Science 10 Curriculum Guide

Transcription

1 Saskatchewan Learning Science 10 Curriculum Guide Saskatchewan Learning 2005 ISBN:

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3 Table of Contents Acknowledgements... iii Science Program Philosophy and Purpose... 1 Foundation Statements for Scientific Literacy - An Overview... 2 Foundation Statements for Scientific Literacy - In-depth... 3 Core Curriculum Components and Initiatives... 5 Required Areas of Study... 5 Common Essential Learnings (CELs)... 5 Adaptive Dimension... 6 Indian and Métis Content and Perspectives... 6 Multiculturalism... 7 Gender Equity... 8 Resource-based Learning... 8 Career Development... 9 Assessment and Evaluation Assessment and Evaluation Templates Implementing Science Grade 10: A Transition from Middle Level to Specific Disciplines Instructional Strategies Facilities Safety Language and Communication in Science Technology in Science Science Competitions Modelling in Science Laboratory Work Community-Based Education Unit Planning Using this Curriculum Guide Unit Overviews Life Science: Sustainability of Ecosystems (20-30 hours) Physical Science: Motion in Our World (20-30 hours) Physical Science: Chemical Reactions (20-30 hours) Earth and Space Science: Weather Dynamics (20-30 hours) Life Science: Sustainability of Ecosystems Unit Overview Foundational and Learning Objectives SE1 Explore cultural perspectives on sustainability SE2 Examine biodiversity within local ecosystems SE3 Analyze population dynamics within an ecosystem SE4 Identify cycles, change, and stability in ecosystems SE5 Investigate human impact on ecosystems Physical Science: Motion in Our World Unit Overview Foundational and Learning Objectives MW1 Explore motion-related technologies MW2 Observe and describe the motion of everyday objects MW3 Investigate the relationship among distance, time, and speed for objects that undergo uniform motion MW4 Investigate the relationship among speed, time, and acceleration for objects that undergo uniformly accelerated motion i

4 MW5 Analyze graphically and mathematically the relationship among distance, speed, time, and acceleration for objects that undergo simple linear motion or uniformly accelerated motion Physical Science: Chemical Reactions Unit Overview Foundational and Learning Objectives CR1 Observe common chemical reactions in your world CR2 Represent chemical reactions symbolically using models, word equations, and balanced chemical equations CR3 Identify characteristics of chemical reactions involving organic compounds CR4 Identify factors that affect the rates of chemical reactions CR5 Investigate chemical reactions involving acids and bases Earth and Space Science: Weather Dynamics Unit Overview Foundational and Learning Objectives WD1 Explore the causes and impact of severe weather in Canada WD2 Analyze meteorological data WD3 Explain the principles of weather WD4 Forecast local weather conditions WD5 Identify consequences of global climate change References Suggested Readings ii

5 Acknowledgements Saskatchewan Learning gratefully acknowledges the professional contributions and advice given by the following members of the Science Reference Committee: Dr. Glen Aikenhead, Assistant Professor College of Education University of Saskatchewan Mr. Liam Choo-Foo Director of Education Swift Current School Division (LEADS) Mr. Wayne Clark, Teacher Yorkton Public School Division Saskatchewan Teachers Federation (STF) Ms. Laura Fenwick, Teacher Moose Jaw Public School Division Saskatchewan Teachers Federation (STF) Ms. Barb Frazer, Manager Sciences Program Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations Mr. Duane Johnson, Teacher Saskatoon East School Division Saskatchewan Teachers Federation (STF) Mr. Herman Michell, Assistant Professor Department of Science First Nations University of Canada Mr. Ron Ray, Teacher Big River First Nations Saskatchewan Teachers Federation (STF) Mr. Les Richardson, Teacher Turtleford School Division Saskatchewan Teachers Federation (STF) Dr. Tom Steele, Professor College of Arts and Sciences University of Saskatchewan Dr. Warren Wessel, Associate Professor Faculty of Education University of Regina Ms. Ruth Wilson, Teacher Rosetown School Division Saskatchewan Teachers Federation (STF) Previous Advisory Committee contributors include: Mr. Dean Elliott, Dr. Norma Fuller, Mr. Thomas Ash Saskatchewan Learning wishes to thank many others who contributed to the development of these guidelines: Science Program Team in-house consultants field test/pilot teachers other field personnel. This document was written by Dean Elliott, Science Consultant, under the direction of the Science and Technology Unit, Curriculum and Instruction Branch, Saskatchewan Learning. iii

