U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL

Transcription

1 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL AUGUST 2015

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3 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL AUGUST 2015

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5 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ABOUT THIS REPORT SUMMARY OF CURRENT BLACK CARBON EMISSIONS AND FUTURE PROJECTIONS SUMMARY OF CURRENT METHANE EMISSIONS AND FUTURE PROJECTIONS SUMMARY OF NATIONAL MITIGATION ACTIONS BY POLLUTANT AND SECTOR BLACK CARBON METHANE HIGHLIGHTS OF BEST PRACTICES AND LESSONS LEARNED FOR KEY SECTORS TRANSPORT/MOBILE OPEN BIOMASS BURNING (INCLUDING WILDFIRES) RESIDENTIAL/DOMESTIC OIL & NATURAL GAS OTHER PROJECTS RELEVANT FOR THE ARCTIC ARCTIC AIR QUALITY IMPACT ASSESSMENT MODELING BLACK CARBON DEPOSITION ON U.S. SNOW PACK EMISSIONS AND TRANSPORT FROM AGRICULTURAL BURNING AND FOREST FIRES MEASUREMENT OF BLACK CARBON AND METHANE IN THE ARCTIC MEASUREMENT OF MARITIME BLACK CARBON EMISSIONS AND DIESEL FUEL ALTERNATIVES REDUCTION OF BLACK CARBON IN THE RUSSIAN ARCTIC VALDAY CLUSTER UPGRADE FOR BLACK CARBON REDUCTION IN THE REPUBLIC OF KARELIA, RUSSIAN FEDERATION AVIATION CLIMATE CHANGE RESEARCH INITIATIVE TRACKING SOURCES OF BLACK CARBON IN THE ARCTIC OTHER INFORMATION APPENDIX 1: U.S. BLACK CARBON EMISSIONS APPENDIX 2: U.S. METHANE EMISSIONS (MMT CO 2 E),

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7 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY U.S. black carbon emissions are declining and additional reductions are expected, largely through strategies to reduce the emissions from mobile diesel engines that account for roughly 40 percent of the U.S. total. A number of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) control strategies have proven successful in reducing black carbon emissions from mobile sources. The two principal strategies include: (1) emissions standards for new vehicles and engines, with emissions reductions occurring as the vehicle and engine fleet turns over, and (2) controls or strategies that reduce emissions from existing in-use engines, such as diesel retrofits. It is important to note that these strategies are complementary, and can be employed simultaneously. Mitigation opportunities are more limited in other sectors such as open burning (which accounts for 39 percent), either due to the low level of remaining controllable emissions or the lack of effective black carbon controls, particularly when considering co-emissions of organic carbon and other cooling particles. Regulations and other activities that reduce emissions of fine particulate matter (of which black carbon is a component), however, may achieve additional reductions of black carbon. Reductions in black carbon, particularly north of the 40 th parallel, can help to mitigate warming in the Arctic specifically by reducing deposition on snow and ice and will also lead to potentially significant health benefits. For methane, a combination of voluntary and regulatory measures are reducing emissions from several sectors, most notably the oil and natural gas sector and municipal landfills (which respectively accounted for about 29 percent and 18 percent of total U.S. methane emissions in 2013). In March 2014, the United States issued A Strategy to Reduce Methane Emissions to achieve further reductions. This Strategy highlights both new and existing programs aimed at reducing domestic and international methane emissions through incentive-based programs. It also promotes research and development efforts to improve methane emissions measurement and to advance methane reduction technologies. The strategy focuses on key sectors including landfills, coal mines, agriculture, and oil and natural gas and highlights examples of technologies and industry-led best practices that are helping cut methane emissions. In January 2015, the United States announced a goal of reducing methane emissions from the oil and natural gas sector by percent from 2012 levels by 2025, together with a strategy for achieving such reductions. Reducing methane emissions from the other major source, agriculture (approximately 37 percent of 2013 emissions), is generally more challenging though some opportunities do exist, particularly with regard to manure management. Regardless of where emitted, methane contributes to the elevated concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Accordingly, mitigation measures implemented throughout the United States will help reduce the pace of warming in the Arctic and around the globe. ABOUT THIS REPORT Under the Enhanced Black Carbon and Methane Emissions Arctic Council Framework for Action, 1 the eight Arctic Nations including the United States agreed to develop biennial national reports that summarize their emissions of black carbon and methane. These reports, based respectively on prior submissions under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, are requested also to include emissionreduction actions, highlights of best practices and lessons learned, and projects relevant for the Arctic, with other information as relevant. The United States submits this document to the Secretariat of the Arctic Council pursuant to these provisions of the Framework. 1 The eight Arctic states, which together comprise the Arctic Council, are: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States.

8 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS Figure 1. U.S. Black Carbon Emissions in 2011 (0.51 million metric tons) Source: U.S. EPA 2011 National Emission Inventory Modeling Platform (2011v6.1) SUMMARY OF CURRENT BLACK CARBON EMISSIONS AND FUTURE PROJECTIONS In March 2015, the United States (U.S.) submitted emission inventory data, including data for black carbon, under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP). 2 Black carbon accounts for approximately 11 percent of U.S. fine particle emissions. 3 As shown in Figure 1, mobile sources and open burning contribute the majority of U.S. black carbon emissions. Detailed emission information can be found in the appendix to this report. Globally, the largest black carbon emission sources in Arctic nations are forest burning and wildfires, and on road diesel vehicles, followed by residential burning, off road diesel and stationary diesel engines, agricultural burning, and industrial combustion. Gas flaring may currently be a significant source as well, with a significant share occurring at high latitudes. The Arctic Council Task Force on Short-lived Climate Forcers 4 (2013 recommendation 9) and the Arctic 2 The U.S. CLRTAP submission can be accessed at: at/ms/ceip_home1/ceip_home/status_reporting/2015_submissions/ 3 Source: U.S. EPA 2011 National Emission Inventory Modeling Platform v6. Fine particles (PM 2.5 ), which are 2.5 micrometers in diameter or smaller, are produced from all types of combustion, including motor vehicles, power plants, residential wood burning, forest fires, agricultural burning, and some industrial processes. Black carbon is a component of PM Monitoring and Assessment Program working group s 2011 report entitled The Impact of Black Carbon on Arctic Climate 5 (recommendation 10.2), found there is not enough known about the emissions and effects of black carbon from flaring and that better inventories, analysis, and studies are needed. Figure 2 shows projected black carbon emissions by sector in 2011, 2018, and U.S. black carbon emissions have been declining and additional reductions are expected, largely through strategies to reduce emissions of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) from mobile diesel engines. Key strategies include: (1) more stringent emissions standards for new vehicles and engines, with emissions reductions occurring as the vehicle and engine fleet are replaced with new models, and (2) controls or strategies that reduce emissions from existing in-use engines, such as diesel retrofits. It is important to note that these strategies are complementary, and can be employed simultaneously. 6 Other U.S. source categories have more limited mitigation potential either due to the low level of remaining controllable Please note that more detailed information can be found in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency s 2012 Report to Congress on Black Carbon: 2

9 A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL Figure 2. Projected Changes in U.S. Black Carbon Emissions by sector: 2011, 2018, and Source: U.S. EPA 2011 National Emission Inventory Modeling Platform (2011v6.1) Note: The inventory projections are based on the National Emission Inventory Modeling Platform (2011v6.1), while the CLRTAP inventory was based on the previous modeling platform (2011v6). Slight differences between these platforms will result in small variations in emission values, but do not substantially change the conclusions presented. No data are displayed for open biomass burning because future projections are not made for this sector. emissions (e.g., stationary industrial and energy sources) or the lack of effective black carbon controls, particularly when considering co-emissions of organic carbon and other cooling particles (e.g., residential wood combustion and open biomass burning). As noted in the U.S. EPA s 2012 Report to Congress on Black Carbon, emissions of black carbon north of the 40 th parallel are thought to be particularly important for black carbon climate-related effects in the Arctic. In 2011, the 25 states located with half or more of their area north of the 40 th parallel were responsible for approximately 38 percent of U.S. black carbon emissions. Table 1 shows the estimated magnitude and proportion of emissions located above the 40 th parallel by sector. As in the United States as a whole, mobile sources account for 40 percent of black carbon emissions north of the 40 th parallel. As a result, expected reductions in this sector are important for mitigating the climate impacts of black carbon in the Arctic. Sector Emissions North of 40th Parallel (metric tons) % of Total Emissions North of 40th Parallel Transport/Mobile 84,000 43% Open Biomass Burning 64,000 32% Other 18,000 9% Residential Combustion 14,000 7% Industry 14,000 6% Energy/Power 5,800 2% Total 197,000 Table 1. U.S. Black Carbon Emissions in States North of 40th Parallel. Source: U.S. EPA 2011 National Emission Inventory Modeling Platform (2011v6.1) Note: All totals rounded to two significant digits Note: Inventory data presented here are based on the National Emission Inventory modeling platform (2011v6.1), while the CLRTAP inventory was based on the previous modeling platform (2011v6). Slight differences between these platforms will result in small variations in emission values, but do not substantially change the conclusions presented. 3

