2000s, MMS funded additional studies that examined impacts to archaeological sites from industry activities and continued to assess current survey methodologies and avoidance criteria. Further Revisions to the High-Probability Shipwreck Model. In 2003, MMS published the third study, Refining and Revising the Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf Region High-Probability Model for Historic Shipwrecks, conducted by Panamerican Consultants, Inc. and Coastal Environments, Inc. (Pearson et al. 2003). This study, initiated in 2000, completed four tasks: updated and expanded the existing shipwreck database through additional archival research, correlated this information with other available databases of submerged sites and objects in the GOM (reported hangs and snags, remote sensing surveys, etc.), conducted magnetometer surveys at two known shipwreck locations using four different magnetometer models and varying survey techniques to evaluate the instruments as well as assess the current archaeological survey requirements, and synthesized the collected data to revise the shipwreck predictive model and recommend refinements to the MMS archaeological survey requirements based on this new information.

7 OTC PP 7 To complete Task 1, Pearson et al. (2003) revised the 1989 shipwreck database and expanded it to include additional information on vessel characteristics and recorded wrecking events that might later facilitate identification of shipwreck sites. While the 1989 shipwreck database contained more than 4,000 entries, including losses mostly in state waters, the 2003 database included only vessels lost on the OCS. Pearson et al s 2003 database contained more than 2,100 entries. The authors incorporated this data into a Microsoft Access relational database and ArcView GIS program for use as a tool by MMS (now BOEMRE) archaeologists to assess, monitor, maintain, and update information on shipwrecks in the GOM (Fig. 4). Fig. 4 Known and potential shipwrecks in the Gulf of Mexico. For Task 2, the authors compared this information with other available federal, state, and private databases, including reported snags and hangs, to identify any spatial correlations between hang locations and shipwreck losses in their vicinity. Subsequent remote sensing and diver investigations of selected hang sites, unidentified objects and shipwrecks, and reported shipwrecks tested the validity of this approach and determined that only 10% of the selected locations actually contained an object that created a hang hazard (Pearson et al. 2003). The third task comprised a magnetometer survey over two known shipwrecks employing various lane spacing intervals and vessel speeds to evaluate the data collected by each device as well as the efficacy of the existing survey requirements to detect and identify the nature of the sites. The authors tested four magnetometer models to assess the data collected by each model over the same two shipwreck sites: Geometrics 866 and 877 proton precession magnetometers, a Geometrics 881 cesium magnetometer, and a Marine Magnetics SeaSPY Overhauser-type magnetometer. The magnetometer survey evaluated the performance and data collection of each device to identify any significant differences that could necessitate changes to existing archaeological survey requirements rather than serve to promote a particular manufacturer or model. For Task 4, the authors evaluated the 1989 high-probability model for shipwrecks and found considerable unreliability with its identification of high-probability areas. Pearson et al (2003) stated that data from offshore remote-sensing surveys reveal that there is no statistically significant difference between finding a shipwreck in a designated high-probability area and finding one in any other area. As a result of this study, Pearson et al. (2003) developed a new model to identify areas with a higher probability for containing shipwrecks by incorporating a factor of locational reliability for reported vessel losses. They compared this information with density distribution patterns of known shipwrecks in the GOM to identify what they described as highprobability zones and individual clusters of high-probability lease blocks (Pearson et al. 2003). Numbered from 1 to 4, where 1 indicates high reliability and 4 indicates low reliability, these factors contributed to a revised delineation of highprobability areas in the GOM. The authors suggested that blocks containing a reported shipwreck loss with a locational reliability of 1 should be considered high-probability. They added that blocks containing a shipwreck with a designated