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7 Science Program Philosophy and Purpose The philosophy and spirit of science education in Saskatchewan is reflected in this curriculum, in the documents developed to support the new curriculum, and in materials designed and utilized for implementation. In addition, the philosophy for science education builds on and supports the concept of Core Curriculum in Saskatchewan. The purpose of the Science 10 curriculum is to help all students, regardless of gender or cultural background, develop scientific literacy. Scientific literacy is an evolving combination of the science-related attitudes, skills, and knowledge students need to develop inquiry, problem-solving, and decision-making abilities, to become lifelong learners, and to maintain a sense of wonder about the world around them. A person who is scientifically literate is able to distinguish science from pseudoscience, evidence from propaganda, fact from fiction, knowledge from opinion, theory from dogma, and data from myth and folklore (Hurd, 1998). Diverse learning experiences based on the foundational objectives in this curriculum guide will provide students with many opportunities to explore, analyze, evaluate, synthesize, appreciate, and understand the interrelationships among science, technology, society, and the environment (STSE) that will affect their personal lives, their careers, and their future. Although the particular context of these learning experiences will vary among classrooms, the overall scope and focus of Science 10 will include the following broad areas of emphasis: a science inquiry emphasis, in which students address questions about the nature of things, involving broad exploration as well as focussed investigations a problem-solving emphasis, in which students seek answers to practical problems requiring the application of their science knowledge in new ways a decision-making emphasis, in which students identify questions or issues and pursue science knowledge that will inform the question or issue. Each of these areas of emphasis provides a potential starting point for engaging in an area of exploration within Science 10. These studies may involve a variety of learning approaches for exploring new ideas, for developing specific investigations, and for applying the ideas that are learned. To achieve the vision of scientific literacy, students must increasingly become engaged in the planning, development, and evaluation of their own learning activities. In the process, students should have the opportunity to work collaboratively with others, to initiate investigations, to communicate findings, and to complete projects that demonstrate learning. Science 10 Topics The topics of study in Science 10, which will serve as the context for developing scientifically literate students, include: Sustainability of Ecosystems Chemical Reactions Motion in Our World Weather Dynamics. 1

8 Foundation Statements for Scientific Literacy - An Overview In light of the vision for scientific literacy and the need to develop scientifically literate students in Canada, four foundational statements delineate the four critical aspects of students scientific literacy. These foundations are outlined in the Common Framework of Science Learning Outcomes K to 12 (Council of Ministers of Education, Canada, 1997). The foundational and related learning objectives for each of the units of study derive from these four foundational areas. Foundation 1: Science, technology, society, and the environment (STSE) Students will develop an understanding of the nature of science and technology, of the relationships between science and technology, and of the social and environmental contexts of science and technology. Foundation 2: Knowledge Students will construct knowledge and understandings of concepts in life science, physical science, and earth and space science, and apply these understandings to interpret, integrate, and extend their knowledge. Foundation 3: Skills Students will develop the skills required for scientific and technological inquiry, for solving problems, for communicating scientific ideas and results, for working collaboratively, and for making informed decisions. Foundation 4: Attitudes Students will be encouraged to develop attitudes that support the responsible acquisition and application of scientific and technological knowledge to the mutual benefit of self, society, and the environment. 2

9 Foundation Statements for Scientific Literacy - In-depth Foundation 1: Science, technology, society, and the environment (STSE) This foundation is concerned with understanding the scope and character of science, its connections to technology, and the social context in which it is developed. Three major dimensions address this foundation. Nature of science and technology Science provides an ordered way of learning about the nature of things, based on observation and evidence. Through science, we explore our environment, gather knowledge, and develop ideas that help us interpret and explain what we see. Scientific activity provides a conceptual and theoretical base that is used in predicting, interpreting, and explaining natural and technological phenomena. Science is driven by a combination of specific knowledge, theory, and experimentation. Science-based ideas are continually being tested, modified, and improved as new knowledge and explanations supersede existing knowledge and explanations. Relationships between science and technology Technology is concerned with solving practical problems that arise from human needs. Historically, the development of technology has been strongly linked to the development of science, with each making contributions to the other. While there are important relationships and interdependencies, there are also important differences. Where the focus of science is on the development and verification of knowledge, in technology the focus is on the development of solutions, involving devices and systems that meet a given need within the constraints of the problem. The test of science knowledge is that it helps us explain, interpret, and predict; the test of technology is that it works it enables us to achieve a given purpose. Social and environmental contexts of science and technology The history of science shows that scientific development takes place within a social context. Many examples can be used to show that cultural and intellectual traditions have influenced the focus and methodologies of science, and that science in turn has influenced the wider world of ideas. Today, societal and environmental needs and issues often drive research. As technological solutions have emerged from previous research, many of the new technologies have given rise to complex social and environmental issues. Increasingly, these issues are becoming part of the political agenda. The potential of science to inform and empower decision making by individuals, communities, and society is a central role of scientific literacy in a democratic society. Foundation 2: Knowledge This foundation focuses on the subject matter of science including the theories, models, concepts, and principles that are essential to an understanding of each science area. For organizational purposes, this foundation is framed using widely accepted science disciplines. Life Science Life science deals with the growth and interactions of life forms within their environments in ways that reflect the uniqueness, diversity, genetic continuity, and changing nature of these life forms. Life science includes such fields of study as ecosystems, biological diversity, the study of organisms, the study of the cell, biochemistry, genetic engineering, and biotechnology. Physical Science Physical science, which encompasses chemistry and physics, deals with matter, energy, and forces. Matter has structure, and there are interactions among its components. Energy links matter to gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear forces in the universe. The conservation laws of mass and energy, momentum, and charge are addressed in physical science. Earth and Space Science Earth and space science brings global and universal perspectives to student knowledge. Earth, our home planet, exhibits form, structure, and patterns of change as does our surrounding solar system and the physical universe beyond it. Earth and space science includes such fields of study as geology, meteorology, and astronomy. 3

