Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy for the South Asian Seas Region: Living in Harmony with our Oceans and Coasts

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1 Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy for the South Asian Seas Region: Living in Harmony with our Oceans and Coasts First Order Draft (Amended)- Based on the findings of Thematic Desk Review Reports and the Technical Consultative Workshop in Colombo, Sri Lanka during 8-10 July 2014 and the comments received from workshop participants Version 30th December

2 Preface South Asia s marine and coastal ecosystems are of paramount importance for the social and economic wellbeing of the region, with activities such as fishing, shrimp farming, tourism and shipping contributing to income, food security and the livelihoods of millions of people, many of which are poor. Yet, despite their immense importance, these ecosystems are being rapidly degraded, due to unsustainable development, overpopulation of coastal areas, overexploitation of resources, land-based pollution and habitat modification and destruction. Climate change is likely exacerbate these negative impacts. An urgent regional response is needed to restore and maintain healthy coastal and marine habitats and species, ensuring coastal protection and the provision of ecosystem services. Of all the initiatives that have been launched at national at international levels with the aim of addressing these issues, the most relevant for our region is the South Asian Seas Action Plan (SASAP), which was developed under the umbrella of the UNEP Regional Seas Programme and adopted in 1995 by the five South Asian maritime countries, Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The objective of SASAP is to protect and manage the marine environment and related coastal ecosystems of the South Asian Seas (SAS) region, through the promotion of sustainable development. The SASAP emphasizes the need for establishing a regional cooperative network of activities concerning concrete subjects of mutual interest for the whole region. It is within this spirit of cooperation and commitment to sustainable development that this document, the Regional Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy (MCBS) for the South Asian Seas Region, has been framed. The aim of the MCBS is to address the issues threatening marine biodiversity, by supporting the achievement of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in marine and coastal habitats through strengthening implementation of and coherence of actions under National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP) for period. The development of the MCBS was approved by the South Asian Sea s (SAS) Inter-ministerial Meeting in This First Order Draft of the Regional Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy provides initial identification of Regional Targets and Action Plans for the SAS region, prepared based on thematic desk review studies conducted during 2013/2014 and a regional technical workshop held in Colombo in July This document was then shared amongst the workshop participants for comments and the amended FOD is being circulated for further enhancement of the document prior to a second regional workshop tentatively planned during the second quarter of The final strategy will be presented to the 2015 SAS Inter-ministerial Meeting for Endorsement. The document is divided in three main sections. Part I, A Common Vision for the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity of the SAS Region, provides an introduction to the SAS region, presenting the Vision and Mission of the Strategy, and the Rationale for the Regional Strategy. Part II, Marine and Coastal Biodiversity in South Asian Seas; Status, Trends and Threats provides background information on each of the six thematic areas of the Strategy, including key conclusions and recommendations related to the Aichi Targets that are relevant to marine and coastal biodiversity. Part III, The Way Forward, provides the Framework for Action of the Strategy, including the main Regional Targets, Action Plan, Communication and Monitoring and Evaluation Strategies, Financing and Partnership possibilities. 2

3 The First Order Draft Regional Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy Request for Comments This document needs your feedback. Please send your comments to: SACEP: Mr Pulakesh Mondal: UNEP: Ms. Angela Lentisco: Deadline for receiving comments is 20th July 2015 After this deadline, comments will be incorporated, and the revised FOD will be presented at a second workshop during 2015 for completion. The finalized document will be then presented for endorsement at the 2015 SAS Inter-Ministerial Meeting. Please provide comments in any of the following areas: Content - Any errors contained in the text - Comments and suggestions in relation to targets and the implementation framework, including priority actions towards achieving targets - Reference to additional information that should be incorporated - Identification of organizations or other entities of relevance - Text that is confusing or could lead to misunderstandings - Any other comments related to the content of the document. Format, Style and Layout - The language style used, if it should be more or less technical. - If the text should be in first (plural) or third person - If paragraphs should be numbered or not - The length of the text and level of detail - Style of Headings and Page numbers - Style of the boxes - Any other comments related to the Format, Style or Layout. Guidelines for sending comments - Please use track changes mode when making corrections in this document - If sending comments in a separate document, please include page and paragraph number IMPORTANT: If you have little time to review, please focus on Part III of the report, which contains the Regional Targets, Action Plan, Communication and Monitoring and Evaluation Strategies, Financing and Partnership possibilities. Thank you! 3