8 8 OTC PP reliability of 2 as well as its eight contiguous surrounding blocks should also be considered high-probability. Those with a locational reliability of 3 or 4 should not be considered high-probability due to the relative unreliability, and probable inaccuracy, of their recorded location of loss. Additionally, the authors assessed the current requirements for archaeological surveys including remote sensing device specifications and survey methodology. Considering advances in geophysical survey equipment since the issuance of NTLs and 98-06, Pearson et al. (2003) recommended revising the current survey requirements outlined in NTL 2002-G01 to incorporate modern magnetometers digital data collection capabilities rather than the outdated method of hand writing shot points, recorder speed, and other pertinent information on printed analog data strip charts. The authors also pointed out that the 50 m lane spacing requirement, while effective at recording many types of vessels lost in the GOM, is unlikely to be effective in identifying all wreck types especially earlier wrecks containing less iron or small wooden vessels or parts of wooden vessels that produce smaller magnetic signatures (Pearson et al. 2003). These earlier wrecks, the authors acknowledged, might be the most historically significant sites; therefore, the agency should consider implementing a 30 m lane spacing requirement in high-probability blocks to further assure their discovery. The authors also considered magnetometer surveys in deeper waters and discussed the depth limitations of some magnetometer models and their inability to sink below 68 m. NTL required a magnetometer tow height of no greater than 6 m above the seafloor. In deeper water surveys, older models that are not capable of reaching those depths would be out of compliance thereby rendering the data inaccurate. To alleviate this concern, Pearson et al. (2003) recommended that MMS require the use of magnetometers capable of reaching such depths to remain in compliance with the specified depth parameters. Study of Impacts to a Deepwater Shipwreck From Pipeline Construction. In the early 2000s, MMS received a report of a shipwreck discovery after industry activities had already impacted the site. In subsequent years, additional reports of previously undiscovered shipwrecks exhibiting damage from industry s permitted activities followed. In 2001, a routine postinstallation pipeline inspection discovered a wooden shipwreck in more than 800 m of water with the pipeline bisecting the hull near the midship section (Fig. 5). Dubbed the Mica wreck, the shipwreck rests upright on the seafloor with a mostly intact, copper-sheathed hull (Atauz et al. 2006). Though the pipeline route was originally surveyed in compliance with MMS specifications, the sonar data resolved a partially obscured and nebulous sonar target located directly along the pipeline route that did not clearly indicate the presence of a historic shipwreck. The shipwreck lay undiscovered until after the pipeline s construction and subsequent inspection. The MMS and Texas A&M University conducted data recovery expeditions in 2001, 2002, and 2003 to attempt to identify the site as well as any damage from the pipeline itself. Under the Archaeological and Historic Protection Act of 1974 as amended (16 U.S.C c-2) (also known as the Moss-Bennett Act), an agency within the Federal government may collect funds, in this case from the pipeline operator, to apply toward data recovery from a damaged archaeological site. The operator-funded expedition determined that the shipwreck likely dated to the first half of the 19th century and probably represented the remains of a schooner. The project also determined that leaving the pipeline insitu rather than removing it represented the best option to ensure no further damage to the site. Fig. 5 Side scan sonar image of pipeline bisecting the hull of the Mica shipwreck.

9 OTC PP 9 Archaeological Damage from Offshore Dredging: Implications for Sand and Gravel Mining on the OCS. In 2004, MMS published the study entitled, Archaeological Damage From Offshore Dredging: Recommendations for Pre- Operational Surveys and Mitigation During Dredging to Avoid Adverse Impacts (RPI et al. 2004). This study reviewed current standards and procedures for sand and gravel extraction on the OCS permitted activities also under the purview of the bureau. The study completed several tasks: reviewed available worldwide literature to identify dredging practices in other countries, reviewed available information on the types and nature of archaeological sites on the OCS, reviewed available technology and methods for discovering such sites in comparison to MMS survey requirements, reviewed reports of dredging operations that damaged archaeological sites, reviewed current practices by the dredging industry, reviewed other agencies mitigation requirements for protection of archaeological sites, and synthesized the collected information into a body of recommendations for standards, policies, and methods for protecting submerged cultural resources from impacts during sand and gravel extraction. The authors concluded that a maximum of 30 m lane spacing should be the required standard for archaeological surveys of sand and gravel borrow areas to ensure discovery of all potential sites and features within the proposed area. The authors based the 30 m recommendation on the archaeological survey requirements of several coastal states agencies, the National Park Service, and US Army