10 Foundation 3: Skills This foundation is concerned with the skills that students develop in answering questions, solving problems and making decisions. While these skills are not unique to science, they play an important role in the development of scientific understandings and in the application of science and technology to new situations. Four broad skill areas are outlined in this curriculum. Each skill area is developed at each grade level with increasing scope and complexity of application. Initiating and planning These are the skills of questioning, identifying problems, and developing preliminary ideas and plans. Performing and recording These are the skills of carrying out a plan of action, gathering evidence by observation, and manipulating materials and equipment. Analyzing and interpreting These are the skills of examining information and evidence, processing and presenting data so that it can be interpreted, and interpreting, evaluating, and applying the results. Communication and teamwork In science, as in other areas, communication skills are essential at every stage where ideas are being developed, tested, interpreted, debated, and agreed upon. Teamwork skills are also important as the development and application of science ideas is a collaborative process both in society and in the classroom. Foundation 4: Attitudes This foundation focuses on encouraging students to develop attitudes that support the responsible acquisition and application of scientific and technological knowledge to the mutual benefit of self, society, and the environment. This foundation identifies six categories in which science education can contribute to the development of attitudinal growth. Appreciation of science Students will be encouraged to appreciate the role and contributions of science in their lives, and to be aware of its limits and impacts. Interest in science Students will be encouraged to develop enthusiasm and continuing interest in the study of science. Scientific inquiry Students will be encouraged to develop attitudes that support active inquiry, problem solving, and decision making. Collaboration Students will be encouraged to develop attitudes that support collaborative activity. Stewardship Students will be encouraged to develop responsibility in the application of science and technology in relation to society and the natural environment. Safety Students will be encouraged to demonstrate a concern for safety in science and technology contexts. 4

11 Core Curriculum Components and Initiatives Saskatchewan s Core Curriculum encompasses seven Required Areas of Study, six Common Essential Learnings, the Adaptive Dimension, and Locally-determined Options. Core Curriculum also includes broad initiatives that guide the selection of teaching materials, as well as instruction, in the classroom. These initiatives include Indian and Métis Content and Perspectives, Multiculturalism, Gender Equity, Resourcebased Learning, and Career Development. For further information, refer to Core Curriculum: Principles, Time Allocations, and Credit Policy (Saskatchewan Education, 2000). Required Areas of Study The seven required areas of study within the Core Curriculum are language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, health education, arts education, and physical education. Science at the Grade 10 level is a compulsory course for all students. Common Essential Learnings (CELs) A key component of Core Curriculum is the six Common Essential Learnings (CELs) which serve as the foundation for all content areas. Objectives from each of the CELs have been integrated into the foundational and learning objectives of each unit of study in Science 10. All objectives related to the CELS can be found in Objectives for the Common Essential Learnings (C.E.L.s) (Saskatchewan Education, 2000) at The Common Essential Learnings (CELs) are described briefly below. Independent Learning involves the creation of opportunities and experiences necessary for students to become capable, self-reliant, self-motivated, and lifelong learners who see learning as an empowering activity of great personal and social worth. Personal and Social Development deals with the personal, moral, social, and cultural aspects of each school subject and has as a major objective the development of responsible and compassionate citizens who understand the rational basis for moral claims. Critical and Creative Thinking is intended to help students develop the ability to create and critically evaluate ideas, processes, experiences, and objects related to science. Communication focuses on improving students understanding of language use in science. Numeracy involves helping students to develop a level of competence that allows them to use mathematical concepts in science. Technological Literacy helps students appreciate that technology and science are interrelated and dependent on each other. The following symbols are used to refer to the Common Essential Learnings throughout this curriculum guide. COM Communication CCT Critical and Creative Thinking IL Independent Learning NUM Numeracy PSD Personal and Social Development TL Technological Literacy For further information, see Understanding the Common Essential Learnings: A Handbook for Teachers (Saskatchewan Education, 1988). 5