4 Acknowledgments The contributions made by the participants and presenters at the Colombo workshop July 8 th to the 10 th 2014 are gratefully acknowledged. In particular, we are thankful for the active participation by the representatives of SACEP maritime member countries: Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. We thank Dr. Indumathie Hewawasam, Marine Policy Specialist, who was fundamental in facilitating the workshop and preparing the first version of the First Order Draft of the Strategy. We also thank representatives of regional organizations, including Wenxi Zhu, Head, Regional Office for the Western Pacific (WESTPAC), UNESCO, Dr. Y.S. Yadava, Bay of Bengal Program, Inter-governmental Organization, Mr. Arjan Rajasuriya, Project Manager, Marine & Coastal Thematic Area, IUCN, Sri Lanka, Ms. Cristi Marie Nazawa, Regional Director, BirdLife International (Asia), Mr. Douglas Hykle, Coordinator /Senior CMS Advisor, IOSEA Marine Turtle MoU Secretariat,, Dr. SOMBOON Siriraksophon, Policy and Progam Coordinator, SEAFDEC Secretariat, Bangkok, Thailand, Dr. Somkiat Khokiattiwong, (BOBLME NSC), Thailand, CBD and CITES Secretariats, Ibrahim Naeem, Director/SAARC CZMC, Ms. Ramya Rajagopalan, International Collective in Support of Fishworkers, Dr. Sevvandi Jayakody, Department of Aquaculture & Fisheries Wayamba University of Sri Lanka and Ms Anouk Illangakoon, Researcher on Marine Mammals. The financial support for this process provided by UNEP and by BOBLME Project towards the Colombo workshop is acknowledged. 4

5 Acronyms APFIC BOBLME CBD CCRF CEPF CFA CITES CMS CTF DIF EAF ECA EEAFM FAO FCPF FOD GCRMN GDP GEF GOI IAS IBA ICCA ICM IGO IOSEA ITFPA IUCN IUU KBA MAR MCPA MCS MEE METT MMAP MOEF MOU MPA M&E NBSAP Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Convention on Biodiversity FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund Conservation Finance Alliance Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals Conservation Trust Fund Draft Implementation Framework Ecosystem approach to Fisheries Ecological Critical areas Ecosystem approach to fisheries management Food and Agriculture Organization Forest Carbon Partnership Facility First Order Draft Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network Gross Domestic Product Global Environmental Facility Government of India Invasive Alien Species Important Bird Area Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas Integrated Coastal Management Intergovernmental Organization Indian Ocean and South East Asia International Trust Fund for Protected Areas International Union for Conservation of Nature Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated fishing Key Biodiversity Areas MesoAmerican Reef Fund Marine and Coastal Protected Area Monitoring, Control and Surveillance Management Effectiveness Evaluation Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool Global Plan of Action for the Conservation, Management and Utilization of Marine Mammals Ministry of Environment and Forestry Memorandum of Understanding Marine Protected Area Monitoring and Evaluation National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plan 5

6 NGO RAMSAR REDD SACRTF SAP SAS SASAP SIDS UN UNCLOS UNDP UNEP UNESCO WDCS WESTPAC WWF Non-governmental Organization The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, called the Ramsar Convention Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation South Asia Coral Reef Task Force Strategic Action Plan South Asian Seas South Asian Seas Action Plan Small Island Developing states United Nations United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea United Nations Development Programme United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Whales and Dolphins Conservation Society Western Pacific Worldwide Fund for Nature 6

7 Contents Preface... 2 Acknowledgments... 4 Acronyms... 5 Executive Summary PART I: A Common Vision for the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity of the South Asian Seas Region Introduction to the South Asian Seas Region Rationale for a Regional Strategy Background and Process for Developing the Strategy Expected timeline: Part II: Marine and Coastal Biodiversity in South Asian Seas; Status, Trends and Threats Ensuring Ecosystem Services and Human Wellbeing Overview of the Current Status of marine and coastal ecosystems and their importance to human well-being in South Asia Ongoing Initiatives for the Protection of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems Conclusions and Recommendations Preventing Species Extinction Dimming the Red Light Species of Conservation Concern and the major threats for their survival Opportunities and constraints in preventing species extinction Conclusions and Recommendations Combating Marine and Coastal Invasive Alien Species Main Entry Pathways of Marine and Coastal Invasive Species (IAS) in SAS Current Status and Recommended Actions for Mitigate the Threats of IAS Conclusions and Recommendations Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture for the SAS region Main fisheries and aquaculture impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity Existing Strategic Actions - Policy, Legislative and Institutional Responses to Issues in the Fisheries and Aquaculture Sector in the South Asian Seas (SAS) Conclusions and Recommendations Clean and productive waters: Prevention of Marine Pollution, especially through Excessive Nutrients Main Sources of Nutrient loading and their negative effects

