Study Session 1 Characteristics of Urban Communities

Transcription

1 Study Session 1 Characteristics of Urban Communities Copyright 2016 The Open University

2 Contents Introduction 3 Learning Outcomes for Study Session Urbanisation and deveopment trends WASH in urban areas Chaenges reated to popuation size and characteristics Chaenges reated to infrastructure Chaenges reated to governance Equity and incusion in urban WASH Youth and unempoyment WASH-reated emergencies in urban areas 14 Summary of Study Session 1 16 Sef-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

3 Introduction Introduction Urban communities have characteristics that expose them to particuar heath risks reated to their iving conditions. Some segments of the community are particuary severey affected by these conditions. This study session introduces you to aspects of ife in urban areas that are important for understanding and addressing WASH issues. (WASH stands for water, sanitation and hygiene.) Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1 When you have studied this session, you shoud be abe to: 1.1 Define and use correcty each of the key words printed in bod. (SAQ 1.1) 1.2 List the key features of rapid urbanisation and briefy discuss their causes. (SAQ 1.1) 1.3 Describe the particuar chaenges of providing WASH services in urban settings. (SAQ 1.2) 1.4 Identify vunerabe segments of urban communities and expain the chaenges they face in accessing WASH services. (SAQ 1.3) 1.5 List some factors that compicate emergency incidents and identify interventions to tacke them in urban areas. (SAQ 1.4) 1.1 Urbanisation and deveopment trends Ethiopia is among the poorest countries in the word and, with a popuation approaching 100 miion, has grown and deveoped significanty in recent decades. One of the many ways you can see this growth refected is by ooking at how fast existing urban areas are expanding, and how viages and sma towns are rapidy growing into arger towns and cities. Between 1984 and 2007, the urban popuation defined as the percentage of the popuation iving in towns of at east 150,000 peope or within one hour s traveing distance of a town of at east 50,000 peope increased from 3.7% to 14.2% (Schmidt and Kedir, 2009). Between 2010 and 2015, the rate of urbanisation is estimated to have further increased at a rate of 4.9% every year (CIA, 2015). (Urbanisation is the increase in the number of peope iving in towns and cities reative to rura areas.) The trend in urbanisation is strongy associated with economic growth and deveopment. As economic activities increase in urban areas, opportunities open up for empoyment, which attract peope iving in rura areas to move into the towns and cities. As the tota popuation increases, the and avaiabe per person for farming in rura areas decreases. Furthermore, degradation of the natura environment eads to ow productivity of the and. The shortage of and, couped with reduced productivity, resuts in a ow income for rura househods. This encourages peope, particuary young aduts, to migrate from rura to urban areas in search of better empoyment opportunities. The overa effect of these trends is that the number of peope iving in urban areas keeps increasing. 3 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

4 1.1 Urbanisation and deveopment trends Poitica and administrative bodies in urban areas have to provide basic services such as eectricity, teephone, water suppy, waste disposa, heathcare and education. However, the infrastructure required to deiver these basic services to an acceptabe standard is growing at a much sower pace compared to the increase in popuation. Sums are becoming a common feature in most towns (Figure 1.1). Sums are urban areas that are heaviy popuated and have sub-standard housing and very poor iving conditions. They provide minimum sheter requirements for communities with ow or no income. Sums are the usua entry point for those from rura areas to the compex urban environment. However, due to intense competition, securing a job with reasonabe pay often proves very difficut. As a resut, the majority of peope who ive in sum areas remain there permanenty because they cannot earn enough to move into better housing. Figure 1.1 Sum area of an Ethiopian town. Despite the very high popuation density the number of peope iving in a unit area of and and the dire need for access to water, eectricity and roads, sums are not the main focus of attention for administrative bodies. Sums arise in areas with itte or no government scrutiny and are mainy iega settements. Therefore these communities do not have ega rights to the and they ive on, which is a fundamenta requirement for caiming services in urban areas. Athough the government recognises the need, it is difficut to provide basic services to sum areas as part of its reguar work. Peri-urban areas are another common feature of towns. These areas are interface zones, ocated on the outskirts of towns, which show characteristics of both rura and urban areas. They are simiar to urban centres in that they have high popuation density 4 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

