Table of Contents. Chapter 1 Introduction to Small Water Systems. Chapter 2 Wells. 2.1 Groundwater Critical Link to Wells 32

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1 Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction to Small Water Systems 1.1 Water as a Limited Resource The Water Supply System Sources of Water Ocean Surface Water Groundwater Reclaimed Water Storage Facilities Treatment Facilities Water Treatment Distribution Systems Selection of a Water Source Water Rights Sanitary Survey Contamination Physical Characteristics Chemical Characteristics Biological Factors Radiological Factors The Safe Drinking Water Act Small Water System Operators Operation and Maintenance Supervision and Administration Public Relations Safety Math Assignment Additional Resources 26 Chapter Review 28 Chapter 2 Wells 2.1 Groundwater Critical Link to Wells Water (Hydrologic) Cycle Aquifers Porosity and Specific Yield Overdraft Saltwater Intrusion Pollution Control Geologic and Hydrologic Data Wellhead Protection National Program Groundwater Protection Tips Well Site Selection Horizontal Distance Design of Well Fields Special Construction of Collection Systems Under Gravity Flow Sanitary Control of Future Construction Structure and Components Types of Wells Dug Wells Bored Wells Driven Wells Drilled Wells Shallow Collector Wells Ranney Type Subsurface Features of a Well Conductor Casing Well Casing Intake Section of a Well Annular Grout Seal Gravel Pack 71 ix

2 x Table of Contents Surface Features of a Well Well-Casing Vent Gravel Tube Sounding Tube Pump Pedestal Pump Motor Base Seal Sampling Taps Air Release and Vacuum Breaker Valves Pump Blowoff Well Appurtenances Check Valves Pump Control Valves Foot Valves Flowmeters Sand Traps and Sand Separators Surge Suppressors Air and Vacuum Valves Pressure Relief Valves Hydropneumatic Pressure Tank Systems Testing and Evaluation Well Yield Tests Bailing Test Method Air Blow Test Method Variable Rate Method Constant Rate Method Step-Continuous Composite Method Maintenance and Rehabilitation Factors Affecting the Maintenance of Well Performance Overpumping Clogging or Incrustation of Screen Corrosion or Collapse of Screen Biofouling Preventive Maintenance and Repairs Casing and Screen Maintenance Surging High-Velocity Jetting Acid Treatment Chlorine Treatment Polyphosphates Explosive Charges Water Quality Monitoring Downhole Video Inspection Summary Well Pumps and Service Guidelines Types of Pumps Centrifugal Pumps Other Pumps Right-Angle Gear Drives Selecting a Pump Service Guidelines Motors Pump Testing and Evaluation Guidelines for Testing Evaluating Test Results Pump Electrical Disinfection of Wells and Pumps New Wells Existing Wells Contaminated Wells Chlorine Requirement Calculations Electrical Supply and Controls Electrical Supply Motor Starters Auxiliary Power Pump Controls Control Systems Equipment Troubleshooting Decline in Yield Sand in Well Water Systems Problems Associated with Sand Flushing Mains Test for Sand, Volumetric Method Acceptable Concentrations Responding to Complaints Abandoning and Plugging Wells Permits Abandoning and Plugging Guidelines 150

3 Table of Contents xi 2.11 Operator Responsibility and Recordkeeping Routine Facility Servicing Records Math Assignment Additional Resources 160 Chapter Review 161 Chapter 3 Small Water Treatment Plants 3.1 Importance of Small Water Treatment Plants Surface Waters Groundwaters Operator Responsibility Coagulation Flocculation Settling (Sedimentation) Filtration Disinfection Corrosion Control Solids-Contact Clarification Fundamentals of Operation Maintenance Slow Sand Filtration Procedure for Treating Water Components Filter Tank Underdrain System Sand Media Bed Flow Control Piping, Valves, and Gauges Outlet Chamber Finished Water Holding Facility Hydraulic Controls and Monitoring Devices Typical Filter Operating Cycle Daily Operation Cleaning the Filter Media Preventive Maintenance Troubleshooting Finished Water Standards Factors Affecting Filter Performance Source Water Quality Cyclic Influences Mode of Operation Hydraulic Loading Rate Recordkeeping Process Modifications Example Slow Sand Filter Plant Construction Features Startup Operation Filter Cleaning Shutdown Iron and Manganese Control Softening Ion Exchange Softening Operation Maintenance Tools Safety Math Assignment Additional Resources 274 Chapter Review 275 Chapter 4 Disinfection 4.1 Drinking Water Safety Safe Drinking Water Laws 280

4 xii Table of Contents 4.2 Factors Influencing Disinfection ph Temperature Turbidity Organic Matter Inorganic Matter Reducing Agents Microorganisms Removal Processes Disinfection Process Physical Means of Disinfection Chemical Disinfectants Other Than Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Disinfection Action Reaction with Water Reaction with Impurities in Water Hypochlorite Reactions with Water Differences Between Chlorine Gas and Hypochlorite Compound Reactions Onsite Chlorine Generation Chlorine Dioxide Reaction in Water Reactions with Impurities in Water Breakpoint Chlorination Chloramination Methods for Producing Chloramines Chlorine-to-Ammonia-Nitrogen Ratios Special Water Users Blending Chloraminated Waters Chloramine Residuals Nitrification Nitrification Prevention and Control Chlorine Residual Testing Chlorine Residual Curve Critical Factors CT Values Process Calculations Points of Chlorine Application Prechlorination Postchlorination Rechlorination Wells Mains Tanks and Reservoirs Operation of Chlorination Equipment Hypochlorinators Chlorinators Chlorinator Flow Path Chlorinator Parts and Their Purpose Chlorine Containers Plastic Steel Cylinders Ton Tanks Safety Around Chlorine Removing Chlorine from Containers Connections Valves Ton Tanks Performance of Chlorination Units Hypochlorinators Chlorinators Normal and Abnormal Operation Container Storage Area Evaporators Chlorinators, Including Injectors Daily Operations Laboratory Tests Troubleshooting Gas Chlorinator Systems Disinfection Troubleshooting Chlorination System Failure Maintenance Chlorine Leaks Installation Chlorine Dioxide Facilities Safe Handling of Chemicals 347