8 5.2. Existing strategic actions (national and regional levels) Conclusion and Recommendations Ecologically representative and Effectively Managed MCP Network - Protecting biodiversity today for our future wellbeing Main MPA areas in SAS, Levels of protection and Challenges in Enforcement Regional and Global Initiatives Conclusions and Recommendations PART III: The Way Forward - Framework for Action in addressing the Aichi targets within the context of the South Asian Seas Region Vision, Regional Targets and the Implementation Framework for the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy for SAS region SAS Vision Statement for 2020 and Beyond Regional Targets Ensuring Ecosystem Services and Wellbeing Prevention of Species Extinction Control of Alien Invasive Species Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture Prevention of Marine Pollution Effective and Equitable Governance of Marine and Coastal Protected Areas Regional Cross-cutting Actions Enabling the Implementation of the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy SACEP s role implementing the Strategy and coordinating regional collaboration Communicating the strategy Conservation Finance: Options for financing Strategy implementation Partnerships Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) Implementation and Monitoring Framework ANNEXES Annex 1: The international obligations of the SAS countries (National level participation of Conventions, Initiatives and other process - as of 10 th September 2014) Annex 2: Government and international organizations in SA supporting conservation, management and sustainable use of marine and coastal resources Annex 3: National Legal framework for coastal and marine biodiversity conservation

9 Annex 4: Species of Conservation Concern Recorded from the Coastal and Marine Ecosystems of South Asia Annex 5a: Important Bird Areas (IBAs) located within the coastal zone Annex 5b: Percentage of Threatened Migratory birds by region Annex 6: Recorded nesting and feeding habitats of the Marine Turtles Annex 7: Existing Policy and Strategic Actions at the National Level Annex 8: IAS Current Status in SAS nations and Recommended Actions for Mitigation Annex 9: Hilsa shad and Indian Mackerel - Ecosystem-based fisheries issues in the Bay of Bengal. 88 Annex 10: Legal framework PA establishment in the region Annex 11: Marine Protected Areas - Actions at National Level REFERENCES List of Boxes Box 1 - Importance of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Box 2 - Globally Threatened Species in SAS region Box 3 - Irrawaddy Dolphin population in Bangladesh Box 4 - Introduction of American White Shrimp Lessons Learned Box 5 Increase in Fleet Size Box 6 Main Facts on Marine Pollution in SAS Box 7 - Prominent Categories of MPAs Box 8 Main facts on MPAs in SAS List of Figures Figure 1 The South Asian Seas Region Figure 2 Impact of blast fishing Figure 3 Pathways of entering nutrients and pollutants in coastal and marine environment List of Tables Table 1.1: The South Asian Seas Region in Numbers Table 2.1: Status of Coral reef of South Asia Table 2.2: Globally recognized coral reef areas of the region Table 2.3: A summary of Species of global concern, recorded from Coastal and marine habits of South Asia Table 2.4: Major threats to the survival of marine turtles in South Asia Table 2.5: Trends and catch composition by country Table 3.1: Thematic areas of the Marine and Costal Biodiversity Strategy Table 3.2: Implementation and Monitoring framework 9

10 Executive Summary The South Asian Seas (SAS) region s 12,000 km long coastline and the large marine area harbors some of the most extensive and diverse tropical marine ecosystems in the world. The five maritime countries in the SAS region, Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, host rich biodiversity in coastal and marine ecosystems, including mangroves, coastal wetlands, seagrass meadows, coral reefs and sand dunes. However, these ecosystems are facing serious threats, due to marine pollution, coastal development, unsustainable use of ecosystem services, among other issues including climate change. While there are a number of national, regional and international instruments for addressing these challenges, the underlying drivers (e.g. increasing coastal population density and urbanization, increasing per capita consumption, lack of awareness across all levels of society, low per capita GDP, widespread poverty, etc.), pose serious obstacles towards achieving desirable results sustaining coastal and marine ecosystems and their biodiversity. In order to effectively address the magnitude of these issues, a regional approach to coordinate national interventions is urgently required. In response to this need, the South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP), which acts as the Secretariat for the South Asian Seas Programme, in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the five SAS countries and other partners, are developing a Regional Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy (MCBS) for the South Asian Seas Region. The development of the MCBS was approved by the 5 th Inter-Ministerial Meeting of the South Asian Seas Programme held in Islamabad, Pakistan, on 5th December 2013, and is in line with the Strategic Action Plan for Biodiversity adopted in October 2010 by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Part I of this document, A Common Vision for the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity of the South Asian Seas Region, provides background information and the Rational for the MCBS. The aim of the MCBS is to provide a framework for coordination and collaboration between countries National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans (NBSAPs), enhancing national and regional interventions for the achievement of the Aichi Biodiversity targets, particularly those addressing coastal and marine issues relevant to the region. The initial step in the process was the development of thematic studies based on desk reviews to identify issues, gaps and needs, and other relevant ongoing national and regional processes. These thematic studies were carried out focusing on clusters of relevant Aichi targets: - Ensuring Ecosystem Services and Wellbeing (Aichi Target 5,10,14, and 15) - Prevention of Species Extinction (Aichi Target 12); - Control of Alien Invasive Species (Aichi Target 9) - Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture (Aichi Target 6 and 7) - Prevention of Marine Pollution (Aichi Target 8) - Effective and Equitable Governance of Marine and Coastal Protected Areas (Aichi Target 11). The findings of these studies provided the basis for a Zero Draft of the Regional MCBS, and are presented as Part II of this document, Marine and Coastal Biodiversity in South Asian Seas; Status, 10