5 1.1 Urbanisation and deveopment trends and services such as eectricity, water and transport are probaby avaiabe nearby (but may not be affordabe). However, peope in peri-urban areas may be farmers and grow food to suppement their income so aso share simiarities with rura communities. As towns spread, peri-urban areas may become part of the main urban area (Figure 1.2). Figure 1.2 Peri-urban areas have simiar characteristics to sums. The increasing urban popuation in Ethiopia may support economic growth in the country, but it is a continuing chaenge for urban administrations to provide adequate access to basic services to enabe these communities to remain heathy and productive. Identify three key features of urbanisation. The three main features are isted beow. You may be abe to think of others. Significant popuation numbers caused by increasing infux of peope from rura areas. Sums popuated by ow income communities with itte or no access to services. Peri-urban areas ocated on the outskirts of the town that exhibit characteristics of both urban and rura areas. 5 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

6 1.2 WASH in urban areas 1.2 WASH in urban areas This section outines the chaenges of WASH service deivery in an urban context. List the services which you consider essentia in urban areas. You may have thought of water suppy, heathcare, eectricity, teecommunication, and waste coection and disposa services. The term WASH services incudes suppy and distribution of cean water, promotion and impementation of environmenta sanitation, and promotion of safe hygiene practices to communities. Sanitation incudes provision of atrines and other methods to protect heath by preventing human contact with wastes. A three components water, sanitation and hygiene are important to ensure heathy community ife. These services are aso interdependent. For instance, handwashing with soap after visiting atrines is a safe hygiene practice. However, communities can ony do this if cean water is avaiabe. Even when communities have an adequate suppy of water, the ack of atrines can ead to open defecation and pose threats to heath (see Figure 1.3). Contamination of water and the wider environment is the source of many diseases caused by micro-organisms found in faeces. 6 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

7 1.2 WASH in urban areas Figure 1.3 A sum area of an Ethiopian town showing faeces in the drainage channe. WASH services shoud ideay be provided for the whoe urban area at a times. Lack of services in one sma area can ead to significant risk of contamination of water or food. A disease outbreak in a poory serviced area of town can quicky spread to better serviced areas. Lack of WASH services therefore directy affects the heath and we-being of whoe communities. If not tacked, this wi diminish Ethiopia s capacity to progress towards its goas for economic deveopment. WASH services are issues of basic human rights and dignity, and refect poiticay on oca and nationa government. The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP), ed by UNICEF and the Word Heath Organization (WHO), monitors the progress in water suppy and sanitation services wordwide. The 2012 Ethiopia data shows that in urban areas access to improved water suppy and improved atrines is 97% and 69% respectivey. In a town of 150,000 peope, 7 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

8 1.2 WASH in urban areas this indicates that 31% (or 46,500 peope) ack access to improved sanitation faciities, and 3% (or 4,500 peope) ack water from improved sources (JMP, 2014). In a sma town of 35,000 peope, approximatey how many peope woud have access to improved atrines, and how many woud not, according to the 2012 JMP data? Approximatey 24,000 peope woud have access to improved atrines and approximatey 11,000 peope woud not. (The estimated popuation with access to improved atrines is 69% of the 35,000 obtained by mutipying 35,000 by 69/100, which gives 24,150 or approximatey 24,000. The remaining peope, i.e. 35,000 24,000 = 11,000 do not.) Much more needs to be done to provide urban communities with WASH services of sufficient quaity and quantity. The government of Ethiopia, with support from internationa and oca organisations, pans and impements interventions in urban areas to expand existing systems or invest in new infrastructure. (An intervention is any action intended to improve a situation.) For exampe, Ethiopia set out to achieve 98% access to water in urban areas by the year 2015 as part of its Growth and Transformation Pan I ( ) and significant progress has been made. However, improving WASH services to the desired eve of coverage continues to be extremey chaenging Chaenges reated to popuation size and characteristics WASH service upgrade and expansion is sower than the rate of popuation growth, which puts pressure on the existing systems. As the services are shared by many more peope, they quicky become inadequate and may break down. Urban communities come from different backgrounds and have varying economic status. They are ikey to be very mixed and incude peope from different ethnic groups and reigions. Moreover, most peope iving in urban areas move frequenty in and out of town. They may not fee they are part of a community or care very much about the pace where they ive. These characteristics make it difficut to raise awareness and understanding of basic service issues and pose significant chaenges for mobiising peope to change their behaviour and actions. You wi earn more about the chaenges invoved in engaging and mobiising such communities and impementing behaviour change to promote good sanitation practices in Study Sessions 6, 9 and Chaenges reated to infrastructure The key chaenge to meeting the increasing WASH service needs in Ethiopia s urban areas is the avaiabiity of adequate resources, incuding finance and human resources that can provide and maintain the necessary infrastructures. The infrastructures required are: water suppy system stormwater drainage system soid waste coection, transportation equipment and disposa sites iquid waste (incuding faeca sudge from atrines) transportation and disposa sites 8 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