5 Table of Contents xiii Operation Prestart Procedures Startup Shutdown Maintenance Troubleshooting Measurement of Chlorine Residual Methods of Measuring Chlorine Residual ORP Probes Chlorine Safety Program Chlorine Hazards Why Chlorine Must Be Handled with Care Chlorine Safety for Operators Hypochlorite Safety Chlorine Dioxide Safety Operator Safety Training CHEMTREC Ultraviolet Systems Lamp Types System Types Safety Operation UV Light Intensity Effectiveness Minimum UV Dose Management Routine Operations Tasks Wiping System Equipment Shutdown/Startup Preliminary Steps Shutdown Sequence Cleaning the Tank Startup Sequence Monitoring Lamp Output Intensity Monitoring Influent and Effluent Characteristics Emergency Alarms Maintenance Quartz Sleeve Cleaning Lamp Maintenance Troubleshooting System Hydraulics Biofilms on UV Channel Walls and Equipment Particles Shielding Bacteria Ozone Systems Equipment Gas Preparation Electrical Supply Unit Ozone Generator Ozone Contactor Ozone Residuals Safety Maintenance Applications of Ozone Advantages and Limitations of Ozone Mixed-Oxidants (MIOX) Systems Typical Chlorination Math Problems Chlorinators Hypochlorinators Math Assignment Additional Resources 386 Chapter Review 387 Chapter 5 Safety 5.1 Safety Program Tailgate Safety Sessions Tailgate Safety Sample Script Employee Right-To-Know Laws Vehicle Safety Towing A Trailer How to Charge a Battery Boat Safety 397

6 xiv Table of Contents 5.3 Personal Safety Monitoring Equipment Personal Protective Equipment Slips and Falls Handling and Lifting Electrical Safety Corrosive Chemicals Safety Around Wells Location of Well Site New Wells Sanitary Seal Surface Portion of Well Tank Coatings Well Chemicals Working Around Electrical Units Abandoning and Plugging Wells Safety Inspection Pump Safety Using Temporary Traffic Control Zone Devices Excavations in Streets Trenches Cave-Ins Ladders Locate Underground Utilities Before You Dig Safety Around Water Storage Facilities Slips and Falls Ladders Application of Coatings Confined Spaces Working near Noise Safety Inspections Additional Resources 476 Chapter Review Guards Over Moving Parts Maintenance and Repair Lockout/Tagout Procedure Storage of Lubricants and Fuel Working in Streets Fundamental Principles Definitions Major Temporary Traffic Control Considerations Individuals Qualified to Control Traffic Permission to Work Within the Right-of-Way of Streets or Highways General Responsibilities Regulations Concerning Street or Highway Work Temporary Traffic Control Zones Tapers Pedestrian Safety Worker Safety Speed Limits in Work Zones Flagger Control 440 Chapter 6 Laboratory Procedures 6.1 Basic Laboratory Concepts Laboratory Units The Metric System Chemical Names and Formulas Laboratory Equipment and Techniques Water Laboratory Equipment Using Laboratory Glassware Reading Volumes Using Pipets Chemical Solutions Mass Concentration Molar Concentration Normality Data Recording and Recordkeeping Laboratory Quality Control 499

7 Table of Contents xv 6.3 Laboratory Safety Laboratory Hazards Personal Safety and Hygiene Preventing Laboratory Accidents Chemical Storage Moving Chemicals Proper Laboratory Techniques Accident Prevention Water Quality Tests Instrument-Based Tests Temperature ph Turbidity Titration-Based Tests Alkalinity Hardness Chlorine Residual Tests for Plant Processes Jar Test for Coagulation/ Flocculation Chlorine Demand Biological Tests Test Methods Overview What Is Tested General Materials Required for Microbial Testing Procedures for Testing Total Coliform Bacteria Additional Test Methods Sampling Representative Sampling Source Water Sampling In-Plant Sampling Distribution System Sampling Types of Samples Grab Samples Composite Samples Sampling Devices Sampling Techniques Surface Sampling Depth Sampling Water Tap Sampling First-Draw Sampling Sampling Containers and Preservation of Samples Chain-of-Custody Samples Reporting Math Assignment Additional Resources 579 Chapter Review 580 Chapter 7 Introduction to Small System Management 7.1 Developing Water Rates General Action Strategy Developing a Hypothetical Water District Revenue Requirements Forecasting Expenditures Declining Demand for Water System Growth Rate Inflation Capital Improvement Program Financial Assistance Itemizing System Expenses Establishing the Revenue Base Cost Allocation Methods Commodity-Demand Method Base-Extra Capacity Method Examples of Cost Allocations Distributing Costs to Customers Rate Design Information and Data Requirements Rate Components Typical Rate Structure Administration of Rates and Charges Consumer Confidence Reports Planning for Financial Stability 612

8 xvi Table of Contents Measuring Stability Budgeting Recordkeeping Computer Recordkeeping Systems Types of Records Disposition of Utility Records Check-Up Program for Small Systems Emergency Response Federal Requirements Responding to Emergency Situations Homeland Defense Guarding Against Unplanned Physical Intrusion Making Security a Priority for Employees Coordinating Actions for Effective Emergency Response Investing in Security and Infrastructure Improvements Managing Contamination Threats Evaluating and Responding to Threats Cryptosporidium Additional Resources 631 Chapter Review 632 Appendix A Introduction to Basic Math for Operators Introduction 638 Basic Concepts (Sections A.1 A.4) 639 A.1 Numbers and Operations 639 A.1.1 Addition 639 A.1.2 Subtraction 639 A.1.3 Multiplication 640 A.1.4 Division 640 A.2 Order of Operations 640 A.2.1 More on Exponents 644 A.3 Basic Algebra (Solving Equations) 644 A.4 Percentages 647 Intermediate Concepts (Sections A.5 A.6) 650 A.5 Units 650 A.5.1 Distance or Length 650 A.5.2 Area 651 A Surface Area of a Rectangle 651 A Surface Area of a Triangle 652 A Surface Area of a Trapezoid 653 A Surface Area of a Circle 653 A Surface Area of a Cylinder 654 A Surface Area of a Cone 655 A Surface Area of a Sphere 656 A.5.3 Volume 656 A Cube 657 A Rectangular Prism 657 A Triangular Prism 658 A Cylinder 658 A Cone 658 A Sphere 659 A.5.4 Mass and Weight 659 A.5.5 Density, Specific Weight, and Specific Gravity 660 A.5.6 Concentration 660 A.5.7 Velocity and Flow Rate 662 A.5.8 Force and Pressure 664 A.5.9 Work, Head, and Power 669 A.6 Metric System 672 A.6.1 SI Base Units 672 A.6.2 Measures of Length 674 A.6.3 Measures of Capacity or Volume 674 A.6.4 Measures of Weight 674 A.6.5 Temperature 675 Advanced Concepts (Sections A.7 A.8) 676 A.7 Pumps 676 A.7.1 Pressure 676 A.7.2 Work 677 A.7.3 Power 678 A.7.4 Horsepower 678 A.7.5 Head 682