11 Trends and Threats. The conclusions of these studies were presented for discussion at the consultative workshop held in Colombo 8-10 July The workshop, which involved a wide range of regional and national stakeholders, identified preliminary regional targets, goals and visions for the region, with recommendations for specific actions constituting the core of the strategy. Part III of this document, The Way Forward, provides a summary of the findings and agreements reached during the Colombo Workshop. The Vision of the MCBS agreed during the workshop was South Asian Seas countries share healthy marine and coastal ecosystems rich in biodiversity that will continue to provide ecosystem services for the wellbeing of the people, and social and economic development of the region. It was agreed that the Regional MCBS should draw on and promote application of an Ecosystem Approach for the design and implementation of the MCBS initiatives in the region. Other guiding principles underpinning the strategy include: Maintaining Healthy and Resilient Ecosystems, Government commitment at every level, Maintaining Healthy and Resilient Ecosystems, Recognition of the economic, social and cultural values of marine and coastal ecosystems, Adaptive management and learning by doing, Precautionary approach and risk analysis, Participatory and Inclusive, Commitment to Human Rights and Gender Equality and Building and Strengthening Partnerships. The MCBS has been developed around six Regional Targets (one for each thematic study), which are based on six main Goals for the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of marine and coastal ecosystems in the SAS region. A set of Regional Actions are being proposed for each target, along with Performance Indicators to measure progress, in addition to potential Partnerships that will support the implementation of the MCBS. [*Consideration: To include here the final version of the regional goals and targets] 11

12 PART I: A Common Vision for the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity of the South Asian Seas Region Introduction to the South Asian Seas Region The South Asian Seas (SAS) Region is comprised of the Northern Indian Ocean and incorporates the marine and coastal environments, including the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ), of Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The marine environment is physically divided by the Indian subcontinent into three distinctive areas: two large marine ecosystems - the Arabian Sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal in the east; and a large area of the open Indian Ocean to the south of India and Sri Lanka (Refer Fig 1). The estimated land cover of the five countries is around 4.3 million km 2, of which India constitutes about 75 percent (being the seventh largest country in the world). The combined Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the five countries accounts for 3.7 million km 2, and the declaration of 200 nautical miles EEZ have led to 300 fold increase in the jurisdictional area of Maldives, while Sri Lanka s EEZ is more than seven times larger than its terrestrial area (Table 1.1). The oceanic conditions of the region are dominated by the monsoons, evaporation and high runoff from the rivers entering the coastal areas. Shallow accreting coastlines, with deltas and coastal lagoons, dominate in Bangladesh, parts of India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, while the Maldives and the island chains belonging to India (Lakshwadweep, Andamans and Nicobars) are archipelagic. The coastline of Bangladesh is particularly low-lying, and is unique in the region in that the influence of the sea is felt for a long distance inland. The Maldives and Laccadives are composed entirely of atolls, with reefs and sandy islands, and form the Laccadive-Chagos chain that extends southward from India to the central Indian Ocean (Brown, 1997, Wells et al, 1995 and Pernetta 1993). Figure 1: The South Asian Seas Region The SAS coastline, together with an extensive system of river deltas, estuaries and open ocean waters, supports some of the richest concentrations of biodiversity in the world, with coastal and marine ecosystems such as mangroves, coastal wetlands, seagrass meadows, coral reefs and sand dunes. These ecosystems support the livelihoods and food security of millions of people and protect the scarce land resources from being depleted by storm surges, tsunamis and cyclones. Further economically valuable non-living resources like petroleum, natural gases and minerals are found within the EEZs of the countries and presently only few of these resources are being commercially exploited. These 12