9 1.2 WASH in urban areas waste recycing or reuse equipment and faciities. Water suppy systems incude deveoped water sources, treatment pants, storage reservoirs, and a network of distribution pipes deivering water to users. Growing popuation numbers and economic activity in urban areas mean that: Large amounts of investment are required to expand the capacity of these systems to meet the water needs of the popuation adequatey. Mobiising sufficient funding is often difficut. Water sources, especiay groundwater, may become depeted over time because of high extraction rates. Waste from industria activities increases the threat of contamination of water sources. Sanitation services incude infrastructure for coection and safe disposa of iquid and soid waste. The amount of waste increases with the popuation size. Industria activities aso add to the type and composition of wastes generated. You may have noticed the excessive waste accumuated in different parts of urban areas. Figure 1.4 shows an exampe where rubbish and fooding have caused probems in a suburb of Accra in Ghana simiar scenes can aso be found in Ethiopia. Figure 1.4 Accumuated soid waste and effuent from a atrine bock have fied a drainage cana in Accra, Ghana. Wastes from residentia areas and from industries often require treatment before being safey discharged into the environment. Faeca sudge from atrines or toiets needs to be 9 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

10 1.3 Equity and incusion in urban WASH transported, treated and disposed of safey. Most towns do not have a proper treatment faciity or a suitabe disposa site. In emerging towns, where agricutura processing is a growing trend, industria wastes, for exampe from coffee processing pants and hide processing factories, are causing an additiona burden. Wastes from such industries are often reeased into the environment without treatment. Again, mobiising sufficient finance to expand services in a timey manner is critica to managing these situations, but is difficut Chaenges reated to governance The term governance is used to represent many interreated areas in government systems and refers to such things as the ways decisions are made and strategies are deveoped. Here, the focus is on responsibiity and accountabiity of oca governments in decision making to improve and effectivey manage WASH services. Accountabiity means an obigation or a wiingness by an organisation or individua to account for their actions and accept responsibiity for them. You have read that finance is a key resource needed to improve WASH services. Appropriate aocation of pubic funds between WASH and other sectors, such as roads, is a governance issue. Within the WASH sector, most of the budget goes to water-reated works and the sanitation component is usuay eft with very itte. Even the sma proportions of resources avaiabe are spent on financing major infrastructure in urban centres where most of the rich famiies reside. This may mean that tax coected from the arger community is ony benefiting a seected few, which is not considered fair. Effective operation and management of urban WASH faciities is another chaenge reated to governance. In principe, WASH faciities are managed by service providers, such as water utiities and micro- and sma enterprises (MSEs). These groups are expected to recover costs for operating and maintaining the faciities but their performance is often beow expectations. Service providers may not isten to the needs and compaints of user communities. Where services are not provided to the expected standard, the community s motivation and wiingness to pay the tariffs is reduced. This affects the capacity of the service providers to manage the WASH faciities and is a major chaenge for governance. 1.3 Equity and incusion in urban WASH This section examines the chaenges of ensuring equitabe access to WASH services for a groups within urban communities. The terms equaity and equity may appear to mean the same thing. However, equaity of service means that everyone gets equa amounts of services regardess of need, whereas equity of service refers to services aocated according to need, which is more fair and just, as iustrated in Figure of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