9 Table of Contents xvii A.7.6 Pump Characteristics 684 A.7.7 Evaluation of Pump Performance 686 A Capacity 686 A Efficiency 687 A.7.8 Pump Speed-Performance Relationships 690 A.7.9 Friction or Energy Losses 691 A.8 Analysis and Presentation of Data 695 A.8.1 Causes of Variations in Results 695 A Water or Material Being Examined 696 A Sampling 696 A Testing 696 A.8.2 Controlling Variation 696 A Reading Charts 698 A.8.3 Describing Data or Results 698 A Graphs and Charts 699 A Numerical Representation of Data 704 A.8.4 Moving Averages 711 A.8.5 More Applications of Graphs 713 A Volume of Sludge in a Digester 713 A Tracking BOD Loading 716 A.8.6 Regression Analysis (Prediction Equations, Trends, and Correlations) 718 A Correlations 723 A.9 Typical Water Treatment Plant Problems (English System) 724 A.9.1 Flows 724 A.9.2 Chemical Doses 724 A.9.3 Wells 726 A.9.4 Small Water Treatment Plants 727 A.9.5 Disinfection 730 A.9.6 Laboratory Procedures 732 A.10 Typical Water Treatment Plant Problems (Metric System) 733 A.10.1 Flows 733 A.10.2 Chemical Doses 734 A.10.3 Wells 735 A.10.4 Small Water Treatment Plants 736 A.10.5 Disinfection 739 A.10.6 Laboratory Procedures 741 Answer Key 745 Glossary 747 Index 779

10 Index A AADT (Annual Average Daily Traffic), 421 Abandoning wells, 39, , 413 Abnormal conditions, chlorination, 305, 322, 327, Absorption, 222 Accident prevention, Accidents, 392, 393, 395, 487 Accidents, laboratory, Acid rain, 2 Acid titration curve, 516 Acid treatment of wells, Acidic, defined, 509 Acids, safety, 406, 409, 501 Acids, used in laboratories, 503 Acquisition, water rights, 12 Additional resources, 26, 160, 274, 386, 476, 579, 631 chlorination, 386 disinfection, 386 hardness in water, 520 laboratory procedures, 484, 506, 509, 510, 514, 520, 528, 538, 557, 562, 564 laboratory safety, 506 microbiological test methods, 568 sampling, 577 Administration contaminated water supply, 623 contingency planning, 619 emergency response, operator s duties, 22 Administrative expenses, 587, 594, 596, 600, 613 Adsorption, 192 Aeration, 260 Agricultural runoff, 3, 6, 293 Air blow test method, wells, Air chargers, wells, Air gap, 81, 323 Air lines, wells, 73, 74 Air release valve, wells, 73, 74, 76, 83 Air rotary drilling, wells, Air-lift pumps, 108 Algal blooms, 7, 249 Aliquot, 558 Alkalinity, 174 and buffering, 511, 516 conditions, 518 monitoring, 532 procedure, 517 test, Alluvial, 60, 145 Alum, 173 Ambient temperature, 344 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 40 Ammonia, 284, 289, , 340, 344, 345 Ammonia, test for leaks, Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), 296 Amperometric titration method, 353, 524 Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT), 421 Annual report, 611 Annular grout seal, wells, 69 Annular space, 62, 106 Anthracite, 193 AOB. See Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) Appropriative water rights, 12 Aquifers, 7, 32, 33 Arithmetic assignment. See Math assignment Arrow boards, traffic, 423 Arsenic, 19 Artesian wells, 7, 8 As-built plans (record drawings), 24 Aseptic, 561 Assessment of system vulnerability, 620 Autoclave, 492, 543, 565 Automatic sampling, 574 Auxiliary power, 135 Available chlorine, 105 Available chlorine residual, 288, 292 Awareness, safety, 392, 440 B Backflow prevention, 81, 270 Backwash filtration, softening, 265 Bacteria defined, 573 detection methods, 539 disinfection, 203 pathogenic, 280 quantity affect on sample, 546 types of counts, 539 Bacterial cells, 287 Bacterial cultures, 539 Bacteriologic safety indicator, 538 Bailing test method, wells, 93 Barium, 19 Barricades, traffic control, Base costs, 598 Base-extra capacity method, 598 Bases (caustics), used in laboratories, 501 Battery, charging, Bill-frequency analysis, 604 Biofouling, wells, 99 Biological, water quality, 13 Biological tests, Bitter tastes, 286 Blanks, 543 Blowoff, wells, 73, 76 Boats, safety, 397 Boils, 199 Bonds, 589, 590 Bored wells, 56, 60 Bowls, pump, wells, 67, 108 Brake horsepower, 109 Breakpoint chlorination, 209, 210, , 335, 536, 537 Breakthrough, 197 Brilliant Green Bile (BGB) Broth, 540, 544 Brine disposal, 266 Brine stage, 265 Bromine, 286 Bruises, injury, 500 Budget preparation, 614 operator responsibility, 25 Buffer, 291 Buffer solution, 511 Buffered dilution water, 543, 546 Burns, laboratory, 500, 505 Byproducts, disinfection, 19 C Cable-tool drilling, wells, 60, 61, 66 Cadmium, 19 Caisson, wells, 65 Calcium carbonate equivalent, 173, 515, 519, 520 Calcium hypochlorite, 204, 290 Calculations coagulation, 178 disinfection,