13 waters are also habitat of healthy remaining populations of many globally threatened species such as whales and sea turtles. However, the five maritime countries of South Asia also share problems of increasing population pressures and resultant increasing demands on the coastal and marine resources, at a level which is almost unprecedented elsewhere in the world. The limited land area holds a population of over 1.6 billion people of which around 30% lives in poverty (Table 1.1), and alongside these coastal resources are some of the most densely populated cities in the world (Karachi, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta and Dhaka). The main drivers of environmental damage have been identified to be: land-based sources of pollution, including those derived from agriculture and urban activities, sea-based pollution, especially from oil and chemical spills, overfishing and unsustainable fishing, physical alteration and destruction of coastal habitats, infrastructure development, climate change and associated sea level rise and disasters (UNEP, 2010, BOBLME, 2014). A recently published report by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) stated that the changes in climatic events have significant impacts on coastal and marine resources in South Asia region through the alteration of ocean circulation, coral reef ecosystems, ocean and estuarine salinity, fisheries, and recreation and tourism activities. The effects also include dryland and wetland losses, which impose both physical and economic risks on coastal communities (Ahmed and Suphachalasai, 2014). The region needs to tackle all of these above issues, and it is in urgent need of Ecosystem Approaches that promote economic development while maintaining healthy marine and coastal environments, in a context of uncertainty due to climate change. Urgent actions are now required to restore fisheries that have collapsed, avoid continued fishing stocks which are already fully utilized, and to minimize the biological loss of other coastal and marine habitats. Managing and mitigating the threats to these resources cannot be adequately addressed unless governments and stakeholders collaborate and coordinate. In addition, most of these issues, like shared fish stocks and trans-boundary pollution, require regional decision-making for adequate planning of interventions, and so do the protection of shared ecosystems and migratory species. Table 1.1: The South Asian Seas Region in numbers Bangladesh India Maldives Pakistan Sri Lanka Total 1 Surface Land Area (000 km 2 ) , , Claimed Exclusive Economic Zone , ,716.2 Area (000 km 2 ) 3 Length of Coastline (km) 714 7, ,046 1,620 11,541 4 Total population 2013(millions) Total population 2030 (millions) , , Percentage of Population within km from the coast 4 UNDP Human Development Index Rank Population below U$ 1.25 per day (%) ( ) Sources: 1 CIA, 2014; 2 Burke et al, 2001; 3 CBD National Reports ; 4 UNDP, 2014; ,

14 Rationale for a Regional Strategy As seen above, the SAS region faces many environmental challenges resulting from inadequate management and other human induced impacts. As the region expands economically to cater for an increasing population, the limited resource base in SAS countries are being increasingly pressurized and some habitats and species are already threatened with total destruction or disappearance. In order to address this, the SAS governments are developing their policy, legislative and institutional capabilities, moving towards a more sustainable utilization of their coastal and marine resources. One of the most relevant instruments at the sub-regional level is the South Asian Seas Action Plan (SASAP), developed under the umbrella of UNEP Regional Seas Programme. Adopted in 1995 by the five maritime countries, the objective of the SASAP is to protect and manage the marine environment and related coastal ecosystems of the region through the promotion of sustainable use of the resources. This objective is achieved by: - Establishing and enhancing consultations and technical co-operation among region States - Emphasizing the economic and social importance of the resources of the marine and coastal environment; and - Establishing a regional co-operative network of activities concerning concrete subjects/projects of mutual interest for the whole region The Action Plan identified four priority areas where activities need to be developed and implemented: Integrated Coastal Zone Management; Development and Implementation of National and Regional Oil and Chemical Spill Contingency Planning; Human Resources Development through Strengthening Regional Centers of Excellence; and Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (SACEP, 1995). Although not yet per se a Regional Convention, SASAP follows existing global environmental and maritime international instruments, and considers the Law of the Sea as its umbrella convention. Other relevant strategic instruments which provide the rationale for the Regional Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy for SAS region include: - the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) to which all SAS nations are party to, urges regional organizations to consider the development or updating of regional biodiversity strategies, as appropriate, including agreeing on regional targets, as a means of complementing and supporting national actions and of contributing to the implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity : o In decision X/2, the tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), held in October 2010 at Nagoya adopted a revised and updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets 1, for the period and agreed to translate this overarching international framework into national biodiversity strategies and action plans. It was also recommend that Parties and other Governments, with the support of intergovernmental and other organizations, as appropriate, shall implement the Strategic Plan and promote the generation and use of scientific information, develop methodologies and initiatives to monitor status and trends of biodiversity and ecosystem services, share data, develop indicators and 1 The Aichi Biodiversity Targets are 20 goals that were incorporated in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) - Strategic Plan for Biodiversity , for providing a framework for action by all stakeholders to preserve biodiversity and enhance its benefits for the people. Find more here: 14