Corps of Engineers Districts as well as the results from previous offshore archaeological surveys (RPI et al. 2004). As a result of this study, the bureau requires 30 m lane spacing for archaeological surveys in proposed sand and gravel borrow areas. In 2005, MMS issued NTL 2005-G07 based on recent shipwreck discoveries and to implement the survey requirements recommended by Pearson et al. (2003). This NTL added roughly 1,200 high-probability archaeology blocks in deepwater protractions on the approach to the Mississippi River including Mississippi Canyon and parts of Viosca Knoll, Green Canyon, and Ewing Bank. NTL 2005-G10 lists those additional blocks that now require archaeological survey and assessment. NTL 2005-G07 requires industry to notify BOEMRE in the event of a shipwreck discovery within 48 hours, and to cease all activities within 305 m of the site. This NTL also modified survey requirements for data collection as well as pipeline surveys to reflect advances in geophysical survey technology since the 1990s and incidents of damage to archaeological sites during agency-permitted activities. In response to the Mica wreck incident, the pipeline survey methodology now requires an additional survey along a 50 m offset from either side of the proposed centerline regardless of the block s lane spacing requirement (whether 50 m or 300 m). The 50 m offset provides 100% coverage of the proposed centerline of the pipeline to ensure that shipwrecks or potential archaeological features will be discovered and ultimately avoided during pipeline construction. Remote sensing data are required to be recorded digitally and linked to the positioning system, thereby nullifying the use of outdated analog strip charts. Two more recent changes to the suite of archaeology NTLs include NTL 2006-G07, which added 17 high-probability archaeology blocks and changed lane spacing requirements from 300 m to 50 m on 9 lease blocks, and NTL 2008-G20, which added 34 high-probability archaeology blocks and changed 21 blocks from 300 m to 50 m lane spacing (Fig. 6). Fig. 6 High probability lease blocks requiring archaeological survey and assessment for prehistoric and historic sites.

10 10 OTC PP Assessing the National Register of Historic Places Eligibility for Shipwrecks in the GOM. With a sizeable shipwreck database compiled over three decades of environmental studies and archaeological survey reports, MMS began to fund studies that examined specific shipwreck sites and anthropogenic effects of offshore energy development. Such studies include assessment of hurricane impacts, sonar target identification, and impacts to shipwrecks from agency-permitted activities. The Study to Conduct National Register of Historic Places Evaluations of Submerged Sites on the Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf, conducted by PBS&J and published in 2006, investigated 14 shipwrecks and sonar targets to determine their eligibility for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), a national registry of significant archaeological and historical sites throughout the US and its associated waters (Enright et al. 2006). Additional tasks for this study included: assessment of the adequacy of MMS avoidance criteria, assessment of industry compliance with archaeological mitigations, determining if selected sites were significant or insignificant, and refinement of analytical methods used to assign avoidance distances to shipwrecks and potential targets. The authors experimented with magnetic contoured data of a wooden shipwreck site randomly placed in 10 locations on a model lease block. Overlays of 50 m lane spacing representing a mock remote sensing survey indicated that, in many cases, the 50 m survey would only detect the shipwreck on a single survey line, if at all. The experiment demonstrated that a survey conducted at a 50 m lane spacing could miss an entire wooden-hulled shipwreck if it was located midway between the survey lanes. The study concluded that avoidance zones should consider water depth, the size and shape of sonar targets, and the line spacing and anomaly length of magnetic anomalies. The authors also concluded that reducing the required survey lane spacing from 50 m to 40 m for highprobability archaeology blocks would detect nearly 100% of wooden hulled shipwrecks on the OCS, though all unidentified magnetic anomalies detected on a single survey lane should be considered potential shipwrecks to ensure their protection. Enright et al. (2006) recognized the potential issues raised by this suggestion and recommended further refinement and testing of survey methodologies. In order to increase the ability to distinguish potentially significant submerged cultural resources from insignificant modern debris and determine more precise positioning, the authors recommended contouring of all magnetic data. Multidisciplinary Studies in Deepwater. Over time, the topics of marine archaeology studies have evolved to examine specific sites as well as incorporate a multidisciplinary approach including consideration of the biological and