10 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS SUMMARY OF CURRENT METHANE EMISSIONS AND FUTURE PROJECTIONS Note: Includes anthropogenic sources of methane emissions only. Under the Arctic Council Framework, countries are asked to submit summaries of methane emissions reported under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The U.S. s most recent submission to the UNFCCC is the 2015 Inventory of U.S. Emissions and Sinks: Values reported reflect a revised 100-year time horizon global warming potential (GWP) for methane of 25, as presented in the IPCC AR4, following updated UNFCCC reporting guidelines. 8 In 2013, methane was responsible for about 10 percent of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, totaling million metric tons (MMT) CO 2 equivalents (CO 2 e). Six sectors account for 92 percent of these emissions: enteric fermentation (animal digestive tract gas), natural gas systems, landfills, coal mining, manure management, and petroleum (oil) systems. Between 1990 and 2013, total domestic methane emissions decreased by 15 percent, due largely to measurable reductions from landfills, natural gas systems, and coal mining. Figure 3 shows U.S. methane emissions by sector for selected years. 7 Data is published online at: ghgemissions/usinventoryreport.html 8 Detailed emission information can be found in the appendix to this report. Enteric fermentation was the largest anthropogenic source of methane emissions in the U.S. in 2013, with emissions 0.2 percent larger than in Natural gas systems were the second largest anthropogenic source in 2013, with emissions decreasing 12 percent since The decrease in methane emissions is largely due to the decrease in emissions from production and distribution. The decrease in production emissions is due to the requirements of the 2012 New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for oil and gas, and from a variety of voluntary reduction activities. Landfills were the third largest anthropogenic source of U.S. methane emissions and showed a 38 percent decrease from 1990 to This decline can be attributed to a reduction in the amount of decomposable materials placed in municipal solid waste landfills and an increase in the amount of landfill gas (a large proportion of which is methane) collected and combusted. Coal mine methane emissions were the next largest source and showed a 33 percent decrease over the record period. Methane emissions from manure management increased by 65 percent since The majority of this increase was from 4

11 A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL Figure 3. U.S. Methane Emissions by Sector, Source: EPA Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report , published 2015 Source Enteric Fermentation Natural Gas Landfills Coal Mines Manure Management Other Total Table 2. Projected U.S. Methane Emissions (MMT CO2e), Source: 2014 Climate Action Report, Table 5-2, Updated to AR4 GWPs. See note in text regarding subsequent developments affecting these projections. swine and dairy farms, since the general trend in manure management is one of increasing use of liquid systems, which tend to produce greater methane emissions. Finally, emissions from petroleum systems decreased by 20 percent during the study period, mainly due to domestic voluntary reductions programs. Projected methane emissions from are shown in Table 2 (as reported in the 2014 Climate Action Report). In response to these anticipated increases in methane emissions from various sources and sectors, A Strategy to Reduce Methane Emissions (the U.S. Methane Strategy) was issued by the White House in March 2014 (see discussion on page 11). 9 The U.S. Methane Strategy outlines a suite of actions (some already taken) intended to significantly mitigate methane emissions from these sources. Based on current and planned activities under the U.S. Methane Strategy, we expect actual future emissions to be lower than the projections presented here as a result of these, and other, actions. 9 methane_emissions_ _final.pdf 5

12 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS SUMMARY OF NATIONAL MITIGATION ACTIONS BY POLLUTANT AND SECTOR BLACK CARBON Black carbon is not the direct target of existing regulatory programs in the United States, but it has been reduced through controls aimed at reducing ambient PM 2.5 concentrations or direct particle emissions. Analysis of relevant regulatory programs suggests that available control technologies and approaches are projected to continue to reduce black carbon emissions from many key source categories at reasonable cost. In addition to the climate benefits of reducing black carbon, particularly in northern parts of the United States, these reductions will result in substantial health benefits through reductions in PM 2.5. Transport/Mobile A number of PM 2.5 control strategies have proven successful in reducing black carbon emissions from mobile sources. The two principal strategies include: (1) emissions standards for new vehicles and engines, with emissions reductions occurring as the vehicle and engine fleet turns over, and (2) controls or strategies that reduce emissions from existing in-use engines, such as diesel retrofits. It is important to note that these strategies are complementary, and can be employed simultaneously. The main technology for reducing black carbon emissions from diesel engines is the catalyzed diesel particulate filter (DPF). Because DPFs are made inoperable by fuels with high sulfur content, mitigation of mobile source black carbon emissions depends on the availability and widespread use of low-sulfur fuels. In the United States, regulations require the use of ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel (15 ppm sulfur) in diesel engines. For more detailed information on topics presented in this section, please refer to Chapter 8 and Appendices 4 6 of the Report to Congress on Black Carbon (U.S. EPA, March 2012). 10 New Engine Standards In the United States, stringent PM emissions standards for new mobile source engines are being phased in across different sectors between 2007 and The costs and benefits for many of these regulations are shown in Table 2. In most cases, the most stringent standards result in the use of DPFs on new engines. The main source of diesel PM has traditionally been heavyduty on-highway diesel trucks with gross vehicle weights from 8,501 to 80,000 lbs. The first standards controlling diesel PM

13 A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL Rule Total Cost (billion USD) Total Monetized Benefits (billion USD) Benefit/Cost Ratio Heavy Duty Diesel 2007 $6.1 $94 15 Nonroad Diesel Tier 4 $2.9 $ Locomotive/ Marine $0.8 $13 16 C3 Ocean Going Vessel $3.6 $ Light Duty Tier 2 $7.8 $ Light Duty Tier 3 $1.6 $ Total $23 $ Table Annual Benefits and Costs for Six Major Mobile Source Rules (2014$) Note: Numbers drawn from respective Regulatory Impact Analyses. Values have been adjusted from the year in which they were presented to common year 2014 dollars. Values rounded to two digits; totals may not sum due to rounding. for onroad engines were standards for visible smoke (which has some correlation with PM) effective with the 1970 model year followed by increasingly stringent PM mass standards starting with the 1988 model year. For the 2007 vehicle (engine) model year, stringent emission standards of 0.01 g/bhp-hr (grams per brake horsepower/hour a standard unit for emissions from heavy-duty mobile source engines) became effective for heavy-duty on-highway diesel engines, which represents over 99% control from a pre-control diesel engine in the 1970 time frame. To meet these PM standards, virtually all new on-highway diesel trucks in the United States, beginning with the 2007 model year, have been equipped with DPFs. These standards are resulting in dramatic reductions in PM and black carbon from the vehicle sector. The U.S. EPA s first PM emission standards for nonroad diesel engines 11 began in 1996 and the Tier 4 nonroad standards developed in 2004 are now completely phased in. The U.S. EPA has also implemented several tiers of PM emission standards for locomotive engines, with the most recent set of standards to be effective in These newest standards will likely result in the use of DPFs on new locomotives. In addition, national emission standards require that older locomotives that are remanufactured must be certified to more stringent emission standards than their prior certification level. Commercial marine vessels are classified as C1, C2, or C3 based on engine size. C1 marine engines are similar in size 11 The emission standards for nonroad diesel engines referenced here apply to diesel engines used in most construction, agricultural, industrial and airport equipment. to those used in construction/farm equipment (less than 5 liters/cylinder or for some categories less than 7 liters/ cylinder). C2 marine engines (between 5 or 7 and 30 liters/ cylinder) are similar in size to locomotive diesels, while C3 engines (greater than 30 liters/cylinder), used in ocean-going vessels, are similar in size to those used in some power plants. The most recent set of emission standards began phasing in for these engines in 2014 and will likely result in most new C1 and C2 commercial marine engines having DPFs. Implementing these changes will result in a dramatic drop in PM emissions and an even more dramatic drop in black carbon emissions from these engines. As in locomotives, older marine diesel engines must be certified to more stringent emission standards upon remanufacturing, compared to their previous certification level. For U.S. passenger cars and light-duty trucks, national PM emissions standards of 0.01 g/mile (known as Tier 2 standards) took effect during National PM emission standards of g/mile (known as Tier 3 standards) will take effect for U.S. passenger cars (and light-duty trucks) during the timeframe. These standards apply to both gasoline and diesel light-duty vehicles, although there are relatively few diesel passenger cars in the United States. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) and the U.S. EPA have issued light-duty vehicle fuel economy and tailpipe greenhouse gas standards effective through the 2022 and 2025 model years, respectively. The U.S. DOT and U.S. EPA have also issued heavy-duty vehicle fuel economy standards for model years and have proposed Phase II standards for heavy-duty vehicles, which would be effective through