11 780 Index Calculations (continued) filtration, sedimentation, wells, Calibration, instrument, , 493 Calibration of feeders, 177, 178 Call Before You Dig program (811), 462 Capital costs, 587, 596, 598, 605 Capital improvement program, 589 Carbon monoxide, safety, 398 Carcinogen, 285, 523 Carcinogen chlorogranic compounds, 523 Carelessness, 392 Cash basis, 596 Cash flow, 587 Cash reserve, 588 Casing, wells, 46, 67, 73 Cathodic protection, 227, 330 Caustic soda, 501 Caustics, 501 Cave-ins, 461 Centrifugal pumps, uses, 108 Certification operator, 21, 22, 268 responsibility, 22 Chain-of-custody sample protocol, 577 Channelizing devices, traffic, 423 Check valves, 77, 79, 80 Chemical disinfectants, 286 Chemical feeders, Chemical names, Chemical solution, tank, 305 Chemical treatment, corrosion, 219 Chemicals labeling, laboratory, movement, names, safety, 406 solutions, storage, 502 water quality, 13, 15 Chemistry, disinfection, CHEMTREC, 360, 623 Chloramination blending, 296 chlorine to ammonia-nitrogen ratios, contact time, 300 critical factors, 300 how to produce chloramines, nitrification, 295, postammoniation, 294, 295 preammoniation, 294 prechlorination, 295 residuals, 295, 296 special water users, 296 use, 294 Chloramines, 206, 207, 210, 290, Chloride, 20 Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 16 Chlorination. See also Chlorinators; Hypochlorinators; Disinfection abnormal operation, additional resources, 386 ammonia test for leaks, amperometric titration, 353, 524 breakpoint, 209, 210, , 335, 536, 537 CHEMTREC, 360 chloramination, 294 chloramines, 290, chlorinator, , , chlorine, 287 chlorine dioxide, chlorophenol, 294 contact time, 300 container storage, corrosion, 313, 330, 355 critical factors, 300 CT values, 208, 300 demand, 288, 302, 534 dichloramine, 293 distribution system, 335 dosage, 288 DPD method, 206 DPD test, 337, 353, 354, 528 emergency repair kits, 341, 342 equipment, failure, 339 first aid, 358 flow diagram, 304 formulas, 320, 336 free available residual chlorine, 292 hazards, 355 hypochlorinator, , 318 hypochlorite, injection point, 300 injector water supply, 323 laboratory tests, 337 leaks, 315, 316, 323, 332, , 357 mains, 305 maintenance, 339, 357 maintenance, hypochlorinators, 214, 322 math assignment, 385 math, example problems, 378 mixing, 300 monitoring, 281 monochloramine, 293 nitrification, 295, 296 normal operation, 305, 318, 326 operation, operator training, safety, 359 organic matter, 284, 292 pathogen removal, 285 performance, 317 ph, 283, 288, 300, 345 phenol, 294 points of application, 303, 304 poppet valves, 214 population served, 281 postchlorination, 300, 303, 304, 335 prechlorination, 290, 295, 300, 303, 304, 335 precursor, THM, 303 process calculations, 301 rechlorination, 303 reducing agents, 283, 284, 289, 300 removing chlorine, 316, 317 reservoirs, 305 residual chlorine, 285, 288, 293, 296, 298, 300, 331, 353, 522, 534 safety, 314, 316, sampling, 281, 282 self-contained breathing apparatus, 316, 340, 355, 357 storage of containers, 327, 343, 383 tanks, 305, 341 tastes and odors, 294, 303, 335 temperature, 283, 300 training, safety, 359 trichloramine, 294 trihalomethanes (THMs), 284, 285, 303, 345 troubleshooting, 334, 338, 339, 352 turbidity, 283, 300 variables, 284 viruses, 280, 281, 284, 345 water supply systems, 303 waterborne diseases, 280 wells, 303 withdrawal from cylinder, 210 Chlorination equipment, 305 air gap, 323 amperometric titration, 354 cathodic protection, 330 chemical solution tank, 305 CHEMTREC, 360 chlorinator, , 322, chlorine dioxide, connections, 317 containers, corrosion, 313, 330, 355 cylinders, detection, chlorine leaks, 333, , 356 dew point, 324 diaphragm pump, 312 DPD test, 337, 353, 354, 524, 528 eductor, 305 ejector, 305, 312 emergency repair kit, 341, 342, 372 evaporator, 324, 328 failure, 339 fusible plugs, 314, 315 hypochlorinator, , 318 injector, 305, 310, 331, 338 installation, 305, 343 laboratory, 337, 347 leaks, 315, 316, 323, 332, , 357 lifting clamp, 315 location, 343 maintenance, 322, 339, 357