12 Adaptive Dimension Student diversity exists in every science classroom. Every instructional grouping is characterized by diversity of achievement, ability, interest, motivation, and needs. It is through the Adaptive Dimension that the classroom teacher accommodates the individual differences of the members of the class. It encourages teachers:... to make adjustments in approved educational programs to accommodate diversity in student learning needs. It includes those practices the teacher undertakes to make curriculum, instruction, and the learning environment meaningful and appropriate for each student (The Adaptive Dimension in Core Curriculum, Saskatchewan Education, 1992). The Adaptive Dimension does not allow the changing or elimination of learning or foundational objectives. It does support the adaptation of instruction, assessment, and the learning environment in order to meet the needs of the students while addressing foundational and related learning objectives. The Adaptive Dimension enables the teacher to: provide background knowledge or experience for a student when it is lacking provide program enrichment and/or extension when it is needed address students cultural needs accommodate community needs increase curriculum relevance for students provide variety in learning materials, including community resources. Indian and Métis Content and Perspectives It is an expectation that Indian and Métis content and perspectives be integrated into all programs related to the education of kindergarten to grade 12 students in Saskatchewan, whether or not there are Indian and Métis students in a particular classroom. All students benefit from knowledge about the Indian and Métis peoples of Saskatchewan. It is through such knowledge that misconceptions and bias can be eliminated. Indian and Métis students in Saskatchewan have varied cultural backgrounds and come from geographic areas encompassing northern, rural, and urban environments. Care must be taken to ensure teachers utilize a variety of teaching methods that build upon the knowledge, cultures, and learning styles students possess. Integrating Indian and Métis perspectives into the science program requires a multi-faceted approach. This approach begins with understanding and respecting Indigenous knowledge and ways of knowing. Indigenous knowledge and ways of knowing often seem at odds with contemporary, scientific views of knowing. Thus, teachers and students may question why these ways of knowing should be incorporated into and addressed in science courses. An inclusive science curriculum respects the variety of worldviews that various cultures use to understand and explain their relationships with the natural world. Indigenous perspectives are holistic, and focus on understanding concepts at a macro level, and then looking for specific examples that incorporate that knowledge. Inherent in these perspectives is an understanding of the relationships between the living and non-living, and a need to respect cultural values when exploring nature. Contemporary scientific approaches are generally characterized as reductionist, focusing first on the micro level of understanding, then progressing to the major macro concepts and connections. This dichotomy in worldviews creates a challenge for teachers of classes that contain a mix of students of various heritages. A second facet of this approach capitalizes on the responsibility and authority of teachers to adapt instruction in order to be responsive to the interests and needs of their students and local communities, while still respecting the foundational and related learning objectives. This might mean that students in Northern Saskatchewan examine the sustainability of ecosystems from a perspective that is quite different from students in a large urban school. All of the units in Science 10 should be addressed from a personal, local, and community perspective. 6

13 A third facet of integrating Indian and Métis content and perspectives into Science 10 recognizes the need for Indian and Métis students to experience greater success in science classes. Teachers might address this need by bringing in Indian and Métis role models (may or may not include Elders), identifying Indian and Métis contributions towards our understanding of the natural world, and equally valuing Indigenous perspectives and understandings of the natural world along with scientific perspectives. A fourth facet can be accomplished through the creation of cross-cultural units of study. This approach requires teachers to work collaboratively with members of the Indian and Métis communities to choose topics and instructional approaches that reflect Indigenous understandings and that also address curricular objectives. The final responsibility for accurate and appropriate integration of Indian and Métis content and perspectives into science instruction rests with teachers. The STSE emphasis of the science curricula provides teachers with many opportunities to begin this process. The following points summarize expectations for integrating Indian and Métis content and perspectives in curricula, materials, and instruction in Science 10: concentrate on positive and accurate images reinforce and complement beliefs and values include historical and contemporary insights reflect the legal, political, social, economic, and regional diversity of Indian and Métis peoples affirm life experiences and provide opportunity for expression of feelings. Guidelines in Diverse Voices: Selecting Equitable Resources for Indian and Métis Education (Saskatchewan Education, 1992) can assist teachers and students in selecting resources, and in understanding forms of bias in resources that inaccurately portray Indian and Métis peoples. Multiculturalism A multicultural perspective that reflects the experiences and cultures of all students should permeate the Science 10 program. The classroom experience for each student in Science 10 should positively reflect: the recognition that all students can learn and do science a multicultural perspective recognizing the various cultural groups both within the classroom and the country an awareness of stereotyping and generalization by respecting and responding to differences among individuals within the same culture that class, gender, region, and religion all influence individuals and that there is a fine line between generalizing and stereotyping not only the contributions to science from various cultures, but also the contexts and connections that it can have to all cultures. Instructional strategies that enable students to learn the processes and ideas of science through practical experiences are especially beneficial in addressing the needs of students from various cultures. All students should participate meaningfully in a variety of hands-on experiences including experiments and investigations to learn science and about science from various perspectives. Teachers should be aware that many words used in Science 10 may have different meanings in various cultures. A particularly difficult language and vocabulary challenge arises for students for whom English is not a first language. These students often understand far more than they are able to articulate. Thus they benefit from being provided multiple opportunities and formats to represent knowledge. Some researchers believe that learning science requires many students to cross borders from the subcultures of their families and communities into the subculture of science and of school science (Aikenhead, 1996). Teachers can facilitate this border crossing by communicating with parents that school science includes more than the recitation of facts; rather, it requires active involvement by students in developing their own understanding of the natural world that respects personal cultural beliefs and scientific principles. For further information, see Multicultural Education (Saskatchewan Education, 1994). 7