14 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS Mitigation Approaches for In-use Mobile Sources The National Clean Diesel Campaign and the SmartWay Transport Partnership Program are the U.S. EPA s two primary programs responsible for reducing emissions from in-use diesel vehicles and equipment. These programs support the testing and deployment of numerous technologies and strategies to reduce emissions, including black carbon, from in-use diesel engines and can provide immediate reductions. Despite the implementation of the emissions standards outlined in the previous section, approximately million older diesel engines ones manufactured before the recent standards took effect remain in use. The National Clean Diesel Campaign addresses these older engines chiefly through clean diesel grants to eligible entities such as regional, state, local or tribal agencies/consortia, port authorities, or nonprofit organizations. The U.S. EPA began awarding such grants in 2008 under the Diesel Emissions Reduction Act (DERA), a grant program created by Congress as part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 to reduce diesel emissions from these older engines. DERA projects provide immediate black carbon reductions by reducing PM emissions from the legacy fleet of diesel engines. EPA has awarded more than 640 grants since the start of DERA in 2008 through FY These grants have retrofitted, repowered (replaced the engine), upgraded or replaced more than 73,000 vehicles or pieces of equipment. EPA estimates that total lifetime emission reductions achieved through DERA funding include 13,400 metric tons of PM. These reductions are estimated to result in up to $12.6 billion of health benefits nationally. Local diesel emissions reductions in Alaska and other northern states can also provide the benefit of reducing the black carbon contribution to Arctic warming. In addition, DERA projects are estimated to reduce approximately 4.4 MMT CO 2 during the lifetime of the affected engines, resulting in substantial climate benefits and saving more than 431 million gallons of fuel due to idle reduction and more fuel-efficient technologies. In 2004, the U.S. EPA launched its SmartWay Transport Partnership. SmartWay is an innovative, voluntary partnership between the U.S. EPA and private industry to reduce fuel use and emissions from goods transport. SmartWay promotes fuel-saving and emission control technologies; some technologies such as idle reduction or newer truck replacements do both. Because most cargo-hauling large trucks, locomotives, barges, and other freight vehicles use diesel fuel, and these vehicles remain in the legacy fleet for decades, reducing fuel use and emissions from goods movement and the legacy fleet can have a major impact on diesel emissions, including emissions of black carbon. More than 3,000 companies, both large and small, participate in SmartWay. To date, these SmartWay partners have saved $20.6 billion dollars by cutting their fuel use by million barrels of oil. This has in turn led to reductions of 39,000 metric tons of PM. In addition, SmartWay partners saved 61.7 MMT CO 2 since Improving supply chain efficiency also helps these companies grow the economy, protect and generate jobs, cut imports of foreign oil, contribute to U.S. energy security, and be good environmental stewards. In addition to the U.S. EPA programs, the DOT has several programs that help to reduce transportation emissions. These include funding for projects that reduce air emissions of 8

15 A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL criteria pollutants, such as PM, through the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Program, as well as DOT s overall efforts to improve system efficiency, strengthen transportation planning, and encourage low emissions transportation choices. As explained above, controls to address PM from mobile sources will also reduce black carbon, resulting in substantial climate and health benefits. Open Biomass Burning 12 Action to Reduce Wildfire Potential and Severity A prescribed fire is a fire intentionally ignited in accordance with applicable laws, policies, and regulations to meet specific objectives. The use of prescribed fire on wildlands can influence the occurrence, severity, behavior, and effects of catastrophic wildfires, and may help mitigate the contribution of wildfires to ambient air pollution levels (particularly ozone and PM). Prescribed burning is a key management practice for reducing risk of uncontrolled wildfire, thus helping limit overall fire-related emissions of black carbon. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service s fuels management program goal is to reduce the risks of wildland fire to people, communities, and natural resources while restoring forest and rangeland ecosystems to closely match their historical structure, function, diversity, and dynamics. Fuels treatments accomplish these goals by removing or modifying wildland vegetation to reduce the potential for severe wildland fires, lessen the post-fire damage, and limit the spread or proliferation of invasive species and diseases. These efforts also reduce emissions and their dispersion high into the atmosphere where lengthy residence time and long-range transport, including potentially to Arctic regions, is likely. Treatments are accomplished using prescribed fire (intentionally setting fires to destroy excessive brush, shrubs, and trees under controlled conditions), mechanical thinning, herbicides, grazing, or combinations of these and other methods. Treatments are increasingly focused on the expanding wildland/urban interface areas. Fuels management improves the health and resilience of forests and rangelands, contributes to community adaptation to fire, and improves the ability to safely and appropriately manage wildfire. In 2014, the agency treated more than 2,000,000 acres and has averaged more than 2,400,000 acres annually treated for the previous ten years. In 2015, the USDA and Department of Interior finalized the National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy which recognizes and responds to the challenge of wildfire in the United States. Three key goals are to support healthier, resilient ecosystems that provide many benefits to society, including clean water, scenic and recreational values, wood products, and biodiversity; to be committed to safer, more fireresilient communities; and to respond safely and effectively 12 The National Emissions Inventory includes data for wildfires, prescribed burning, and agricultural field burning. to wildfire. All of the strategies will help the United States to move effectively to reduce wildfire emissions. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) provides direct technical and financial assistance for prescribed burning on nearly one-half million acres of private land each year. This assistance has a multiplying effect by leading to millions of additional acres of prescribed burning on private land annually. Other NRCS forest and range-related practices such as forest stand improvement also can significantly reduce wildfire potential and severity, thereby greatly reducing black carbon emissions. In 2011, 51 percent of black carbon emissions from open biomass burning were from wildfires, 43 percent from prescribed burning, with the remainder from agricultural field burning. Wildfires typically consume greater amounts of fuel with little opportunity for smoke management: these pollutants are lofted higher into the atmosphere where longevity and higher wind speeds provide more opportunity for longrange transport than for a prescribed fire. To gain a better understanding of the Arctic impacts from both prescribed fire and catastrophic wildfire in the continental United States, the Forest Service conducted an assessment of the potential for black carbon and other emissions from these sources to be transported into the Arctic based on transport patterns in the atmosphere. 13 The analysis concluded that it is possible for black carbon from fires in the contiguous United States to be transported to the Arctic throughout the year, but with strong gradients based on initial plume height (i.e. higher lofting provides more opportunity to reach the Arctic), source region (i.e., lower latitudes and areas west of the Rocky Mountains show fewer opportunities) and season (i.e., summer transport is limited compared with winter). There is transport potential during the spring season, when deposition of black carbon on Arctic snow has the greatest ability to affect the Arctic radiative balance. For any given location, however, the ability to transport black carbon to the Arctic varies on a daily or weekly basis as large-scale weather systems move across country, with particular days showing little ability for emissions to reach the Arctic. Similar analysis was also conducted in Europe and Asia. The Forest Service has also been involved in research into the smolder potential of critical surface organic layers of certain soils. 14 When dry and thus available for consumption in a fire, these layers can contribute significantly to emissions which can cause serious local health effects 15 as well as transport Readon J. and Curcio G. M Joint Fire Science Program Final Report: Smoldering Combustion Limits of Organic Soils in the North Carolina. 15 Rappold A.G., and Others Peat Bog Wildfire Smoke Exposure in Rural North Carolina is Associated with Cardiopulmonary Emergency Department Visits Assessed through Syndromic Surveillance. Environmental Health Perspectives Oct 1, 2011; 119(20):