12 Index 781 manifold, 313, 344 math, example problems, 378 metering, 310, 313 operation, parts, 312 pigtail tubing, 317 plan review, 343 poppet valves, 319 pressure controls, 308 residual analyzer, 331, 332, 353 review of plans and specifications, 343 rotameter, 310 safety, 314, 316, 322, self-contained breathing apparatus, 316, 340, 355, 357 shutdown, 318 solution feeders, startup, 318, 323 storage, containers, 327, 343 ton tanks, troubleshooting, 334, 338 trunnions, 315 vacuum-controlled chlorinators, valves, 314, 317, 319, 323, 329 ventilation, 344 water supply system, 323 weighing, 314, 344 wrench, 317 yoke-type connectors, 316, 317 Chlorinators, , 322, See also Chlorination maintenance, 322 troubleshooting, 322 uses, 322 Chlorine ammonia, 289, 292, 294, 296 ammonia test for leaks, available, 105 available residual, 288, 292 CHEMTREC, 360 chloramines, 290, concentrations, effects, 356 container storage, 327 demand, 288, 301, 302, 534 detection, leaks, 332, , 357 detention rate curve, 299 disinfection, disinfection action, 287 dose, 288, 302 emergency repair kits, 340, 341 first aid, 358 frozen, 330 hydrogen sulfide, 290 hypochlorite, 290 hypochlorous acid, 288, 291, 523 ice, 330 leaks, 315, 316, 317, 323, 332, 338, , 357 maximum removal rate, 316, 344 on-site generation, 291 ph, 283, 288, 300, 345 physiological response, 356 prechlorination, 290, 295, 300, 303, 304, 335 properties, 355 protection from, 357 rate of withdrawal, 323, 344 reaction with impurities, 289 reaction with water, 288 residual, 285, 288, 292, 293, 295, 298, 300, 331, 353, 534 safety, 316 uses, 204 withdrawal rate, 316, 344 Chlorine demand solution, 535 test, Chlorine dioxide ammonia, 345 corrosion, 346 facilities, generation, 346 iron and manganese, 292 maintenance, 351, 352 operation, ph, 345 phenolic tastes and odors, 292 reaction in water, 292 reactions with impurities, 292 safety, 347, 359 shutdown, 350 sodium chlorite, 347 startup, 349 taste and odor control, 292 trihalomethanes, 293, 345 troubleshooting, 352, 353 Chlorine residual test, Chlorine treatment, 105, Chloroform, 523 Chlorophenol, 294 Chlororganics, 292, 523 Chromium, 19 Chromocult Coliform Agar Presence Absence Membrane Filter Test, 539 Cistern, water storage, 6 Clarifiers, Clarity of water, 205 Clear wells description, 9 small plants, 170 Clogged well screen, 100 Clothing, safety, 403, 404 Coagulation alkalinity, 174 alum, 173 calculations, 179 calibration of feeders, 177, 178 chemical feeders, dosage, 174 floc, 171 flocculation, 174 gang stirrer, 174 jar test, 174, 175 mixing, 174, 175 pathogen removal, 284 ph, 174 polymer, 177 process, 174, 176 streaming current meter, 175 temperature, 174 Coatings, tanks, 408, 467 Coliform bacteria, 281 disinfection, 281 Coliform Agar ES, 568 Coliform bacteria, 281, 538 Coliform tests Colilert method, 541, 566 fermentation tubes, 540 membrane filter, , 563 Presence Absence (P A) Method, Coliform-positive samples, 538 Colilert method, 541, 566 Colilert test (enzyme substrate test), Colisure test (enzyme substrate test), Colitag Presence Absence (P A) Test, 539, 568 Collapsed well, 56 Collapsed well screen, 99 Color, 15, 20, 510 Colorimeter, 510, 527 Colorimetric measurement, 510 Column pipe, wells, 110, 112 Combined chlorine, 207 Combined residual chlorine, 523, 534 Combustible gases, 398 Commodity costs, 597, 599 Commodity-demand method, 597 Community water system, 21 Competent person confined spaces, 469 defined by OSHA, 439 hazard assessment of work site, 439 shoring, 459 Complaint handling, operator s duties, 25 Composite sample, 569, 573 Compound substance, 487 Conductor casing, wells, 67, 73 Cone of depression, 36, 52 Confined space, 398, 408, 467 Confined space entry permit, 467, 468 Connection fees, 589 Connections, equipment, 316 Conservation, 2 Consolidated formation, 62 Constant rate method, wells, Construction cost index (CCI), 589 Construction, wells, 55 Consumer confidence report (CCR), 611 Consumer demands for water, 10 Consumer price index (CPI), 589

13 782 Index Contact time, chlorine, 207, 300 Contactor, ozone, 375 Containers chlorine, , 326 sampling, 571, 578 Contaminated water supply contamination, countermeasures, 630 Cryptosporidium, 630 emergency treatment, 629 incident commander, 627 response, 627 wells, Contamination. See also Water quality groundwater, 3 Contingency planning, 619 Contingency reserve, 588 Control devices and zones. See Traffic control Control of corrosion, 219 iron and manganese, 259 Controls, pumps, wells, Copper, 19, 20 Copper Rule. See Lead and Copper Rule Corrosion chemical treatment, 219 control, 219 damages, 219 Langelier Index, 219 lime, 219 polyphosphate, 105, 219 small plants, 171 soda ash, 219 water quality problems, 218 water treatment plants, 171 wells, Corrosion problems chlorination, 313, 355 chlorine dioxide, 346 Corrosive chemicals, 406 Corrosive materials, 501 Corrosivity, 11 Cost allocation, Cost-based rates, 598 Cost-of-service studies, 598 Costs treatment, 3 water rates, 2 Coverage ratio, 612 Cross-connections, 13, 149 Cryptosporidiosis, 7, 233, 538 Cryptosporidium, 281, 283, 377, 630 CT values, 300 Culture strategy, test, 540 Culture tubes, 489 Currents, in tanks, 185 Custom designed plant, 172 Customer service costs, 598 Cuts, injury, 500, 504 Cylinders, chlorine, Cysts, 284 D Daily log or diary, 270 Daily tasks, 268, 269 Damages corrosion, 219 Dams and reservoirs. See Reservoirs Dangerous air contamination, 398, 400, 469 Data recording, 498 DBPR. See Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule (DBPR) Debt service, 594 Decibel, noise exposure, 472 Decision sight distance, defined, 425 Deep-well pumps, 108, 109, 110, 115 Deionized water versus distilled water, Demand, chlorine, 288, 301, 302 Demand costs, 597, 598 Demineralized water, 542 Depreciation, 590 Depth sampling, 570, 575, 576 Detection, chlorine leaks, 333, , 356, 357 Detention rate curve, chlorine, 299 Detention time chlorine, 300 curves, 299 nitrification, 297 reservoirs, 14 settling (sedimentation), 184, 189 Dew point, 324 Diaphragm pump, 307 Diatomaceous earth, 191, 192 Diatoms, 294 Dichloramine, 293, 294, 523 Dilution water, 543 Direct fire protection costs, 598, 605 Direct runoff, 6 Diseases, 203, 280 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule (DBPR), 281 Disinfection, See also Chlorination action, 287 additional resources, 386 agents of disinfection, 285 bacteria, 281 bacteria, pathogenic, 280 bacterial cells, 285 bitter taste, 286 breakpoint chlorination, 292, 335 bromine, 286 byproducts, 19, 286 calcium hypochlorite, 290, 291 calculations, 301 chemical disinfectants, 286 chloramines, 290, 292, 298 chlorination, 287 chlorinator, chlorine, chlorine dioxide, 291, coliform, 281 combined chlorine, 207 concentration, 207 contact time, 207, 300 critical factors, 300 Cryptosporidium, 281, 283, 377 CT values, 300 cysts, 284 definition, 203 disease, waterborne, 280 diseases, 203, 280 dosage, 209, 213, 288 DPD method, 206 enzymes, 287 fecal coliforms, 538 flow diagram, 304 formulas, 320, 336 free chlorine, 207 Giardia lamblia, 19, 209, 228, 248, 281, 282, 300, 377 giardiasis, 203, 247, 280 heat, 286 hepatitis, 280 hypochlorinator, 216 hypochlorite, influencing factors, 283 inorganic matter, 284 iodine, 286 math assignment, 385 math, example problems, 378 maximum contaminant level, 281 microbial standards, 281 microorganisms, mixed-oxidants system, mixing, 205 monitoring, 281 organic matter, 284, 292 ozone, 286, 371 parasites, 280 pathogen removal, 284 pathogenic organisms, 280 ph, 283, 288, 300, 345 physical means, 285 points of application, 303 population served, 281 postchlorination, 300, 303, 304, 335 prechlorination, process calculations, 301 processes, protozoa, 280 purpose, 283 recordkeeping, 299 reducing agents, 283, 284, 289, 300 removal processes, pathogens, 284 reporting, 282 residual chlorine, 285, 288, 292, 293, 296, 300, 331, , 522, 534, 536 safety, 409 sampling, 281, 282 small plants, 171