geological processes involved in archaeological site formation processes. Discovery of increasing numbers of shipwrecks as well as coral communities in deepwater led the bureau to fund multidisciplinary studies examining the artificial reef effect of shipwrecks which serve as a pseudo-hardbottom for coral community development. In 2007, MMS published the study, Archaeological and Biological Analysis of World War II Shipwrecks in the Gulf of Mexico: Artificial Reef Effect in Deep Water (Church et al. 2007). The National Oceanographic Partnership Program sponsored this award-winning partnership between MMS and NOAA s Office of Ocean Exploration as well as several universities and private contractors in 2003 and The study investigated seven World War II-era shipwrecks in water depths ranging from 87 m to 1,964 m to determine their site boundaries, eligibility for listing on the National Register of Historic Places, state of preservation, and potential for serving as an artificial reef. Five of the sites represent casualties of German U-boat attacks in the GOM during World War II. The remains of the U-boat U-166, resting less than a mile from its final victim, served as the sixth site. The seventh site represented a privately-owned vessel lost by accident in Oil and gas industry hazard surveys required by MMS led to the discovery of all seven sites. The overall objectives for the study comprised two areas: archaeological and biological. Archaeological objectives included confirmation of each shipwreck s identity; delineation of any surrounding debris fields; assessment of any impacts to the sites from bio-fouling communities; determination of National Register eligibility; and observation of each site s past and present condition, state of preservation, deterioration, anthropogenic impacts from industry activities, and potential for future research. Biological objectives focused on microbiology, marine invertebrates, and marine vertebrates and their role in each site s condition and habitational use as an artificial reef. The study identified three general debris patterns for deepwater shipwreck sites: a centralized debris scatter with dense distribution near the hull and dispersed debris farther away indicating a vessel that likely sank directly below where it left the water surface or debris later scattered by anthropogenic activities, a scattered debris trail indicating a vessel that traveled in a semi-horizontal orientation through the water column as it sank, and a separate debris field away from the main wreckage with little or no debris between the two loci, indicating a vessel that may have broken apart at or near the surface followed by one component drifting away from another before reaching the seafloor. The authors acknowledged, however, that deepwater shipwreck sites can exhibit a combination of these debris patterns due to the circumstances of the wrecking event itself and the process of sinking in considerable water depths. The study found that, of the sampled sites, the size of a deepwater shipwreck site increases proportionally in relation to water depth. Church et al. (2007) developed a cursory formula to determine the appropriate avoidance distance for such sites by adding the estimated hull length to 20% to 25% of the site s water depth. The authors cautioned that the formula represented the results of data collected from steel-hulled vessels lost under catastrophic conditions rather than wooden-hulled vessels or smaller steelhulled vessels that foundered. They recommended additional testing and refinement of this model during future research efforts.

11 OTC PP 11 Conclusion The BOEMRE s Environmental Studies Program has funded environmental studies since the 1970s, often in partnership with other federal and state agencies, universities, and the private sector, and has amassed a substantial body of information about the GOM. Studies in the biological, physical, and social sciences established baseline information; characterized the various types of resources and processes intrinsic to the Gulf; created predictive models; and examined natural and anthropogenic impacts to various resources within the human, coastal, and marine environments. The results of our environmental studies focusing on or containing a component of marine archaeology inform BOEMRE management s decisionmaking related to revision of archaeological survey guidelines where necessary, and the establishment of protocols for the discovery of or operations within the vicinity of sensitive submerged cultural resources. This body of data from multiple disciplines, gathered for nearly four decades, will continue to provide invaluable science-based information for decisionmaking by bureau management. Future environmental studies funded through the GOMR will undoubtedly focus on long-term impacts from the Macondo oil spill. This information, in addition to what is already known about the Gulf and its natural and cultural resources, will continue to serve a significant role in the management and regulation of offshore energy development. References