16 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS potential, including to the Arctic. The work has reinforced the importance of timing prescribed fires in these areas in order to minimize consumption of these layers. Research is continuing, including through use of remote sensing tools to assess the sampled potential of the deep surface fuels found in some areas of the Southeast, Northeast and upper-midwest. Residential/Domestic Residential Wood Heaters New Source Performance Standards In February 2015, the U.S. EPA finalized standards to limit the amount of pollution (including PM limits) that wood heaters manufactured and sold in the future can emit. These standards reflect the significantly improved technology that is currently available to make a range of models cleaner burning and more efficient. The standards ensure that new wood heaters manufactured after the rule took effect will include only cleaner burning models. The requirements will be phased in over a five-year period, giving manufacturers time to adapt their product lines to develop the best nextgeneration models to meet these new standards. PM 2.5 emissions from new wood heater models will be reduced by roughly two-thirds, improving air quality and providing between $3.5 and $7.7 billion in public health benefits (2014 dollars) a return of between $75 and $168 for every dollar invested in pollution reduction. Estimated annual costs of implementing the standard are $46 million. In addition, reductions in black carbon from residential sources may have positive climate benefits, particularly in northern states (including Alaska) where residential sources make up a greater proportion of black carbon emissions than in the country as a whole. Consumers purchasing new models will also benefit from efficiency improvements, which means they will use less wood to heat their homes. Oil & Natural Gas Coordination on Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Development The State of Alaska has regulatory authority (delegated from the EPA) for permitting certain air emissions from sources located within Alaska including marine areas located within three miles of the coast. On July 29, 2015, the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) and State of Alaska entered into a Memorandum of Understanding on Coordination and Collaboration Regarding Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Development and Environmental Stewardship that among other things contains an agreement to set up periodic joint workshops to discuss air quality concerns. Other National Ambient Air Quality Standards To protect public health and welfare nationwide, the Clean Air Act requires the U.S. EPA to establish national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) for certain pollutants, including particulate matter. The Act also requires EPA to review and potentially revise the NAAQS every five years. Meeting the NAAQS is a partnership between the federal government and states; states adopt federally enforceable plans to achieve air quality to meet those standards in non-attainment areas (i.e., locations in which the standards are not met). 10

17 A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL Black carbon is a component of PM 2.5 and, as such, actions taken to reduce PM 2.5 may result in reductions in black carbon emissions. In December 2012, the U.S. EPA strengthened the annual NAAQS for PM 2.5 to 12.0 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m 3 ) and retained the 24-hour fine particle standard of 35 µg/m 3. In March 2015, the U.S. EPA proposed requirements for states to implement the PM 2.5 NAAQS in areas that are designated non-attainment for the standard. The requirements would apply to state, local and tribal air agencies developing plans that outline how non-attainment areas will meet and maintain fine particle standards. States initially have six years after the effective date of designation as a Moderate non-attainment area to meet the revised standards. If an area is unable to do so, it will be reclassified as a Serious non-attainment area and be required to adopt best available control measures in order to attain the standards within 10 years of designation. The U.S. EPA estimates that meeting the annual PM 2.5 standard nationwide will provide health benefits worth an estimated $4 billion to $9.8 billion per year in 2020 a return of $13 to $184 for every dollar invested in pollution reduction. Estimated annual costs of implementing the standard are $57 million to $376 million (2014 dollars). Proposed Revisions to Regulation of Air Quality on the Outer Continental Shelf The U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) regulates emissions of criteria air pollutants from energy and mineral leasing activities on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) in in the Central and Western Gulf of Mexico (West of 87.5 degrees longitude) and the Chukchi Sea and Beaufort Sea adjacent to the northern and northwestern coasts (the area offshore the North Slope Borough of the State of Alaska). EPA has air pollution control authority for other OCS locations and activities. 16 BOEM is currently working on amendments to its existing regulations for criteria pollutants, which are designed to ensure compliance with NAAQS to the extent that OCS activities authorized by BOEM affect the air quality of any State. PM 2.5, including black carbon, is a criteria pollutant. Methane is not a criteria pollutant, but BOEM and the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE), both bureaus within the Department of the Interior, have authority to regulate flaring of methane, which generates PM 2.5. BOEM plans to seek comment on black carbon emissions from OCS-related operations and potential mitigation measures when it proposes revised air quality regulations. 16 The US OCS is comprised of areas lying between the seaward extent of the individual States jurisdiction (generally 3 nautical miles offshore, 9 for the Texas and Florida Gulf coasts) and the seaward extent of Federal jurisdiction (generally 200 nautical miles offshore). Stationary Diesel Sources The U.S. Department of Agriculture s Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) leads a voluntary program called the National Air Quality Initiative (NAQI) that is part of the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQUIP). In many states, especially California, the NAQI is used to replace older, high-emitting agricultural combustion equipment with new, low-emitting equipment. Diesel irrigation pump engines used on about 10 million irrigated acres are one focus area of the program. Significant emission reductions are achieved when more efficient and cleanerburning diesel engines are used or when diesel engines are replaced by electric motors. In addition to the NRCS s voluntary program, the U.S. EPA has regulations that limit PM emissions, including black carbon, from new and existing stationary diesel engines. METHANE Since the early 1990s, the United States has developed numerous voluntary programs and policies to reduce domestic methane emissions from large anthropogenic sources. In March 2014, the White House released the Strategy to Reduce Methane Emissions as part of President Obama s Climate Action Plan. This Strategy highlights both new and existing programs aimed at reducing domestic and international methane emissions through incentive-based programs, and research and development efforts to improve methane emissions measurement and to advance methane reduction technologies. The strategy focuses on key sectors including landfills, coal mines, agriculture, and oil and natural gas and highlights examples of technologies and industry-led best practices that are helping to cut methane emissions. As noted below, the White House has also issued a more-detailed strategy on methane emissions from the oil and gas sector. Oil & Natural Gas Oil & Gas Methane Strategy Nearly 30 percent of U.S. methane emissions in 2013 came from the production, processing, transmission, storage and distribution of oil and natural gas. Accordingly, a strategy for cutting methane emissions from the U.S. oil and gas sector is an important component of efforts to address climate change. In January 2015, the White House released such a strategy and announced a goal to reduce methane emissions from the oil and natural gas sector by percent from 2012 levels by Achieving this goal would save up to 180 billion cubic feet of natural gas in 2025, enough to heat more than 2 million homes for a year and continue to support businesses that manufacture and sell cost-effective technologies to identify, quantify, and reduce methane emissions

18 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS The strategy lays out a coordinated cross-agency effort involving the U.S. EPA, the Department of Energy, the Department of the Interior and others. It will build upon existing research and development, regulatory and voluntary programs, as well as leadership by states and industry, to achieve significant methane reductions from this sector during the next decade. Key components of the strategy are outlined below. Source Performance Standards In April 2012, the U.S. EPA issued regulations to reduce harmful air pollution from the oil and natural gas industry, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and air toxics. The final rules included the first federal air standards for natural gas wells that are hydraulically fractured, along with requirements for several other sources of pollution in the oil and gas industry that were not previously regulated at the federal level. The rules for fractured gas wells relied on proven, cost-effective technologies and practices that industry leaders were already using at about half of the fractured natural gas wells in the United States. The estimated revenues from selling captured gas that would otherwise have been vented are expected to offset the costs of compliance. The U.S. EPA s analysis of the rules shows a cost savings of $12 to $21 million (2014 dollars) when the rules are fully implemented in The rules are expected to achieve significant reductions in VOCs and air toxics and will improve outdoor air quality, protect against cancer risk from air toxics emissions and reduce health effects associated with exposure to ground-level ozone. In addition to reducing these harmful air pollutants, the rules are expected to yield significant reductions in methane. The U.S. EPA estimates methane reductions of 23 to 39 MMT CO 2 e and estimates the value of the climate co-benefits that would result from this reduction at $480 million annually by This includes the value of climate-related benefits such as avoided health impacts, crop damage and damage to coastal properties. On August 18, 2015, the U.S. EPA proposed a suite of commonsense requirements that together will help combat climate change, reduce air pollution that harms public health, and provide greater certainty about Clean Air Act permitting requirements for the oil and natural gas industry. The proposals are a key component under the President s Climate Action Plan described above. These commonsense standards will reduce emissions from this rapidly growing industry, helping ensure that development of these energy resources is safe and responsible. These proposals would require methane and VOC reductions from hydraulically fractured oil wells, some of which can contain a large amount of gas along with oil, and would complement the agency s 2012 standards addressing emissions from this industry. In addition to reducing emissions from hydraulically fractured oil wells, the new proposals would extend emission reduction requirements further downstream, covering equipment in the natural gas transmission segment of the industry that was not regulated in the agency s 2012 rules. The U.S. EPA also is proposing to require owners/operators to find and repair leaks, which can be a significant source of both methane and VOC pollution. In addition to the requirements for new and modified emissions sources, draft guidelines for states will reduce VOC emissions from existing oil and gas sources in areas with smog problems. And two proposals would clarify permitting requirements in states and Indian country and make them more efficient. The U.S. EPA will take comment on the proposed rules for 60 days after they are published in the Federal Register. 18 Emission reporting In December 2014, EPA proposed updates to its GHG reporting requirements that would result in more complete coverage of methane emissions from the oil and gas industry. 19 EPA plans to complete this rulemaking by the end of In addition, EPA is exploring potential regulatory opportunities for applying remote sensing technologies and other innovations in measurement and monitoring technology to further improve the identification and quantification of emissions and improve the overall accuracy, transparency, and cost-effectiveness of data collection techniques. In addition, DOE plans to launch a Research and Analysis Program to enhance the quantification of emissions from natural gas infrastructure to include in the national Greenhouse Gas Inventory in coordination with the U.S. EPA. Non-federal efforts to improve data on and estimates of methane emissions from the U.S. oil and gas industry are also underway, including a multi-study initiative involving more than 100 partners from industry, research institutions, and civil society. 20 Natural Gas STAR Program The Natural Gas STAR Program is a flexible, voluntary partnership that encourages oil and natural gas companies both domestically and abroad to adopt cost-effective technologies and practices that improve operational efficiency and reduce emissions of methane. These voluntary activities include nearly 50 technologies and practices and have resulted in domestic methane emissions reductions of 24 MMT CO 2 e in These methane emissions reductions have cross-cutting benefits on domestic energy supply, industrial efficiency, revenue generation, and greenhouse gas emissions reductions. The 2013 emission reductions are equivalent to the additional revenue of more than $200 million in natural gas sales. 18 More information about the proposals is available at: epa.gov/airquality/oilandgas/actions.html. 19 The proposal would add reporting of GHG emissions from gathering and boosting systems, completions and workovers of oil wells using hydraulic fracturing, and blowdowns of natural gas transmission pipelines. The proposal can be found in the Federal Register at 79 FR