11 1.3 Equity and incusion in urban WASH Figure 1.5 Equaity and justice, which is simiar to equity. Urban communities consist of diverse groups of peope and a need access to WASH services. However, depending on their age, ifestye, nature of their daiy work, and/or physica condition, these groups require different eves of service. Some in the community, referred to as vunerabe groups, have particuary specia needs and are most affected by the ack of WASH services, for exampe: chidren and the edery peope iving with HIV/AIDS peope with disabiities (of any age) poor famiies with itte or no income. Chidren, especiay those under five years of age, are more ikey to die of diarrhoea caused by ack of cean water. Disabed peope may not easiy access and use conventionay buit atrines because of steps or rough and uneven ground. This not ony imits their abiity to practise safe sanitation but aso makes them sociay marginaised. To ensure equity, stakehoders shoud consider these vunerabe individuas, and devise means to ensure that their needs are identified and addressed. Incusion refers to the process of incorporating the needs of vunerabe groups. Incusive programmes or projects ensure that WASH service environments are accessibe to everyone, as shown in Figure of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

12 1.3 Equity and incusion in urban WASH Figure 1.6 An incusive faciity at an urban schoo enabes a disabed student to wash his hands in cean water. Disabed students who use wheechairs require specia access to atrines in schoos. If ramps are not in pace, these students either avoid using the faciity or strugge to use it despite uneven and often unsanitary foors. The heath risk to disabed students can be significanty increased by ack of ramps. The situation is the same in pubic atrines that serve market centres. It is aso important to think about disabed peope without mobiity aids (Figure 1.7). Many disabed peope are poor and do not have access to mobiity aids such as wheechairs. Where possibe, oca soutions deveoped in consutation with the users can assist them to access the WASH faciities more easiy and safey. 12 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

13 1.4 Youth and unempoyment Figure 1.7 Many disabed peope do not have wheechairs, making access to WASH faciities extremey difficut. 1.4 Youth and unempoyment Neary 50% of the popuation of Ethiopia is aged under 15 years (CSA, 2012). As these young peope grow up they wi hep to provide the necessary workforce for continued deveopment. However, in the current market the majority of urban youth remains unempoyed. If the popuation continues to grow at a faster rate than empoyment opportunities, then unempoyment wi increase over time, uness innovative soutions are introduced to reduce or reverse this trend. The WASH service sector, as discussed earier, needs to grow substantiay to meet expected standards of service. If appropriatey deveoped, the sector can offer much sought after empoyment opportunities within the urban environment. Some initiatives are aready taking shape in urban areas to engage unempoyed youth in income-generating activities such as new enterprises in soid waste coection, transport and/or disposa services. These initiatives, which are very sma compared with the potentia market and high unempoyment rate, need to be deveoped into wide-scae appication to have a meaningfu impact on unempoyment. Such initiatives are commony referred to as pubic private partnerships because privatey owned enterprises are working together with the pubic sector to improve services. In Ethiopia, there is an increasing number of private groups empoyed by municipaities (the pubic service provider) to coect waste from househods and transport it to disposa sites. 13 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