14 Index 783 sodium hypochlorite, 204 spore-forming bacteria, 284 standards, microbial, 281 sterilization, 280 taste, bitter, 286 temperature, 283, 300 time of contact, 204 total chlorine, 296 trihalomethanes, 284, 285, 303, 345 troubleshooting, 334, 338, 339, 352 turbidity, 283, 300 ultrasonic waves, 286 ultraviolet radiation, 204 ultraviolet rays, 285, 286, 368 ultraviolet (UV) systems, 285, 360, 368 variables, 283 viruses, 203, 281, 284, 345, 376 water treatment plants, 171 waterborne diseases, 280 wells, withdrawal rate of chlorine, 210 Disinfection byproducts (DBPs), 19, 286 Displacement well pumps, 108 Disposal of brine, 266 records, 618 sludge, 186 Distances to wells, Distilled water in culture media, 546 versus deionized water, 534 Distribution systems description, 10 flushing mains, 146 sampling, Diversion works, 169 Dosage, coagulation, 174 Dose, chlorine, 288, 302 DPD Colorimetric Method, DPD method, 206 DPD test, 296, 337, 353 DPD titration method, 524 DPD titrimetric method, 524 Drawdown, wells, 13, 117, 144 Drilled wells, Driller s log, wells, 38 Driller s report, wells, 156 Drinking water, laws, 280 regulations, 19 safety, 280 sampling, 18, turbidity removal, 19 Driven wells, Driving, safety, 395 Drums, traffic control, 457 Dual media filter, 193 Dug wells, 56, 58 Duties of operators, 23, 24, 269 Dysentery, contamination of water supply, 6 E E. coli (EPA Method 1603), 563 E*Colite Test, 539, 568 EDTA titrant, 521 Eductor, 305 Effective size, 68, 233 Ejector, 305, 312 Electric shock, 500, 504 Electrical, safety, 406, 411 Electrical supply, pumps, 135 Electrochemical probe, 510 Electrochemical reaction, 218 Emergency(ies) administration, chlorine repair kits, 341 contaminated water supply, 623 preparation for, procedures, 626 response plan, treatment, 627 Emergency traffic control situations, 441 Employee Right-To-Know laws, 394 Endpoint, 495, 515 Endrin, 19 Enzyme substrate coliform test, 541 Enzyme Substrate Method, 539 Enzyme substrate tests, 539, Enzymes, 287 Epidemiology, 13 Equipment chlorination, 305, 310 electrochemical probe, 510 laboratory, (see also Laboratory equipment) ozone, safety, sampling, 574, 575 ultraviolet (UV) systems, 361 Equity, 596 Escherichia coli (E. coli), 563 Evaluation of wells, 92 Evaporation, 32, 33 Evaporator, chlorine, 324, 328 Evapotranspiration, 5 Excavations in streets cave-ins, 461 ladders, 462 safety rules, 459 shoring, 459 spoil, 459 trenches, 459 underground utilities, Expenses, 612, 613 Explosions, 500, 501 Explosive charges, wells, 105 Explosive conditions, safety, 25, 399 Explosive limits, 399, 402 Extra capacity costs, 598 F Facultative bacteria, 538 Failure, chlorination, 339 Falls, safety, 404, 464 FC test. See Fecal coliform (FC) test Fecal coliform (FC) test, 539, 549, 561, 565 E. coli, 539 Fermentation tubes, 540, 544 Field testing of deposits, wells, 98 Filter aids, 192, 197, 200 Filtration anthracite, 193 backwashing, boils, 199 breakthrough, 195, 197 calculations, controller, 193 diatomaceous earth, 191, 192 dual media filter, 193 filter aids, 192, 197, 200 gravity, 190, 191 head loss, 194, 195, 200 iron and manganese control, 260 media, 192, 193 mixed media filter, 193 mudballs, 197, 199 operation, 194 pathogen removal, 285 polymers, 192, 197, 200 precoat filters, 191 pressure, 191, 192, 194, 196, 197, 200 process, 190, 192 purpose, 192 rapid sand filters, 194 rate, 194, 199 rate-of-flow controller, 194 rinsing pressure filters, 198 sand, 190, 192 slow sand filters, 190, 192, (see also Slow sand filter) softening, surface wash, 194, 196 troubleshooting, 199 turbidity, 194 types, 190 underdrain, 191, 194, 196, 197, 233 waste backwash water, 197 Financial stability, 612 Fire blanket, uses, 505 classifications, 506 extinguisher, laboratory, 500, 505 protection costs, 597, 598, 605 First aid chlorine, 359 laboratory, 502 First-draw sampling, 577 Fixed costs, 588 Flag tree warning devices, traffic control, 455 Flagging, traffic control,