19 A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL In July 2015, the U.S. EPA released a proposal for a new, expanded voluntary effort, the Natural Gas STAR Methane Challenge, a key component of the Administration s oil and gas strategy announced in early The proposed Methane Challenge program would provide incentives and opportunities for companies to undertake and be recognized for ambitious voluntary methane emission reductions, principally from existing methane sources. Natural Gas Modernization Initiative In 2014, the Secretary of Energy and the White House hosted a series of five methane stakeholder roundtable meetings to catalyze greater action and engagement by policymakers at all levels of government, and encourage industry to invest in methane abatement actions and participate in voluntary programs. At the final roundtable, the Department of Energy (DOE) launched the Natural Gas Modernization Initiative, 21 which includes a series of efforts designed to help cost-effectively reduce methane emissions from natural gas systems. To help reduce the cost of detecting natural gas leaks, DOE hosts the leading U.S. government effort to advance methane-sensing technologies through the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) MONITOR (Methane Observation Networks with Innovative Technology to Obtain Reductions) program. In December, 2014, this 21 $30 million, 3-year program announced 22 funding for 11 new projects that are each developing low-cost, highly sensitive systems that detect and measure methane associated with the production and transportation of oil and natural gas. Additional research efforts supported by DOE include two projects that were funded to measure and model methane emissions from the Marcellus region in Pennsylvania, an active area for unconventional natural gas development in the United States. In April 2015, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission approved a new policy on Cost Recovery for Natural Gas Facilities Modernization. 23 This policy will allow interstate natural gas pipelines to use surcharges to recover costs for capital expenditures to modernize pipeline system infrastructure, resulting in enhanced system reliability, safety, and methane emissions reductions. In July 2015, DOE joined with the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners to launch a Natural Gas Infrastructure Modernization Partnership to provide technical assistance to states on model regulatory practices to enhance distribution pipeline reliability and costeffective methane control technologies to mitigate methane emissions. To further promote awareness and action by states and industry, the DOE also launched a Natural Gas G-1.asp#.Vbk63PlViko 13

20 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS Modernization Clearinghouse, 24 which provides information about the benefits of taking action and offers strategies and technologies that increase public safety, improve efficiency and environmental performance, and enhance natural gas deliverability. In addition to these activities, DOE plans to develop a midstream natural gas infrastructure program to focus on reducing methane leaks and enhancing operational efficiencies of pipelines, storage facilities, and compressor stations, as well as on communicating results to stakeholders to mitigate methane emissions. Reduced Methane Emissions from Pipelines The DOT s Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration is developing a suite of new regulations to require pipeline operators to extend their programs to detect and repair pipeline defects, and to increase use of automatic shut-off valves for retail customers primarily to ensure public safety. These regulations, when promulgated, will also reduce leakage from pipelines and also reduce the frequency and severity of methane loss and uncontrolled combustion from accidents. Proposed Regulations to Reduce Venting and Flaring from Public Lands The Department of Interior s Bureau of Land Management (BLM) will update decades-old standards to reduce wasteful venting, flaring, and leaks of natural gas, which is primarily methane, from oil and gas wells. These standards, to be proposed this fall, will address both new and existing oil and gas wells on public lands. This action will enhance U.S. natural gas supplies and assure appropriate payment of royalties from development of public resources, as well as reduce methane emissions. The BLM is working closely with the EPA to ensure an integrated approach. Coal Mining Coalbed Methane Outreach Program The U.S. EPA s voluntary Coalbed Methane Outreach Program (CMOP) has the goal of reducing methane emissions from coal mining activities by promoting the profitable recovery and utilization of coal mine methane. Since 1994, CMOP has worked cooperatively with the coal mining industry to promote coal mine methane projects, which improve worker safety, lower methane emissions, provide additional revenue for the mines, and utilize a clean energy resource. As of 2012, there were 26 operating coal mine methane projects in the United States. The program has helped to reduce coal mine methane emissions by more than 8 MMT CO 2 e in 2013, and has achieved cumulative reductions of more than 160 MMT CO 2 e since the program began in Agriculture Agricultural emissions of methane result from several sources. Chief among these is enteric fermentation, a process through which microbes present in the digestive tract of livestock (primarily ruminants, such as cattle, sheep, and goats) break down ingested feed, emitting methane as a byproduct. Animal type, quantity and quality of the feed source, additives, and other factors influence methane emissions from enteric fermentation. Although methane emissions from enteric fermentation exceed those from manure management, the opportunities for reducing emissions from enteric fermentation are not well understood. For that reason, mitigation options for this sector focus primarily on those applicable to manure management through the use of anaerobic digestion techniques. 25 These technologies capture biogas that is created when animal waste (manure) decomposes under low-oxygen conditions. AgSTAR AgSTAR was launched as a voluntary effort by the U.S. EPA with collaboration from USDA in 1993 to encourage the use of methane recovery technologies at confined animal feeding operations that manage manure as liquids or slurries. AgSTAR also works to identify and address barriers to installation of biogas recovery projects, as well as to provide information and training to state and local government agencies

21 A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL As of March 2015, there were 247 operating AgSTAR projects in the United States. Estimated benefits of these projects in 2014 include 3.0 MMT CO 2 e emissions avoided. Biogas Opportunities Roadmap In August of 2014, in partnership with the dairy and biogas industries, the USDA, U.S. EPA and the DOE jointly released a Biogas Opportunities Roadmap outlining voluntary strategies to accelerate adoption of methane digesters and other cost-effective technologies. 26 The Roadmap, which supports the U.S. dairy sector s voluntary goal established in 2008 to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 25 percent by 2020, found that with the proper support, more than 11,000 additional biogas systems could be deployed in the United States. If fully realized, these biogas systems could reduce methane emissions equivalent to 4 to 54 million metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions in The Biogas Opportunities Roadmap builds on progress made to date to identify voluntary actions that can be taken by government agencies to reduce methane emissions through the use of biogas systems and outlines strategies to overcome barriers limiting further expansion and development of a robust biogas industry in the United States. These steps include the use of existing programs (such as AgSTAR) by USDA, DOE, and EPA to enhance the utilization of biogas systems in the United States. In addition, USDA and DOE will review applicable loan and grant programs to enhance the financing options available for biogas systems. The three agencies will continue to provide technical information to overcome barriers, including the integration of biogas into electricity and renewable natural gas markets. Finally, the agencies will increase stakeholder engagement activities to widely disseminate information about these opportunities and technical resources. Landfills Performance Standards and Emission Guidelines On August 14, 2015, as part of the Strategy to Reduce Methane Emissions described above, EPA issued two proposals to further reduce emissions of methane-rich landfill gas from new and existing municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills. Both rules would require landfills to begin collecting and controlling landfill gas emissions at lower thresholds (34 metric tons) than currently required. Combined, the proposed rules are expected to reduce methane emissions by an estimated 487,000 tons a year beginning in 2025 equivalent to reducing 12.2 million metric tons of carbon dioxide. The proposals would strengthen a July 2014 proposal to update the agency s 1996 New Source Performance Standards for new and modified landfills and would update the agency s 1996 emission guidelines for existing landfills. The proposals are based on additional data and analysis, and public comments received on a proposal and Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking EPA issued in U.S. EPA will take comment on the proposed rules for 60 days after they are published in the Federal Register. Landfill Methane Outreach Program The U.S. EPA s Landfill Methane Outreach Program (LMOP) reduces methane emissions at MSW landfills by supporting the voluntary recovery and use of landfill gas for energy. LMOP focuses its efforts on smaller landfills that are not required to collect their landfill gas, as well as larger landfills that collect their gas but flare it rather than use it as an energy source. As of 2013, there were 634 operational landfill gas to energy projects in the U.S., of which LMOP assisted more than 600. In 2013, the program s efforts reduced methane emissions from landfills and avoided CO2 emissions totaling approximately 40 MMT CO 2 e. Over 600 LMOP-assisted projects landfill gas energy projects have collectively reduced and avoided over 306 MMT CO 2 e since the program began in More information about the proposals is available at: 15