14 1.5 WASH-reated emergencies in urban areas Additiona areas of service that can contribute to empoyment generation incude: vountary sanitation and hygiene promotion campaigns to promote and create demand for improved WASH products suppy and saes of hygiene/sanitation products (e.g. soaps, menstrua pads, househod water treatment equipment or chemicas, atrine sabs, smoke-free stoves) suppy of services (sudge emptying, waste coection and/or disposa, waste recycing). Addressing unempoyment is a joint responsibiity for the community, government, nongovernmenta and civi society organisations (NGOs and CSOs), private organisations and schoos. For exampe, the municipaity can work with micro- and sma enterprises to create jobs in the WASH sector and their finance office can faciitate ong-term oans with microfinance institutions for business start-up needs. To bring about improvement, joint commitment is needed by a. 1.5 WASH-reated emergencies in urban areas Emergency situations can arise as a resut of disease outbreaks, natura disasters or man-made incidents. Contamination of water sources or distribution systems by diseasecausing micro-organisms is a common cause of widespread disease outbreaks, eading to emergency in urban areas. Contamination at the source, or aong the pipe network where there are eakages, can reach a arge number of peope very quicky. Piped-water systems are more ikey to become contaminated when pipes are aowed to become empty, either as a resut of the common practice of rationing water distribution or because the suppy has dried up. This is because the pressure goes down in empty pipes, which can ead to contaminated water seeping in through defects in the pipe. Foods are another common cause of emergency situations in urban areas. When extreme rainfa occurs, the run-off generated can exceed the capacity of the town s drainage systems. Accumuated soid wastes may have aready pied up in the canas, reducing their water carrying capacity. As a resut, food water can overfow into streets and houses and, as this happens, harmfu bacteria iving and reproducing in the waste are aso transported to househods. In communities that practise open defecation, excreta may be carried with the food water to contaminate the surrounding neighbourhood. The foods can aso cause pit atrines and septic tanks to overfow causing further contamination. In addition, peri-urban and rura communities iving downstream of the urban area are threatened because the food eventuay transports contaminants to these areas. The risk may be even higher here, especiay if these communities depend on river water for their daiy needs. We cannot contro natura incidents, such as rains and foods. However, we can contro how we choose to ive our ives in order to reduce heath risks. Individuas and communities are responsibe for stopping bad practices, such as open defecation, and adopting safe practices such as using atrines and handwashing. Communities are sometimes reuctant to use safe practices and, in urban areas, due to their mixed and 14 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

15 1.5 WASH-reated emergencies in urban areas diverse characteristics and a poor sense of beonging, this reuctance can be particuary pronounced. The WASH service providers (e.g. water utiities), in coaboration with communities, must be aert to continuousy ensure water safety from source to use. Routine activities to ensure this can incude water source protection, distribution system inspection and maintenance, and monitoring the efficiency of water treatment faciities. However, it is not aways possibe to ensure compete safety at source for technica or operationa reasons. Therefore househod water treatment (HWT) options, using chemicas or other aternatives, are widey recommended as a means to ensure water safety at point-of-use. Even if water arriving at users homes is contaminated, using househod treatment options (aso known as point-of-use treatment) shoud guarantee 100% safety if instructions are foowed correcty. During emergencies these chemica treatments serve a very important and ifesaving roe, and are usuay distributed in tabet or powder forms to affected communities (Figure 1.8). Figure 1.8 Water treatment sachets may be distributed in emergency situations. In such emergency situations, sum areas are particuary prone to being affected, owing to their ack of infrastructure. Vunerabe groups may be more seriousy affected by the ack of WASH services than other users, so emergency interventions shoud provide incusive soutions to assist vunerabe peope such as chidren, the edery and the disabed, aongside the pan for the wider community. You wi earn more about assessing and responding to emergencies in Study Session of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

16 Summary of Study Session 1 Summary of Study Session 1 In Study Session 1, you have earned that: 1 Rapid increase in popuation and unpanned expansion of sums and peri-urban areas are typica features of rapid urbanisation. 2 Providing WASH services in an urban context presents numerous chaenges, particuary as a resut of increasing popuation and increased pressure on infrastructure. Limited financia resources makes it difficut to meet the rapidy growing need for improved WASH services. 3 Vunerabe individuas, such as chidren, the edery and the disabed, are ikey to be more seriousy affected than the rest of the urban community, if their access to WASH services is imited. WASH services shoud be equitabe and incusive. 4 Urban youth unempoyment is a significant probem in Ethiopia that coud be improved with the deveopment of new WASH enterprises. 5 Emergencies such as disease outbreaks and foods are cosey reated to WASH provision. Promoting safe sanitation and hygiene practices and providing househod water treatment products can reduce or prevent the damage that WASH-reated emergencies can cause to urban communities. Sef-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 Now that you have competed this study session, you can assess how we you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. SAQ 1.1 (tests Learning Outcomes 1.1 and 1.2) Rewrite the paragraph beow using terms from the ist provided to fi the gaps. empoyment, peri-urban areas, popuation density, productive, rura areas, sanitation, sum areas, urban areas, urbanisation, WASH services, water suppy. Increasing scarcity of and for farming and the prospect of better opportunities are encouraging more and more peope in Ethiopia to move from to towns and cities. This has ed to many peope iving in of poor housing that ack essentia services. Towns and cities are aso spreading over arger areas of and with expanding that have mixed urban and rura characteristics. The in is much higher than in rura areas. This creates chaenges for providers of because of the high demand for and effective systems. Answer Increasing scarcity of productive and for farming and the prospect of better empoyment opportunities are encouraging more and more peope in Ethiopia to move from rura areas to towns and cities. This urbanisation has ed to many peope iving in 16 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