Atauz, A.D., Bryant, W., Jones, T., and Phaneuf, B Mica Shipwreck Project: Deepwater Archaeological Investigation of a 19 th Century Shipwreck in the Gulf of Mexico. Final report, OCS Study MMS , Cooperative Agreement No CA , US DOI MMS GOMR, New Orleans, LA (December 2006). Avent, R.M Minerals Management Service Environmental Studies Program: A History of Biological Investigations in the Gulf of Mexico, Final report, OCS Study MMS , US DOI MMS GOMR, New Orleans, LA (April 2004). Church, R., Warren, D., Cullimore, R., Johnstone, L., Schroeder, W., Patterson, W., Shirley, T., Kilgour, M., Morris, N., and Moore, J Archaeological and Biological Analysis of World War II Shipwrecks in the Gulf of Mexico: Artificial Reef Effect in Deep Water. Final report, OCS Study MMS , Contract No CT-73095, US DOI MMS GOMR, New Orleans, LA (April 2007). Coastal Environments, Inc. (CEI) Cultural Resources Evaluation of the Northern Gulf of Mexico Continental Shelf. Final report, US DOI BLM and US DOI NPS, New Orleans, LA (1977). Defenbaugh, R.E Air Regulations Affecting Exploration and Production: MMS Regulation of Offshore Activities in the Gulf of Mexico. Workshop on the Second Annual Oil Field Properties, Houston, TX, GP Enright, J.M., Gearhart II, R., Jones, D., and Enright, J Study to Conduct National Register of Historic Places Evaluations of Submerged Sites on the Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf. Final report, OCS Study MMS , Contract No RC-73218, US DOI MMS GOMR, New Orleans, LA (June 2006). Garrison, E.G., Giammona, C.P., Kelly, F.J., Tripp, A.R., and Wolff, G.A. 1989a. Historic Shipwrecks and Magnetic Anomalies of the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Reevaluation of Archaeological Resource Management Zone 1. Final report, OCS Study MMS , Contract No , US DOI MMS GOMR, New Orleans, LA (September 1989). Garrison, E.G., Giammona, C.P., Jobling, J., Tripp, A.R., Weinstein, E.N., and Wolff, G.A. 1989b. An Eighteenth-Century Ballast Pile Site, Chandeleur Islands, Louisiana: An Instrumental and Archaeological Study. Final report, OCS Study MMS , Contract No , US DOI MMS GOMR, New Orleans, LA (December 1989). Lugo-Fernandez, A. and Green, R.E Mapping the Intricacies of the Gulf of Mexico s Circulation. EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 92 (3): Minerals Management Service. Notice to Lessees and Operators and Pipeline Right-of-Way Holders: Archaeological Resources Requirements for the Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. US Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, NTL No , Dec. 20, Minerals Management Service. Notice to Lessees and Operators of Federal Oil, Gas, Sulphur, and Salt Leases and Pipeline Right-of- Way Holders in the Outer Continental Shelf, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region: Archaeological Requirements. US Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, NTL No , Aug. 10, Minerals Management Service. Notice to Lessees and Operators of Federal Oil, Gas, and Sulphur Leases and Pipeline Right-of-Way Holders in the Outer Continental Shelf, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region: Archaeological Resource Surveys and Reports. US Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, NTL No G01, March 15, Minerals Management Service. Notice to Lessees and Operators of Federal Oil, Gas, and Sulphur Leases and Pipeline Right-of-Way Holders in the Outer Continental Shelf, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region: Archaeological Resource Surveys and Reports. US Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, NTL No G07, July 1, Minerals Management Service. Notice to Lessees and Operators of Federal Oil, Gas, and Sulphur Leases and Pipeline Right-of-Way Holders in the Outer Continental Shelf, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region: Revisions to the List of OCS Lease Blocks Requiring Archaeological Resource Surveys and Reports. US Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, NTL No G10, July 1, Minerals Management Service. Notice to Lessees and Operators (NTL) of Federal Oil and Gas Leases and Pipeline Right-of-Way (ROW) Holders on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS), Gulf of Mexico OCS Region (GOMR): Revisions to the List of OCS Lease Blocks Requiring Archaeological Resource Surveys and Reports. US Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, NTL No G07, March 16, Minerals Management Service. Notice to Lessees and Operators (NTL) of Federal Oil and Gas Leases and Pipeline Right-of-Way (ROW) Holders on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS), Gulf of Mexico OCS Region (GOMR): Revisions to the List of OCS Lease Blocks Requiring Archaeological Resource Surveys and Reports. US Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, NTL No G20, October 20, Pearson, C.E., James, Jr., S.R., Krivor, M., El Darragi, S.D., and Cunningham, L Refining and Revising the Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf Region High-Probability Model for Historic Shipwrecks. Final report, OCS Study MMS , Contract No.