22 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS HIGHLIGHTS OF BEST PRACTICES AND LESSONS LEARNED FOR KEY SECTORS (See pages 6-15 for additional details on the programs described below.) TRANSPORT/MOBILE Considerations Impacting Effectiveness of Regulations Ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel In issuing diesel PM regulations for onroad heavy-duty vehicles, nonroad diesels, and commercial marine (categories 1 and 2) engines and/or locomotives, the U.S. EPA determined that the required emission standards could only be met in combination with ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel. ULSD fuel is an important prerequisite for the application of DPFs in order to preserve catalytic activity of the emission control system, which is poisoned by sulfur. Legacy fleets In addition, the transportation-related emission reductions realized as a result of a regulation depend on the rate of fleet turnover i.e. the rate at which older vehicles and engines are replaced with new vehicles that comply with the latest emissions standards. The rate of fleet turnover depends heavily on the type of vehicle or engine, with onroad engines such as passenger cars and light-duty trucks being replaced more frequently than some other types of mobile sources, such as nonroad equipment. Efforts to address older vehicles and engines through voluntary programs and grants or loans to operators to upgrade diesel engines and controls can have significant positive impacts on overall diesel and related black carbon emissions. OPEN BIOMASS BURNING (INCLUDING WILDFIRES) Timing of Prescribed Burns The climate impact of wildlands fires in the continental U.S. both wildfires and prescribed burns can vary substantially depending on timing and location. The ability of black carbon from fires from the continental US to be transported to the Arctic exists throughout the year, but with strong gradients by region (i.e., much lower west of the Rocky Mountains) and season (i.e., more than twice as high in winter versus summer). 28 While there is potential for transport between the continental U.S. and the Arctic during

23 A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL the spring season, when deposition of black carbon on Arctic snow has the greatest ability to affect the Arctic radiative balance, the potential for transport changes throughout the season as different weather patterns move across the country. Timing prescribed burns based on this information can help lower the climate impact to the Arctic. Both USDA Forest Service and USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service published the Basic Smoke Management Practices Tech Note, October 2011, which describes approaches to minimizing emissions and impacts of prescribed burning in the United States. 29 These practices have utility for open burning of natural ecosystems as well as many agricultural systems where fire is needed and used. Both agencies have adopted the practices in policy to help mitigate the air quality effects of needed prescribed fire operations. RESIDENTIAL/DOMESTIC U.S. EPA Burn Wise Program In addition to its regulatory program, the U.S. EPA has conducted extensive education and outreach related to residential biomass burning. EPA s Burn Wise 30 website includes information that emphasizes the importance of burning the right wood, the right way, in the right woodburning appliance to achieve health, safety and air quality goals. One of the biggest opportunities to reduce wood smoke emissions, including black carbon, lies in the hands of those who burn wood, regardless of the type of appliance they own. The way wood stoves are operated and what is burned are as important as the type of stove used. State, local, and tribal governments, and the public have reported to EPA that even people who own an EPA-certified wood stove are often times burning green unseasoned wood, trash, and/ or improperly operating their appliance, resulting in high wood smoke emissions. The information available on the Burn Wise website can help stove users better understand actions they can take to reduce emissions. 31 OIL & NATURAL GAS Natural Gas STAR Working with industry partners, the voluntary Natural Gas STAR program has developed numerous Lessons Learned Studies 32 for recommended technologies and practices within the oil and gas sectors that provide technical guidance and outline the economic and environmental benefits of adoption. OTHER Arctic Black Carbon Case Studies Platform In October 2013, Senior Arctic Officials individuals appointed by the eight Arctic States to represent their countries at the Arctic Council approved a case studies project to catalogue black carbon mitigation efforts and best practices. The first phase of the project included an initial set of six case studies, which has been completed and posted on the Arctic Contaminants Action Program website. 33 Project leads, including the U.S. EPA, are currently compiling additional case studies and a searchable platform that can be easily maintained by the Arctic Council Secretariat is under development. Global Methane Initiative The United States chairs the Global Methane Initiative (GMI), a public-private partnership with 43 partner countries, 34 which targets methane abatement, recovery, and use by focusing on the five main methane emission sources: agriculture (manure management), coal mines, municipal solid waste landfills, oil and gas systems, and wastewater. GMI identifies mitigation opportunities and disseminates information about best practices for each sector, focusing on currently available technologies and relevant policy measures. GMI is a forum in which Arctic countries can actively engage and play a leadership role with respect to methane mitigation practices, as technologies and practices that have been identified for Arctic nations can be relevant for other countries and world regions Additional strategies for reducing wood smoke see can be found at (ACAP login required for access.)

24 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS PROJECTS RELEVANT FOR THE ARCTIC ARCTIC AIR QUALITY IMPACT ASSESSMENT MODELING The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management is currently conducting the Arctic Air Quality Impact Assessment Modeling study, 35 which is designed to account for all reasonably foreseeable emissions that would occur from oil and gas activities on the Chukchi and the Beaufort Seas, including an investigation of both directly-emitted and photochemically-formed PM 2.5 emissions. The study will also account for methane emissions originating from operational flaring, venting, and fugitive emissions. BLACK CARBON DEPOSITION ON U.S. SNOW PACK The U.S. Forest Service is participating in a Washington State University project, which will be completed this year, on domestic black carbon deposition on U.S. snowpack including the Alaskan Arctic. An overview report on the state of the science of black carbon emissions from wildfires was developed by Forest Service s Research and Development Program, and was published as a special issue of Forest Ecology and Management. 36 EMISSIONS AND TRANSPORT FROM AGRICULTURAL BURNING AND FOREST FIRES The U.S. Forest Service s Rocky Mountain Research Station prepared improved emissions inventories from wildland fire and conducted full photochemical modeling in conjunction with University of California Los Angeles. 37,38 The U.S. Forest Service s Pacific Northwest Research Station examined the capability of prevailing atmospheric patterns to transport black carbon to the Arctic from Eurasia, and created an almanac and forecast product to indicate good times to burn to mitigate Arctic impacts from black carbon (vol. 317, 2014). 37 Hao, W.M., A. Petkov, B.L. Nordgren, R.P. Silverstein, R. Corley, S.P. Urbanski, N. Evangeliou, Y. Blakanski, and B. Kinder. Daily black carbon emissions from fires in Northern Eurasia, Atmos. Chem. Phys., in preparation 38 Evangeliou, N., Y. Blakanski, W.M. Hao, A. Petkov, B.L. Nordgren, R.P. Silverstein, S. Eckhardt, A. Stohl, and S.P. Urbanski. Wildfires in Eurasia affect the budget of black carbon in the Arctic. A 12-year retrospective synopsis ( ), Atmos. Chem. Phys., in preparation. Through its long-standing cooperative relationship with the Russian Federal Forestry Agency s Aerial Forest Fire Center, the Forest Service has undertaken joint trainings on fire suppression techniques and improving efforts to protect communities and property from wildfire. MEASUREMENT OF BLACK CARBON AND METHANE IN THE ARCTIC The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration s Global Monitoring Division (NOAA GMD) has conducted long-term, continuous equivalent black carbon measurements at three Arctic Monitoring Stations: Barrow, Alaska ( ); Summit, Greenland ( ); Tiksi, Russia ( ), and in cooperation with Environment Canada at Alert, Canada ( ). During the past decades there has been an approximately 50% decrease in aerosol and black carbon concentrations observed at the two stations with the longest records, Barrow and Alert. NOAA GMD has been monitoring methane in the Arctic since 1983 from 11 sites ringing the Arctic Ocean including two in Russia. Total methane emissions in the Arctic are roughly half from natural and half from anthropogenic sources, with available data indicating that there is no evidence yet that methane emissions from melting permafrost have responded to increasing Arctic temperatures. The largest observed change, a decrease in methane emissions, occurred immediately after economic restructuring in the former Soviet Union in The isotopic composition of methane is like a fingerprint that can be used to determine if Arctic methane is from fossil sources or of recent biological origin released from the melting of permafrost. MEASUREMENT OF MARITIME BLACK CARBON EMISSIONS AND DIESEL FUEL ALTERNATIVES In 2015, the U.S. Maritime Administration (MARAD) joined with the International Council on Clean Air to conduct further research on black carbon emissions from marine engines and mitigation methods to reduce those emissions. The project includes bench and in-situ emissions testing of control technologies for black carbon emissions. MARAD is also actively evaluating the potential of alternative fuels and technologies for marine propulsion. 39 Among that work has been a study of the total fuel cycle for liquified natural 39 BunkeringStudy3Sep14.pdf 18