15 o o measures, and undertake regular and timely assessments. In this regard National and or regional Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) can be considered the principal instruments for implementing the CBD. Further under decision X/29, the 10 th COP urged Parties and other Governments to achieve long-term conservation, management and sustainable use of marine resources and coastal habitats, and to effectively manage marine protected areas, in accordance with international law, including the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, in order to safeguard marine and coastal biodiversity and marine ecosystem services, and sustainable livelihoods, and to adapt to climate change, through appropriate application of the precautionary approach and ecosystem approaches, including the use of available tools such as integrated river basin and integrated coastal zone management, marine spatial planning, and impact assessments. At the recently concluded COP 11, yet again SAS Government affirmed the importance of implementing the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity and achieving the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Further they recognized the potential for enhanced cooperation at the regional and sub-regional levels among developing countries (South-South cooperation) and between developed and developing countries (North-South and triangular cooperation), consistent with the Convention, and, it was noted the potential role of national, regional and international organizations and the private sector in facilitating technical and scientific cooperation. - UNEP s Regional Seas Program (RSP), to which the South Asia Programme is a partner, urges members, through the Regional Seas Strategic Directions ( ) to effectively apply an Ecosystem Approach in the management of the marine and coastal environment, contribute to the implementation of the Manila Declaration of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from land Based Activities (GPA), in particular the partnerships on wastewater management, nutrients and marine litter, strengthen capacities at the regional and national levels on marine and coastal governance, support the provision of tools to decouple economic growth from environmental pressures in the marine and coastal environment by promoting resource efficiency and productivity, strengthen coordination and build capacity to improve global knowledge and trends on the status of the marine environment, and strengthen collaboration mechanisms with relevant Multilateral Environmental Agreements, UN Agencies and International Financial Institutions. - UNEP Marine and Coastal Strategy (2009) emphasized four guiding objectives: land-ocean connections; ecosystems for humanity; reconciling use and conservation; and vulnerable people and places. - The Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) Strategic Action Plan (SAP) (2014) emphasizes the importance of healthy ecosystems for food security and economic development, and identified areas for regional action to address the pressure on marine resources. The SAP will provide a coordination mechanism for engagement of the member countries, underpinning sustainable economic development, and showing commitment to action by meeting global expectations, realizing that doing nothing is not an option. All of the SAS nations, except Pakistan, are members of the BOBLME project, and both processes should work in cooperation to achieve their expected outcomes, avoiding replication, and building synergies. - The outcome document of the RIO+20 titled The Future we want recognizes that oceans, seas and coastal areas form an integrated and essential component of the Earth s ecosystem and are critical to sustaining it. Further, it stated commitment to protect and restore the health, productivity and resilience of oceans and marine ecosystems, and to maintain their biodiversity, enabling their conservation and sustainable use for present and future generations, and to 15

16 effectively apply an ecosystem approach and the precautionary approach for the management, in accordance with international law, of activities having an impact on the marine environment, to deliver on all three dimensions of sustainable development. Background and Process for Developing the Strategy In line with the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity of the CBD, SACEP and UNEP jointly initiated a process in 2013 to develop a Regional Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy for the South Asian Seas Region, with the objective of supporting South Asian countries in achieving Aichi Biodiversity targets for the period. Acknowledging that all of the Aichi targets (see above) are relevant for the success of the Regional Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy, the focus of the Strategy is to bring a regional perspective to the targets which are more relevant to marine and coastal biodiversity. These are Targets 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, and 15. The Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy (MCBS) for South Asia Seas region is being formulated as a part and parcel of the ongoing process of preparing National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) as well as other regional and global initiatives targeting the five maritime countries of South Asia: Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. This process received support through the endorsement by the SAS countries at the 5th Inter-Ministerial Meeting of the South Asian Seas Programme (5 IMM-SASP) held in Islamabad, Pakistan on 5th December As a first step in the Strategy development process, a desk review was undertaken to prepare a knowledge base, identify gaps and needs, document relevant national and regional processes and identify how the proposed strategy can complement the NBSAPs process with respect to achieving the Aichi targets relevant to marine and coastal biodiversity conservation. For the desk review purpose, the Aichi targets were grouped in to six distinctive thematic areas as indicated in Table 3.1. A summary of the findings of the Background Documents are presented in Part II of this document. Table 3.1: Thematic areas of the Marine and Costal Biodiversity Strategy Thematic Area Aichi Biodiversity Targets 1. Ensuring Ecosystem Services and Wellbeing Main Issues Addressed Extent and distribution of major habitats, ecosystem servicers provided by them and their importance to human wellbeing; them major causes of habitat destruction and ongoing national, regional and global process addressing these issues 2. Prevention of Species Extinction 3. Control of Alien Invasive Species 4. Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture 5. Prevention of Marine Pollution List of currently threatened species and their distribution; major threats faced and the conservation action taken to safeguard them; The existing alien invasive species, their pathways of introduction and the harm they do; the existing programmes to address the issue Types and extent of fishery, invertebrates and aquatic plants harvested and the techniques used to harvest them; Opportunities and constrains for mitigating overexploitation of the resources What are the main type pollution and how they affect coastal and marine systems; the actions that are in place to address the problem 16