14 Gender Equity Saskatchewan Learning is committed to providing quality education for all students. Expectations based primarily on gender limit students ability to develop to their fullest potential. While some stereotypical views and practices have disappeared, others remain. It is the responsibility of schools to create an educational environment free of gender bias. Increased understanding can facilitate this along with the use of gender balanced material and non-sexist teaching strategies. Both female and male students need encouragement to explore non-traditional, as well as traditional, career options in science and technology related fields. The following suggestions adapted from Gender Equity: A Framework for Practice (Saskatchewan Education, 1992) can help teachers in the creation of an equitable learning environment in science classrooms: Select resources that reflect the current and evolving roles of women and men in science and technology. Acknowledge the accomplishments of women and men in science and technology. Discuss any gender-biased material with which students may come in contact. Have equally high expectations for both female and male students. Spend an equitable amount of time with all students regardless of gender. Allow equal opportunity for input and response from female and male students. Incorporate diverse groupings in the classroom, particularly in laboratory settings. Allow all students equitable hands-on laboratory experiences. Each student should be given opportunities to participate in all roles through lab activities (i.e., data recorder, group leader, presenter, equipment set-up and cleanup). Encourage all students to participate in all roles in co-operative learning activities. Model gender-fair language in all interactions. Teach and model respectful listening. Resource-based Learning Resource-based instruction is an approach to learning in which students use a variety of types of resources to achieve foundational and related learning objectives. Some possible resources are: books, magazines, films, audio and video tapes, computer software and databases, on-line resources, commercial kits, maps, community resources, museums, field trips, pictures, real objects and artifacts, and media production equipment. Resource-based learning reflects a student-centred approach to instruction. It offers students opportunities to choose, to explore, and to discover. Students who are encouraged to make choices in an environment rich in resources where thoughts and feelings are respected are well on the way to becoming autonomous learners. Resource-based learning is an integral part of all units in the Science 10 program. The bibliography developed to support this curriculum will assist teachers in incorporating a variety of resources from different media into each unit. The bibliography contains annotations of current, useful resources including print, video, Internet sites, and other media selections. Teachers are encouraged to assess their current resource collection, identifying those that continue to be useful, and to acquire new resources in order to provide students with a broad range of perspectives and information. In science, it is important to: consider a wide range of graphic, visual, auditory, and human resources in course planning create a classroom environment rich in resources encourage students to read widely, including science news, fiction, and non-fiction model resource use by acting as a co-learner with students and by using a wide range of materials and resource people incorporate resources and research skills in appropriate lessons encourage students to determine for themselves the skills and resources needed to accomplish a learning task 8