25 A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL gas compared to conventional fuels and a study of methane release from bunkering activities and during ship operations. 40 In addition, MARAD continues to work with the maritime industry and with other Federal agencies to assess various emissions control technologies for ships and alternative fuels and technologies such a bio-diesel and fuel cells. 41,42,43 REDUCTION OF BLACK CARBON IN THE RUSSIAN ARCTIC Under the U.S. Department of State s Arctic Black Carbon Initiative (ABCI), the U.S. EPA, U.S. DOE, U.S. Forest Service, and partners have undertaken several projects in Russia to leverage resources and best practices across the Arctic in order to understand and mitigate black carbon emissions. The U.S. EPA projects focus on reducing black carbon emissions from diesel sources. As part of one EPA project, an emissions inventory for diesel sources from the Murmansk area in Russia finalized in October 2014 found that off-road vehicles at mines and on-road vehicles were top sources. A peer-reviewed article has been published in July and another will be published later in In addition to the emission inventory, work in Murmansk included a pilot mitigation project to upgrade part of the bus fleet at a local bus company. This resulted in a 90 percent decrease in black carbon emissions for these upgraded buses compared to the buses that were replaced as well as significant reductions in other pollutants, reduced fuel, operating and maintenance costs and improved service. An Arctic Council publication brochure describing the results of this project is available in both Russian and English. 45 The U.S. EPA also partnered with the Nordic Environmental Finance Corporation on a pilot project developing winddiesel alternatives to traditional diesel-powered generators at remote Tundra Collective reindeer farm in the Murmansk region. The wind turbine and new diesel generator were installed in Spring Once operational, it is estimated that the consumption of diesel at the farm will be reduced by as much as 90% and, as a result, diesel black carbon emissions from the cooperative will also be reduced by as much as 90%. The efficiency of the new system will also allow inhabitants at the farm to convert to electric heating units instead of using wood stoves, dramatically improving indoor air quality for Tundra inhabitants Biodiesel_Fuels_in_the_US_Marine_Industry.pdf 42 Renewable_Diesel_Testing_Final_Report_August_30_2013.pdf 43 maritime-administration-provides to-study-hydrogen-fuel-cell-technology-for-maritime-applications/ ACMMCA09_Iqaluit_2015_ACAP_Murmansk_bus_fleet_upgrade.pdf?sequence=1 Additionally, the U.S. EPA projects resulted in guidelines for mines purchasing offroad vehicles in a report, Evaluation of Black Carbon Emission Reductions from Mining Trucks in Russia: The Case of the Murmansk Region, and published in the Russian journal Mining Industry in August A circumpolar policy and financing recommendations report, Circumpolar Best Practices: Policy and Financing Options for Black Carbon Emission Reductions from Diesel Sources, is under review and expected in late 2015 as an Arctic Council publication. The U.S. DOE project, which is wrapping up in 2015, focused on reducing black carbon emissions from heating, power generation, and industrial applications. As part of the DOE project, two peer-reviewed articles have been published 46,47 (Cheng, 2014; Huang et al., 2014) and one is expected to be published in A new inventory for all black carbon sources was developed for Russia and was finalized in Significant progress has been made through this project in understanding Russian regional sources, transport, and fate of black carbon emissions, Russian regional energy usage, and the potential for reducing black carbon emissions through energy efficiency measures and fuel switching. Oak Ridge National Laboratory is currently drafting a technical report to summarize the range of activities, findings, and engagement achieved during the project, and to provide recommendations for follow-on work that can extend the impact of the project. The U.S. Forest Service project focused on reducing black carbon emissions from biomass combustion. The U.S. Forest Service and USDA s Agricultural Research Service and Foreign Agriculture Service worked with Russian partners to quantify black carbon emissions from agricultural burning and forest fires in Russia, to model transport of black carbon from these sources to the arctic, and to develop tools and identify feasible mitigation options to reduce black carbon emissions from these sources. VALDAY CLUSTER UPGRADE FOR BLACK CARBON REDUCTION IN THE REPUBLIC OF KARELIA, RUSSIAN FEDERATION The U.S. EPA has partnered with the Nordic Environmental Finance Corporation on the Valday Cluster upgrade project, which aims to implement a range of alternatives for providing energy to off-grid settlements in the Republic of Karelia in Russia. Currently, these settlements largely use diesel generators for power. Benefits include potential improvements in services, emission reductions, energy savings, and lessons learned that will contribute to an improved energy system across this Cluster. Project implementation is expected to begin soon. 46 Huang et al. Identification of Missing Anthropogenic Emission Sources in Russia: Implication for Modeling Arctic Haze. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 14: , Cheng. Geolocating Russian sources for Arctic black carbon. Atmospheric Environment, 92, ,

26 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS AVIATION CLIMATE CHANGE RESEARCH INITIATIVE In the past five years the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) funded several activities under its Aviation Climate Change Research Initiative 48 as part of its Climate Change Research program to study the aviation effects on global climate in general and regional climate in particular (including the arctic region). As part of this effort ten teams from universities, national laboratories and industry, investigated using global climate models, satellite observations and laboratory measurements, the effect of aviation emissions including emissions of methane and black carbon, currently and into the future when the aviation activity is expected to increase substantially. The merits of rerouting of cross-polar flights around the Arctic Circle were also investigated. 49 TRACKING SOURCES OF BLACK CARBON IN THE ARCTIC To better understand how the Arctic climate responds to changing levels of black carbon and the effectiveness of possible mitigation efforts to reduce warming, it is necessary to accurately identify the sources and quantities of black carbon from each world region. Researchers at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) designed a new way to identify and track the sources of black carbon and how they are transported to the Arctic using an atmospheric computer model and a new technique for tagging black carbon emissions. 50 The simulation shows the pathways and The effects of rerouting aircraft around the arctic circle on arctic and global climate by M. Z. Jacobson, J. T. Wilkerson, S. Balasubramanian, W. W. Cooper Jr., and N. Mohleji. Climatic Change (2012) 115: , DOI /s Wang H, Rasch PJ, Easter RC, et al. Using an Explicit Emission Tagging Method in Global Modeling of Source-receptor Relationships for Black Carbon in the Arctic: Variations, Sources, and Transport Ways. Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres. 2014;119:12,888-12,909. relationship to sources that help explain seasonal variations in soot deposition in the Arctic. This finding will contribute to insights on the impact of darkened snow and ice on the ability of the Arctic surface to reflect light and heat back into the atmosphere. The new technique enables quantification of the global impact of black carbon originating from many different regions and source types. The PNNL research team implemented, for the first time, a technique to quantify and track black carbon emissions from their source to their destination (known as receptor regions), especially the Arctic. The researchers used a global aerosol-climate model called the Community Atmosphere Model version 5 (CAM5) and constrained the simulations to align with observed meteorology for the period. The team was able to take advantage of another recent PNNL study that modified CAM5 aerosol-cloud representations to improve the reliability of aerosol simulations for the Arctic. The black carbon source tagging technique they developed allowed relationships between black carbon sources and black carbon reaching the Arctic to be derived without actually perturbing emissions, as is often done in similar studies. Previous emissions tagging studies reduced the emissions and performed multiple simulations, which would introduce errors due to non-linearities in the aerosol processes; the current method treats each emission region as a distinct tracer, providing a more accurate result. The tagging technique allowed identification of the amount of black carbon in the air and the amount deposited to the snow and ice surface that originates in different source regions. The modelling studies found that Arctic black carbon concentrations, deposition, and source contributions all have strong seasonal variations. Eastern Asia contributes the most to the wintertime Arctic black carbon burden, but has much less impact on lower-level concentrations and deposition. Northern Europe emissions are more important to both surface concentration and deposition in winter than in summer. The largest contribution to Arctic black carbon in the summer is from Northern Asia. Although local emissions contribute less than 10% to the annual mean black carbon burden and deposition within the Arctic, the per-emission efficiency is much higher than for non-arctic sources. OTHER INFORMATION Item 6 in the Framework s Guidance for National Submissions suggests including other information if available (e.g., climate, health, environmental, economic effects of emissions and mitigation). For continuity, such information has been integrated into the preceding sections of this report. 20