17 6. Effective and Equitable Governance of Marine and Coastal Protected Areas The current extent of Marine and coastal protected areas and how effective they are in protecting species and habitats; The areas of importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services that are not currently protected and the opportunities and constraints to expanding protected areas Additionally, there are two Aichi targets that are considered cross-cutting and necessary for the implementation of the Strategy are also covered within the Framework for regional action. These are Target 3 and Target 20: - Target 3: By 2020, at the latest, incentives, including subsidies, harmful to biodiversity are eliminated, phased out or reformed in order to minimize or avoid negative impacts, and positive incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are developed and applied, consistent and in harmony with the Convention and other relevant international obligations, taking into account national socio economic conditions. - Target 20: By 2020, at the latest, the mobilization of financial resources for effectively implementing the Strategic Plan for Marine and Coastal Biodiversity will increase to a level 30% higher than the current level. This target will be subject to changes contingent to resource needs assessments to be developed and reported by Parties. Based on the findings of the desk reviews on each thematic area, a Zero Draft of the MCBS was prepared by a leading consultant. A three-day regional workshop was then held from 8-10th July 2014, where 52 representatives from the South Asian Seas countries and partner organizations working on marine and coastal biodiversity issues. Participants agreed on practical targets for the region based on current status, threats and policy and institutional measures already in place and the potential to implement within a reasonable time frame, suggested indicators to monitor the targets; and regional actions to be included in the Regional Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy. The workshop findings enabled the preparation of a First Order Draft of the MCBS; including Regional Targets, Implementation and Monitoring Framework, in addition to potential partnerships, coordination and communication mechanisms among the partners, legislative or institutional reforms required and financial mechanisms to support implementation. These outputs will be finalized pursuant to a consultation period, and will then be concluded at a second regional workshop, prior to being presented for endorsement at the Inter-ministerial meeting in 2015.The Strategy will ultimately promote an Ecosystem Approach for protecting marine and coastal biodiversity and safeguarding ecosystem services, promoting intersectoral coordination and exploring impacts of economically important activities (e.g. fisheries and tourism) on the region s marine and coastal habitats and resources. The Strategy should be used as a framework for coordination and collaboration of the different initiatives taking place in the SAS region, avoiding duplication of efforts and wherever possible, focusing on amplifying the positive effects of ongoing interventions. Expected timeline: - First Order Draft - Open for comments: 30 January Second Workshop for discussion: March/April Final Version of the Strategy: May Presented for Endorsement: IMM Entry into force:

18 Part II: Marine and Coastal Biodiversity in South Asian Seas; Status, Trends and Threats [*Consideration: It is recommended that the length of this section (Part 2) should be reduced. The content can be moved to an Annex OR published in a technical document accompanying the Strategy] According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), biodiversity is the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part. This includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. The Convention also notes: Oceans cover 70% of the planet s surface area, and marine and coastal environments contain diverse habitats that support an abundance of marine life. Life in our seas produces a third of the oxygen that we breathe, offers a valuable source of protein and moderates global climatic change. (CBD XI Conference of Parties, 2012) This tremendous wealth of biodiversity and ecosystem services provided by coastal and marine systems are not infinite. According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, the world s oceans and coasts are highly threatened and subject to rapid environmental change. Human activities are greatly threatening the seas and coasts through overfishing, destructive fishing practices, pollution and waste disposal, agricultural runoff, invasive alien species, and habitat destruction due to uncontrolled development. Global climate change will exacerbate these problems. Sea levels will rise, water temperature will increase, oceans will acidify, and there will be more storms and natural disasters. Major root causes underlying these issues include population growth and changing demographics, increased production to meet increasing demand for exports, a growing and diversifying industrial sector, undervaluing environmental goods and services provided by the coastal and near-shore marine ecosystems, weak and/or inappropriate policies and strategies, lack of capacity and incentives to enforce regulatory frameworks, inadequate education and awareness of the values of marine and coastal resources, insufficient budgetary commitments, lack of community stakeholder consultation and empowerment and widespread poverty in coastal areas in many countries in the region (BOBLME, 2012). While countries recognize these issues and their negative impacts on the livelihoods of its people, they are challenged to address the underlying causal factors, even though they have demonstrated significant levels of commitment to address many of the aforementioned problems, both in terms of national actions as well as through their participation in a number of international conventions that address these issues. Annex 1 outlines the international obligations of the SAS countries, and Annex 2 describes the main organizations working on the conservation of coastal and marine ecosystems. Countries also require regional action to support national interventions, especially for resources that, due to their trans-boundary nature, need to be managed regionally. 18