15 incorporate resource-based assignments and unit projects for students collaborate with resource centre staff and other teachers in planning and teaching units encourage students to explore a variety of sources, databases, and resource centres for both information and enjoyment encourage students to draw upon appropriate human resources in their own communities choose resources that are representative of various cultural groups, both genders, different historical periods, different countries, and various age groups and abilities. Resources should not be used solely because they are available. Teachers need to reflect upon the relevance and appropriateness of any resource that might be used in the teaching of Science 10. For further information, see Resource-Based Learning Policy, Guidelines and Responsibilities for Saskatchewan Learning Resource Centres (Saskatchewan Education, 1987), and Selecting Fair and Equitable Learning Materials (Saskatchewan Education, 1991). Career Development Saskatchewan Learning is committed to the infusion of career development competencies across curricula and to connecting learning to life/work as part of a broad career development strategy for Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan students will be better equipped to achieve fulfillment in personal, social, and work roles through exposure to a career building process. In 2001, the Department adopted the Blueprint for Life/Work Designs as the scope and sequence for the integration of career development competencies into Core Curriculum. The Blueprint outlines the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that are essential tools for effectively managing life/work development. This framework, which describes career development competencies from early childhood through adulthood, was developed through the collaboration of representatives of Canadian provinces and territories and is published by the National Life/Work Centre, a not-for-profit organization that supports career development. The cornerstone of the Blueprint is the matrix of eleven competencies grouped into three sections: personal management, learning and work exploration, and life/work building. The career development framework includes the continuous development of the following competencies: A. Personal Management: 1. Building and maintaining a positive self-image 2. Interacting positively and effectively with others 3. Changing and growing throughout one s life B. Learning and Work Exploration: 4. Participating in lifelong learning supportive of life/work goals 5. Locating and effectively using life/work information 6. Understanding the relationship between work and society/economy C. Life/Work Building: 7. Securing, creating, and maintaining work 8. Making life/work enhancing decisions 9. Maintaining balanced life and work goals 10. Understanding the changing nature of life/work roles 11. Understanding, engaging in, and managing one s own life/work building processes. Each of the eleven competencies has been further categorized into four developmental levels roughly corresponding to Elementary (Level I), Middle (Level II), Secondary (Level III), and Adult (Level IV). Within each level of a competency are a number of general learning objectives, referred to in the Blueprint as indicators. These objectives are grouped within learning stages of acquisition, application, personalization, and actualization. A comprehensive description of the eleven career development competencies may be 9

16 found at To include competencies and indicators from another level may be appropriate, at times, to meet the developmental needs of individual students. This curriculum guide reflects the career development competencies within learning objectives and suggested teaching strategies and activities. Assessment and Evaluation Assessment and evaluation are key aspects of the education process in Saskatchewan schools. Assessment refers to the collecting of information on the progress of students learning using a variety of processes and tools (e.g., checklists, performance assessments, tests). Evaluation refers to making judgements on the basis of the information collected. Reporting refers to communicating the results. Planning for assessment and evaluation should be an integral component of course, unit, and lesson planning. There needs to be congruence between learning objectives, resources, activities, and assessments. Five general guiding principles provide a framework to assist teachers in planning for student evaluation: 1. Evaluation is an essential part of the teaching-learning process. It should be a planned, continuous activity that is closely linked to both curriculum and instruction. 2. Evaluation should be guided by the intended learning outcomes of the curriculum, and a variety of assessment strategies should be used. 3. Evaluation plans should be communicated in advance. Students should have opportunities for input to the evaluation process. 4. Evaluation should be fair and equitable. It should be sensitive to family, classroom, school, and community situations; it should be free of bias. Students should be given opportunities to demonstrate the extent of their knowledge, understandings, skills, and attitudes. 5. Evaluation should help students. It should provide positive feedback and encourage students to participate actively in their own learning. As discussed in Student Evaluation: A Teacher Handbook (Saskatchewan Education, 1991), there are three main types of student evaluation: diagnostic, formative, and summative. Diagnostic evaluation usually occurs at the beginning of the school year or before a unit of instruction to identify prior knowledge, interests, or skills of students about the topic. This information can then be used to direct and inform instructional practices and, therefore, student learning. Diagnostic evaluation may be brief, informal, and conducted orally. The Pre-Instructional Questions are designed to serve as a diagnostic evaluation tool for each Foundational Objective in Science 10. Formative evaluation is an ongoing classroom process that keeps students and educators informed of students progress. Reflection upon the data and information collected through formative evaluations can be used to improve the instructional and learning processes. The focus of formative evaluation should not be to grade students. Summative evaluation occurs most often at the end of a unit, to determine what has been learned over a period of time. Summative evaluations are most often used to report student progress relative to the curriculum to students, parents, and other educators but these evaluations can be used to influence future instructional practices and student learnings. Methods of Data Recording If the goal of assessment is to obtain a valid and reliable picture of a student s understanding and achievement, evidence must come from a variety of sources. These sources may include oral presentations, performance tasks, interviews, written work, test stations, performance assessments, observations, or various combinations of these. Examples of written work include projects, homework assignments or activities, lab reports, field notes, reflective journals, concept maps, essays, quizzes, and exams. Records of a student s progress may include anecdotal records, portfolios, and scientific journals. Rating scales and observation checklists are also helpful devices to record evidence of a student s continued growth in understanding. The advantage of using several types of assessments is that a student s understanding can 10