27 A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL Appendix Detailed Emissions Data 21

28 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS APPENDIX 1: U.S. BLACK CARBON EMISSIONS 2011 Black Carbon Emissions Sector SubSector Emission_Ton Emission_Mg Fires 235, ,626 Wildfires 119, ,995 Prescribed Fires 101,047 91,670 Agricultural Field Burning 15,389 13,961 Mobile Nonroad * 125, ,034 DieselEquipment 78,016 70,776 Railroad 19,920 18,071 CMV 15,113 13,711 Gas 6,590 5,979 Aircraft 5,657 5,132 Other Mobile Onroad * 107,358 97,395 DieselHeavyDuty 93,749 85,049 GasLightDuty 10,526 9,550 DieselLightDuty 2,688 2,438 GasHeavyDuty Black Carbon Emissions 2011 Source: U.S. EPA 2011 NEI v1; 2011 v6 Emissions Modeling Platform These data are the same as previously submitted - for RY2014, See Notes_ BlackCarbon. For sum totals, additional unit of measure is given in kilotonne, kt Emissions in Tons and Mg 1 short ton =.9072 tonne 1 tonne = 106g or Mg; short ton x.9027 = Mg 1000 Mg = 1 kilotonne 1 Mg =.001 kt Fuel Combustion 64,423 58,445 Biomass 26,124 23,700 NaturalGas 21,898 19,866 Coal 7,821 7,095 Oil 4,442 4,030 Other 4,139 3,755 Misc Other 22,998 20,864 MiscWasteDisposal 18,725 16,987 MiscCommCook 2,844 2,580 DustPavedUnPavedRoads 1,267 1,150 Agriculture MiscNon-IndustrialNEC Industrial Processes 9,539 8,654 Industrial Processes 9,420 8,546 SolvCommercialIndustrial SolvConsumerCommercial Total 565, ,017 Total without Wildfire 446, ,022 Fuel Combustion Tons Residential IndusBoilers Comm/Instit ElecGeneration TOTAL Biomass 21,743 3, ,124 NaturalGas 284 9,803 2,281 9,531 21,898 Coal ,875 7,821 Oil 613 1, ,454 4,442 Other 204 3, ,139 Fuel Combustion Mg Residential IndusBoilers Comm/Instit ElecGeneration TOTAL Biomass 19,725 3, ,700 NaturalGas 257 8,893 2,069 8,647 19,866 Coal ,237 7,095 Oil 556 1, ,319 4,030 Other 185 2, ,755 Source: U.S. EPA 2011 NEI V1; 2011v6 Emissions Modeling Platform * In future versions of the 2011 NEI, the relative contribution of black carbon emissions for mobile sources may change as speciation factors are updated for individual mobile sources such as nonroad gasoline, aircraft and large commercial marine vessels, though the difference in the total contribution from mobile sources is not expected to be significant. (kt) Total 513 (kt) Total w/o 405 Wildfire 22

29 A REPORT TO THE ARCTIC COUNCIL The black carbon (BC) emissions included in this report are the same as previously provided - RY2014. The last report of BC emissions was based on the 2011 v1 and since that time, 2011 v2 has been completed. Based on the 2011 v2, there is an overall small decrease (approximately 7% decrease) in national BC emissions which results from the emission sectors where PM 2.5 decreases the most in the 2011 v2 from the 2011 v1. The largest PM 2.5 decreases (in tons) are for the sectors: mobile on-road diesel heavy duty vehicles (-9,399); prescribed burning (-18,369); agricultural field burning (-45,455); and wildfires (-141,626) though this sector is excluded for LRTAP report purposes. The Notes section for Main Pollutants discusses the basis for the larger changes in v2 from v1. Because the change in overall BC emissions are small compared to that last reported, the routine of processing the BC data from the PM 2.5 emissions was not repeated for the updating done here. The next complete national inventory (NEI) for 2014 version is expected to be available in July The availability of the 2014 NEI may provide the next opportunity to develop updated BC emissions from the PM 2.5 data. The notes below appeared with the RY2014 IIR. Black Carbon (Notes RY2014) Included here for RY 2014, and for the first time on a voluntary basis, are black carbon (BC) emission estimates for the year Currently, the U.S. EPA does not require the states to report emissions of black carbon and other PM constituents (organic carbon - OC, nitrates, sulfates, and crustal material) as part of the National Emissions Inventory (NEI). Rather, the U.S. emissions inventory uses total PM 2.5 emissions to derive estimates for direct emissions of carbonaceous particles, including BC and OC. The Annex IV Table 1 does not presently include a place to report black carbon emissions. Therefore the national pollutant totals for 2011 are presented in this Inventory Informative Report (.xls) and summarized by categories other than NFR, that are specific to the U.S. NEI emission categories, i.e., EIS sectors (60). The emissions estimates represent all of the U.S. and associated territories including Puerto Rico (PR) and Virgin Islands (VI), as well as Tribal lands, and federal waters (offshore). The significant contribution of black carbon is from: mobile source diesel equipment and engines; biomass burning from wild and prescribed fires; and fuel combustion - residential wood and EGUs (electric utility generation). In future versions of the 2011 NEI, the relative contribution of black carbon emissions for mobile sources may change as speciation factors are updated for individual mobile sources such as nonroad gasoline, aircraft and large commercial marine vessels, though the difference in the total contribution from mobile sources is not expected to be significant. Methods The 2011 PM 2.5 emission data in the EPA 2011 NEI v1 is the basis for the 2011 black carbon emission included in this report. The PM 2.5 emissions were speciated for the PM species including black carbon, via processing routine associated with the EPA 2011 emissions modeling platform, See v6 Platform. The 2011 platform Technical Support Document (TSD) describes the methodology used to estimate the PM species. The document title is Preparation of Emissions Inventories for the Version 6.0, 2011 Emissions Modeling Platform and is located on the EPA Emissions Modeling Clearinghouse: The TSD includes a description and reference for the black carbon speciation factors from SPECIATE for important BC categories (residential wood combustion, burning, diesels, etc.) The PM 2.5 values for the dust sectors were modified with meteorological - and land-use- based adjustments as part of the emissions modeling process. Dust sources include paved and unpaved roads, agriculture activities with crops and livestock, and mining activities. The meteorological and land-use adjustments to the dust PM 2.5 results in a more appropriate mix of species (in the atmosphere) for input into the air quality modeling chemistry. The partitioning of PM 2.5 species for dust is our best emission estimate of the PM species from processes that produce dust. Only the PM values for dust were adjusted prior to further speciation. The dust adjusted results for the PM species are included for these national sector summaries of black carbon. The amount of black carbon from dust is insignificant compared to all sectors. For onroad mobile, the EPA model MOVES is used to estimate emissions. MOVES activity data and inputs were obtained directly from states. For California and Texas, they submitted PM 2.5 emissions directly to the NEI which were utilized to estimate the black carbon emission species. 23

30 U.S. NATIONAL BLACK CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS APPENDIX 2: U.S. METHANE EMISSIONS (MMT CO 2 E), Methane source sector Enteric Fermentation Natural Gas Systems Landfills Coal Mining Manure Management Petroleum Systems Wastewater Treatment Rice Cultivation Stationary Combustion Abandoned Underground Coal Mines Forest Fires Mobile Combustion Composting Iron and Steel Production & Metallurgical Coke Production Field Burning of Agricultural Residues Petrochemical Production Total Source: Table ES-2 of EPA s Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: Report. Annual data from all years spanning the time period are available in the Main Report Tables files available online at: + indicates sources with annual methane emissions not exceeding 0.05 MMT CO 2 e. Additional sectors that do not exceed this value for any measured year include: Ferroalloy Production, Silicon Carbide Production and Consumption, Peatlands Remaining Peatlands, and Incineration of Waste. CO 2 e values reflect the IPCC AR4 100-year time horizon GWP of

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32 COVER PHOTO: BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT, BOB WICK; ALL OTHER PHOTOS: ISTOCK.COM DESIGNED AND PRINTED BY A/GIS/GPS, AUGUST 2015