15 784 Index Flame-polished glass, 505 Flammable conditions, 402 Flammable or explosive materials used in laboratories, 500 Floc, 171 Flocculation mixing, 182 operation, process, 171, 182 short-circuiting, 183 troubleshooting, 183 Flow measurement, 169 Flow pattern, 304 Flowmeters, wells, Fluoride, 19 Flushing, mains, sand, 146 Foaming agents (MBAS), 20 Foot valve, wells, 76, 77, 80 Forecasting expenditures, 588 Formation consolidated, 62 unconsolidated, 57 Formazin Turbidity Units (FTU), 512 Formulas chlorination, 320, 336 disinfection, 320, 336 laboratory, chemicals, sampling, 571 Free available residual chlorine, 207, 292 Free chlorine, 207 Free residual chlorine, 523 Friction loss table, 120 Frozen chlorine, 330 FTU. See Formazin Turbidity Units (FTU) Fuel, safety, 418 Fusible plugs, 314, 315 G Gang stirrer, 174, 175 Garnet, 193 Gases, safety, 399 Geologic data, 38 Geological log, 13 Giardia lamblia, 19, 209, 228, 229, 237, 247, 248, 281, 282, 300, 377 Giardiasis, 6, 203, 233, 247, 280, 538 Glasses, safety, 501 Glassware, laboratory, , 542 Grab sample, 573, 575 Gravel-envelope wells, 56, 66, 70, 74 Gravel-packed wells, 57, 66 Gravity filters, 190, 191 Greensand, 260 Grounds, maintenance, 271 Groundwater advantages, 32 aquifers, 32, 33 hydrologic cycle, 33, 34 importance, 40 movement, 32 origin, 32 overdraft, 35 pollution, 32, 37, 38 porosity, 34 protection, 39 recharge, 9 recordkeeping, 38 safety, 49 sampling, 570 soil moisture, 32 source, 7, 8, 13 specific yield, 34 transmissivity, 34 treatment, wells, 8, 32 yield, 34, 144 zone of saturation, 7, 33 Grout seal, wells, Guards, safety, 414 H Halliburton grout method, 70 Handling and lifting, 405 Hands-only CPR, 359 Hardness test, Hardness treatment, 173 Hard-rock wells, 56, 66 Hazardous materials disposal, 504, 505 laboratory, Hazardous wastes, 3 Hazards chlorination, 355 safety, 271, 392 Head, 108, 111 Head loss, filtration, 194, 195, 200 Health hazards disease, 6 groundwater recharge, 9 laboratory, 500 Hearing protection, 473 Heat, disinfection, 286 Hepatitis, 6, 280 Heterotrophic bacteria, 19, 282, 294 High resolution redox (HRR), 354 High service pumps, 171 High Test Hypochlorite (HTH), 290 High-level flag tree warning devices, traffic control, 454, 455 High-rate settlers, 186 High-velocity jetting, wells, Holding time, sampling, 577, 578 Homeland defense, HRR (high resolution redox), 354 HTH (High Test Hypochlorite), 290 Hydraulic gradient, 51 Hydraulic rotary drilling, wells, 60, Hydrogen sulfide, 400 chlorine reaction with, 289 Hydrogeologist, 35 Hydrologic (water) cycle, 5, 32 Hydrologic data, 38 Hydropneumatic tanks, wells, 81, 83, Hydrostatic pressure, 64 Hygiene, laboratory, 501 Hypochlorinators, , 318. See also Chlorination maintenance, operation, troubleshooting, 322 Hypochlorite calcium hypochlorite, 290 calculation example, 382 disinfection, 290 HTH (High Test Hypochlorite), 290 hypochlorous acid, 288, 290, 293, 523 ion, 288 reactions with water, safety, 359 sodium hypochlorite, 291 Hypochlorous acid, 288, 290, 293, 523 I Ice, chlorine, 330 IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health), 344 IESWTR. See Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH), 344 Impermeable, 6 Incident commander, 627 Incrustation, well screens, Indicators, 510 Industrial facilities, wells, 52 Inflation, 589 Injection point, chlorine, 299, 300 Injector, chlorine, 305, 307, 310, 331, 338 Injector water supply, 310 Injuries, safety, 393 Inlets, Inorganic chemicals, 16, 19 compounds, 487 matter, 284 In-plant sampling, 570 Inspection ladders, 466 maintenance, 227 safety, 413, safety report form, 475 Installation chlorination equipment, 305, 343 Instrument calibration, 493, 511 Instrument-based water quality tests, Intake, wells, Intake structures, multilevel, 7

16 Index 785 Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR), 281 Inventory records, 618 Investor-owned utilities, 596 Iodine, 204 Iodine, disinfection, 286 Ion, 487 Ion exchange, Iron, 20 Iron and manganese aeration, 260 chlorine, 260 control, 259 dechlorination, 260 filtration, 260 greensand, 260 ion exchange, 260 objections, 259 polyphosphates, 260 potassium permanganate, 260 superchlorination, 260 Iron and manganese control chlorine dioxide, 292 SMCL (secondary maximum contaminant level), 20 Irrigation runoff, 2, 12 Irrigation water, 8 J Jar test, 174, 175, 224, 226, 261 alkalinity monitoring, 532 apparatus, 529, 530 coagulation/flocculation, jar shape, selecting, 529 polymer and coagulant aid dosages, 531 procedure, 529, 531 Jet pumps, 59, 110 Jetting, well screens, Jobs, knowledge and skills needed, 22 Joint, mechanical, 55 K Kemmerer depth sampler, 576 Kinetic energy, 83 L Lab results, reporting, 577 Labeling sample container, 503, 577 Laboratory. See also Laboratory equipment; Laboratory glassware; Laboratory procedures; Laboratory safety chlorination, 337, 353 disinfection, 332, 353 jar test, 529 metric system units, Laboratory equipment autoclave, 492 colorimeter, glassware (see Laboratory glassware) ph meter, 510 turbidimeter, 513 turbidity meter, 513 Laboratory glassware culture tube, 489 meniscus, 492, 493 pipets, test tubes, 489 Laboratory procedures accident prevention, acid titration curve, 516 additional resources, 484, 509, 510, 520, 528, 538, 557, 562, 564 additional test methods, 568 alkalinity test, bacterial cultures, 539 basic concepts, biological tests, calibration, 493, 511 chain-of-custody protocol, 577 chemical burns, 505 chemical names, chemical solutions, chemical storage and movement, chlorine demand test, chlorine residual test, coliform bacteria, 538 Colilert method, 541, 566 corrosive materials, 501 data recording, 498 enzyme substrate tests, equipment, (see also Laboratory equipment) erratic laboratory results, 511 error sources, 569 Escherichia coli, 563, 564 fecal coliform, 538 fire extinguisher, formulas, glassware, (see also Laboratory glassware) hardness test, hazardous materials, 500 hazards in laboratory, identification strategies, testing, 540 instrument-based tests, jar test, 529 labeling chemicals, liquid media sterilization, 543 math assignment, 579 media, 540 media preparation and storage, membrane filter, 541 membrane filter (MF) method, membrane filter method-e. coli, membrane filter procedure modifications, meniscus, 492, 493 metric system, microbial testing material, most probable number (MPN) procedure, MPN Index, 551, 555 MPN (most probable number) procedure, 540, multiple tube fermentation, 540, notebooks, 498 ph test, plant process tests, Presence Absence (P A) Method, 541, quality control, 499 recordkeeping, 498 reference-type sample, 499 reporting lab results, safety, sampling, (see also Sampling) devices, 574 techniques, solutions, 493, 495 standardized solutions, 516 techniques, , 503 temperature test, 507 test methods, overview, , 568 thermometer types, titrations, total coliform bacteria testing, toxic fumes, 505 turbidity test, turbidity units (TU) and measures, 512 using glassware, waste disposal, 505 water quality tests, worksheets, laboratory, 498, 499 Laboratory safety accident prevention, 502, 504 acids, 501 additional resources, 506 bases, 501 bruises, 500 burns, 500, 505 caustics, 501 chemical storage, 502 corrosive materials, 501 cuts, 500, 504 electric shock, 500, 504 explosions, 500, 501 fires, 500, first aid, 502 flammable materials, 501 glasses, safety, hazardous materials, hazards, 500 hygiene, mercury, 503 movement of chemicals, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 500 personal safety,