17 be continuously monitored. In addition, because students differ in their perceptions and thinking styles, it is crucial to provide opportunities for students to demonstrate their individual capabilities in various ways. Continuous use of a single type of assessment can frustrate students, diminish their self-confidence, and make them feel anxious about science. While a single assessment technique can provide a snapshot, it cannot provide a comprehensive view of what a student knows and can do. A variety of assessment techniques are needed to complete the entire picture. Also, to provide authentic information about student progress, there should be congruence between intended learning outcomes, learning activities, and assessment techniques. This linkage provides for curriculumreferenced assessment. Teachers determine the instructional strategy and method that will be used to achieve a grouping of learning objectives and then choose appropriate assessment techniques. Suggested ways of keeping track of student achievement are described below. Anecdotal Records Anecdotal records are written descriptions of regular student progress. Anecdotal records can be used to keep track of students ability to work in groups, ability to work safely when conducting a lab activity or investigation, conduct themselves appropriately for an invited speaker, or work independently to complete a research project. Observation Checklists Observation checklists are a quick way of assessing knowledge, specific skills, or attitudes. A list of specific criteria gives the teacher the opportunity to assess several students over a short time. Students should be aware of the criteria before observation assessment takes place. Students can use these checklists and rating scales to monitor progress. Observation checklists are often used in science to assess student performance in lab activities. Rating Scales Rating scales have the same use as observation checklists with one essential difference. While checklists record the presence or absence of a particular knowledge item, skill, or process, rating scales record the degree to which the item is found or rate the quality of the performance. A rating scale can be adapted into a rubric. Rubrics Rubrics include criteria that describe each level of a rating scale and are used to determine student progress in comparison to these expectations. Rubrics describe the attributes of student knowledge or achievements on a numbered continuum. Choosing criteria that are easily observed prevents vagueness and increases objectivity. Homework Homework may be considered an instructional method and/or an assessment technique. When homework is assigned as an assessment technique, students need to know what criteria will be used in assessing the work. Phases of the Evaluation Process Although the evaluation process does not always happen sequentially, it can be viewed as cyclical with four phases: preparation, assessment, evaluation, and reflection. The evaluation process involves the teacher as decision maker throughout all four phases. In the preparation phase, decisions are made which identify what is to be evaluated, the type of evaluation (formative, summative, or diagnostic) to be used, the criteria against which student learning outcomes will be judged, and the most appropriate assessment strategies with which to gather information on student progress. The teacher s decisions in this phase form the basis for the remaining phases. During the assessment phase, the teacher identifies information-gathering strategies, constructs or selects instruments, administers them to the student, and collects the information on student learning 11

18 progress. The teacher continues to make decisions in this phase. The identification and elimination of bias (such as gender and culture bias) from the assessment strategies and instruments, and the determination of where, when, and how assessments will be conducted are examples of important considerations for the teacher. During the evaluation phase, the teacher interprets the assessment information and makes judgements about student progress. Based on the judgements or evaluations, teachers make decisions about student learning programs and report on progress to students, parents, and appropriate school personnel. The reflection phase allows the teacher to consider the extent to which the previous phases in the evaluation process have been successful. Specifically, the teacher evaluates the utility and appropriateness of the assessment strategies used, and such reflection assists the teacher in making decisions concerning improvements or modifications to subsequent teaching and evaluation. Assessment and evaluation in Science 10 should reflect the foundations of scientific literacy: STSE, Skills, Knowledge, and Attitudes, and the Common Essential Learnings Objectives, many of which are embedded into the learning objectives. Learning objectives give direction to, but should not be the main focus of, summative student evaluation or curriculum assessment. For the most part, teachers assess the learning objectives informally and routinely as part of their daily classroom responsibilities. Learning objectives should be assessed for diagnostic purposes, to help teachers better plan for enrichment, review, individual assistance or assignments. Foundational objectives form the basis for curriculum assessment and student evaluation. There is no prescribed allocation of grades for any particular component of the course. Although multiple assessment tools are used to collect student learning data throughout the course, it is not necessary that each item contribute to a midterm or final mark. Midterm and end of semester evaluation may be based upon a weighting of categories throughout the course, or teachers may choose to provide a mark for each unit. Unit marks could then be weighted to provide a grade at reporting periods. Assessment and Evaluation Templates Many examples of assessment and evaluation templates can be found in the Teacher s Guides accompanying the key resources as well as through on-line searches. Teachers are encouraged to adapt these samples to fit their needs. 12