17 Sef-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 sum areas of poor housing that ack essentia services. Towns and cities are aso spreading over arger areas of and with expanding peri-urban areas that have mixed urban and rura characteristics. The popuation density in urban areas is much higher than in rura areas. This creates chaenges for providers of WASH services because of the high demand for water suppy and effective sanitation systems. SAQ 1.2 (tests Learning Outcome 1.3) Describe the particuar chaenges of providing WASH services in urban settings arising from each of the foowing factors. (a) (b) (c) (d) Increasing popuation size The diverse nature of the urban community Infrastructure required for WASH services Governance, in particuar the process through which resources for improving WASH services are aocated and utiised. Answer The particuar chaenges for providing WASH services in urban areas arising from these factors incude: (a) (b) (c) (d) Increasing popuation size paces pressure on existing WASH faciities due to the increased number of users and often eads to generay reduced access eves and frequent breakdown. The rate of increase in popuation is often many times higher than the rate at which WASH service improvements are actuay panned and impemented. The diverse nature of the urban community promoting safe hygiene and sanitation practices is difficut if the community is very mixed and the peope do not share a sense of responsibiity for their neighbours or environment. Infrastructure required for WASH services mobiising sufficient funds to pan and impement infrastructure projects is difficut. In water suppy, meeting the growing demand of the continuousy increasing popuation size is a chaenge. Lack of waste coection, transport and disposa infrastructure adds to increasing environmenta poution in urban and peri-urban areas. Governance the process through which resources for improving WASH services are aocated and utiised is compicated. Moreover the distribution of resources and infrastructure may not be town-wide, sociay incusive or equitabe. SAQ 1.3 (tests Learning Outcome 1.4) Imagine that you are conducting a community meeting on WASH issues and you have highighted to the participants that the needs of vunerabe groups of peope require adequate attention in WASH interventions. One participant asks you to carify which specific issues are important to physicay disabed peope and how these issues can be addressed or provided for. What wi be your expanation? 17 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016

18 Sef-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 Answer The key chaenge for physicay disabed peope in using WASH faciities is the ack of proper access. If atrines are far away and/or ocated in corners and over paths that are rugged or marshy, disabed individuas, particuary those without mobiity aids, such as wheechairs, wi face enormous difficuty in accessing and using such faciities on a daiy basis. To address the probem, the atrines shoud be ocated nearby and designed with the needs of disabed peope in mind. For exampe, they shoud have extra space inside, supporting rais, wider doors and ramps for access by wheechair users. Your expanation shoud aso mention the ceaniness and sanitary conditions of the atrines, which are equay important. Where there are no specia provisions (rooms and supports), disabed peope wi have no option but to use the faciities that are suited for non-disabed peope. If these are not kept cean, disabed peope wi have to use the faciities with much discomfort and strugge, and with increased heath risks. You can aso expain these chaenges in the context of water suppy faciities, where the ocation, design and access to the water suppy point shoud consider the needs of disabed peope. SAQ 1.4 (tests Learning Outcome 1.5) One of the factors that can cause probems in an emergency situation is contamination of water suppy systems. Expain how this can cause probems, identify what those probems might be and outine two interventions that coud hep to tacke them. Answer Water suppy systems are a very common route for transmission of disease-causing micro-organisms to communities and these risks are increased in emergency situations. The organisms can enter the system at the source or through weak joints in the distribution system. This is particuary ikey to happen if pipes have been aowed to become empty. Appropriate interventions which woud hep to tacke this probem incude: proper maintenance and operation of water suppy systems promoting the use of point-of-use water treatment chemicas. 18 of 18 Wednesday 6 Apri 2016