17 786 Index Laboratory safety (continued) prevention of accidents, 502, 504 protective clothing, 502 shock, 500, 504 techniques, 503 toxic materials, 500, 501, 505 Laboratory tests, 337 Ladders, safety, 462, Lakes. See also Reservoirs sources of water, 6 7 Land subsidence, 8 Langelier Index (LI), 219 Lauryl tryptose broth, 540 Laws, drinking water, Layout, small plants, 256 Lead, 19 Lead and Copper Rule first-draw sampling, 577 Leaks, chlorine, 316, 323, 332, , 357 LEL (lower explosive limit), 399, 402 LES endo agar, 540 chlorine tanks, 314, 315 Lifting, safety, 273, 405 Lighting devices, traffic control, 458 Lime, corrosion control, 219 Limits on water, 2 Lindane, 19 Liquid media sterilization, 543 Location, chlorination equipment, 343 Location, wells, 49 Lockout/tagout procedure, Log removals, 248 Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2ESWTR), 283 Lower explosive limit (LEL), 399, 402 Lubricants, safety, 418 Lubricating oils, 114 M Mains disinfection, 305 water flushing, 146 Maintenance chlorination, 322, 339, 357 chlorinators, 209 chlorine dioxide, 350 equipment, 23 grounds, 271 hypochlorinators, 214 inspections, 271 ozone, 375 plant grounds, 271 safety, 392 slow sand filters, 245 small plants, 168 solids-contact clarification units, 227 tools, 272 ultraviolet (UV) systems, wells, Manganese, 20 Manifold, 91, 313, 344 Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD), 419 Manual sampling, 574 Marble test, 264 Mass concentration, 495 Math assignment chlorination, 385 disinfection, 385 laboratory procedures, 579 safety, 273 wells, 160 Maximum contaminant level (MCL), 17, 18, 281 MBAS (foaming agents), 20 MCL (maximum contaminant level), 17, 18, 281 m-coliblue24 Test, 539, 568 Mechanical joint, 55 Media filtration, 190, 191 preparation and storage, Meg, 142 Membrane filter counting colonies, 562 innoculation, 558 need, 541, 549 Membrane filter (MF) method, 539, Membrane filter method E. coli (EPA Method), 539, , Membrane filter procedures modifications, Meniscus, 492, 493 Mercury, 19, 362, 371, 503 Mesh, 81 Meter equivalents, 606 Metering, chlorine, 310, 323, 325, 334 Methoxychlor, 19 Metric system, , Microbes, 540 Microbial standards, 19, 281, 282 Microbial testing, materials, 542 Microorganisms, 204, 284 Mixed media filter, 193 Mixed-oxidant disinfection, 377 Mixing chlorine, 299 coagulation, 174, 176 disinfection, 205 flocculation, 182 Mole, 496 control systems, 484 disinfection, 280, 282 Monitoring, water quality changes, 106 slow sand filters, 228 wells, 99, 106 Monitoring equipment, safety, 398, 399 Monochloramine, 293, 523 Most Probable Number (MPN) procedure, 539, 540, Motor starters, pumps, 135 Motors, pumps, 127 Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, 359 Movement, groundwater, 32 Moving parts, safety, 414 MPN Index, 551, 555 MPN (most probable number) procedure, 539, 540, Mudballs, 197, 199 Multilevel, 7 Multiple tube fermentation, 540 Multiple Tube Fermentation Method (MPN Procedure), 539, 540, Multiple-block rate structure, 605 Multistage pumps, 109 MUTCD (Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices), 446 N Nameplate, 143 Negligence, safety, 392 Nephelometer, 512 Nephelometric method, 512 Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU), 512 Nitrate, MCL (maximum contaminant level), 19 Nitrification, Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, 296 Noise, 471 Noise exposure, safety, Noncommunity water system, 21 Non-permit-required confined space, 469 Nontransient noncommunity water system, 21 Normal conditions, chlorination, 303, 305, 313, 318, 327 Notebooks, lab, 498 NTU. See Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU) O Objective, water treatment, 10 Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSH Act of 1970), 439, 500 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 500 Odor, 12, 16 Odor control. See Taste and odor control Odor threshold, 20 Oil-lubricated pumps, 110, 112, 114, 131 O&M. See Operation and maintenance (O&M) On-site chlorine generation, 291 Operating expenses, 612, 613 Operating pressure differential, 89 Operating ratio, 612