19 Implementing Science 10 To help all students learn, teachers need several kinds of knowledge about learning. According to Shulman (1986), that knowledge includes: Subject matter knowledge: Knowledge of foundational ideas and conceptual schemes, data, and procedures within a specific subject matter area. Pedagogical knowledge: Knowledge of generic principles and strategies of classroom instruction (e.g., instructional models and integration of technology) and management. Pedagogical content knowledge: The way of representing and formulating subject matter knowledge that makes it comprehensible to others (i.e., knowledge of how to transform and represent subject matter so that it is comprehensible to students or others). Knowledge of schools: Knowledge of educational contexts, (i.e., the place of the classroom in the school, the school in the community, and other social contexts). Knowledge of learners: Knowledge of all aspects of intellectual, social, and emotional development of all students regardless of cultural, social, and ethnic background. Curricular knowledge: Knowledge of development and implementation of programs and materials. While it is beyond the scope of this curriculum to address all of these areas in depth, the following pages include information with respect to these topics as they relate specifically to Science 10. Grade 10: A Transition from Middle Level to Specific Disciplines The structure of Science 10 is similar to elementary and middle years science in that each grade is comprised of units from the disciplines of life science, physical science, and earth science. For most students, this will be their last opportunity to participate in a science course that contains units from multiple disciplines. Teachers should recognize that the goal of Science 10 is more than simply to prepare students for the senior sciences, although most students will enrol in at least one of the senior sciences; some will enrol in three. Teachers need to engage students in authentic activities that are relevant for their students current lives while addressing the foundational and learning objectives of Science 10. This is also a transition year for many students, as they become more independent and wish to be more involved in decision making. They have developed more interests outside of school and have a need to connect their personal interests to their in-school learning. Students of this age are social beings and may be very concerned about their relationships with friends and classmates. Simultaneously, students may be undergoing growth spurts and bodily changes. As a result, students may be less comfortable in presenting in front of their peers. These students are also capable of increasingly abstract thought, and are striving to be more independent and autonomous. Teachers can capitalize on these changes by encouraging students to take more responsibility for their own learning and to relate their learning to their own lives. Instructional Strategies Decision making regarding instructional strategies requires teachers to focus on curriculum objectives, the prior experiences and knowledge of students, student interests, student learning styles, and the developmental levels of the learner. Such decision making relies on linking ongoing student assessment to learning objectives and processes. 13

20 Although instructional strategies can be categorized, the distinctions are not always clear-cut. For example, a teacher may provide information through the lecture method (from the direct instruction strategy) while using an interpretive method to ask students to determine the significance of information that was presented (from the indirect instruction strategy). Five categories of instructional strategies are described below. Direct instruction Direct instruction, a highly teacher-directed strategy, includes methods such as lecture, didactic questioning, explicit teaching, practice and drill, and demonstrations. Direct instruction is effective for providing information such as lab safety guidelines or developing step-by-step skills. This strategy also works well for introducing other teaching methods, or actively involving students in knowledge construction. Indirect instruction Inquiry, induction, problem solving, decision making, and discovery are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably to describe indirect instruction. Indirect instruction is primarily learner-centred and includes methods such as reflective discussion, concept formation, concept attainment, cloze procedure, and guided inquiry. Indirect instruction seeks a high level of student involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypotheses, all of which are highly valued in science. It takes advantage of students interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to generate alternatives or solve problems. It is flexible in that it frees students to explore diverse possibilities and reduces the fear associated with the possibility of giving incorrect answers. Indirect instruction also fosters creativity and the development of interpersonal skills and abilities. Students often achieve a better understanding of the material and ideas under study and develop the ability to draw on these understandings. Inquiry Inquiry is at the heart of science instruction. Inquiry is a multifaceted activity that involves making observations; posing questions; examining books and other sources of information to see what is already known; planning investigations; reviewing what is already known in light of experimental evidence; using tools to gather, analyze, and interpret data; proposing answers, explanations, and predictions; and communicating the results. Inquiry requires identification of assumptions, use of critical and logical thinking, and consideration of alternative explanations. (National Research Council, 1996, p. 23) At this grade, students should develop sophistication in their abilities and understanding of scientific inquiry. Students should be able to: identify questions and concepts that guide scientific investigations design and conduct scientific investigations use technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communication formulate and revise scientific explanations and models using logic and evidence recognize and analyze alternative explanations and models communicate and defend a scientific argument. Teachers need to ensure that topics for science investigations are meaningful to students. Topics may come from current events, relevant local and global STSE issues, and student questions. Some investigations may begin with little meaning for students but develop meaning through active involvement, continued exposure, and growing skill and understanding. Interactive instruction Interactive instruction relies heavily on discussion and sharing among participants. Students can learn from peers and teachers to develop social skills and abilities, to organize their thoughts, and to develop rational arguments. The interactive instruction strategy allows for a range of groupings and interactive methods. These may include total class discussions, small group discussions or projects, or student pairs or triads working on assignments together. It is important for the teacher to outline the topic, the amount of discussion time, the composition and size of the groups, and reporting or sharing techniques. Interactive instruction requires the refinement of observation, listening, interpersonal, and intervention skills and 14