19 The following sections provide an account on above issues from the findings of desk reviews undertaken on the six main thematic areas of the Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Strategy. 1. Ensuring Ecosystem Services and Human Wellbeing Box 1: Global Importance of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems in SAS 6.8% of the global mangrove forests 6% of the global coral reefs Two of the world largest estuaries (the Ganges and the Indus) Six of the Global 200 Ecosystems (Sudarbans, Indus delta, Rann of Kutch Flooded Grasslands, Maldives, Chagos, Lakshadweep Atolls, Arabian sea and the Andaman sea) Marine and coastal ecosystems provide supporting services in the form of a wide range of habitats. Estuaries, mangroves, lagoons, and seagrasses, serve as nurseries for both inshore and offshore fish and other species, many of which are commercially significant. Other habitats such as beaches, dunes, saltmarshes, estuaries, and mudflats are important during the life cycles of fish, shellfish, and migratory birds. Marine and coastal ecosystems also play important roles due to photosynthesis and productivity through primary production by phytoplankton, and mixing nutrients from upstream and tidal sources, with estuaries being one of the most fertile coastal environments (UNEP, 2006). In the aftermath of the devastation caused by the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004, awareness that there is an inextricable link between the status of coastal ecosystems and the vulnerability of coastal inhabitants to natural disasters was brought forcefully to the forefront, bringing to light the direct correlation between the health of coastal ecosystems and the degree of shoreline protection provided (Kallesøe et al, 2008). The following section provides baseline information on the status of the marine and coastal habitats and strategies that are being adopted by South Asian countries through national and regional processes to address the Aichi targets 5, 10, 14 and Overview of the Current Status of marine and coastal ecosystems and their importance to human well-being in South Asia The major marine and coastal habitats in the region are mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass meadows, coastal wetlands including estuaries and lagoons, sandy beaches and sand dunes (Refer Box 1). The distribution of these habitats varies throughout South Asia with the largest contiguous mangroves in the world between India and Bangladesh, while Maldives Archipelago accounts for the seventh largest coral reef area in the world. Mangroves Mangrove ecosystems are rich in biodiversity and harbor a number of species that are globally threatened, such as the Bengal Tiger, the Estuarine Crocodile and the Genetic Dolphin, among others. The services provided by mangroves are far reaching and include: economic benefits from the contribution to fisheries, being nursery grounds for many species of finfish and shell fish; ecological benefits through the release of large amounts of nutrients that support the productivity in coastal lagoons and nearshore waters, protection of shorelines from storm surges and trapping sediment and increasing land area; provision of timber, fuel wood, mangrove poles for constructing fish traps, construction of fishing huts, building of boats and fence posts and fodder for livestock, non-timber forest products including traditional medicines; and producing honey and wax from bees. Mangrove forests are considered globally rare, despite being present in 123 tropical and sub-tropical nations and 19

20 territories, because they only cover an area of only around 152,000 km 2 ; this is less than 1% of all tropical forests worldwide, and less than 0.4% of the total global forest (Van Lavieren et al, 2012). South Asia is home to 6.8% of the global mangroves, with 10, 344 ha, which are distributed discontinuously. Through Pakistan and north-west India the mangrove trees are stunted and the diversity is low due to harsh arid conditions. The Indus River delta is also ranked fifth largest semi-arid mangrove area in the world (Farooqui, 2014). Further south, conditions become more humid and there is more reliable riverine inputs, although mangroves remain mostly restricted to protected lagoons. Deltaic mangroves become important along India s east coast and Bangladesh, where the Sundarbans form one of the world s largest contiguous mangrove forest, covering an area of 6,500 km 2 and extending 85 km inland South Asia, together with South East Asia, is considered a global mangrove biodiversity hotspot, due to the elevated number species in comparison with other parts of the world. Overall, 38 mangrove species have been recorded in the region, with diversity increasing towards the east. The northern Bay of Bengal and Sundarbans form an important part of the Indo Andaman biogeographic province, with several regional endemic species (ITTO Tropical Forest Update, 2012; Spalding et al, 2010). The original area occupied by mangroves in South Asia has declined markedly over the past decades with estimated reductions of 85% for India, 78% from Pakistan and 73% reduction in the Bangladesh (values of 1996, in Macintosh and Ashton 2002). In Sri Lanka, there has been about a 50 percent reduction of the mangrove cover between 1986 and 2002 (Joseph, 2003). Main threats to mangroves in South Asia In SAS countries, except Maldives, threats to mangroves include the rapid expansion of the shrimp aquaculture industry (such as the destruction of Chakoria mangroves of Bangladesh), reduced fresh water and sediment inputs due to upstream activities and especially damming of major rivers and irrigation for agriculture. Damage from storms, cyclones and sea level rise are likely to increase with climate change. Climate change related alterations of ocean circulation patterns could affect mangrove tree distribution and the genetic structure of mangrove populations. The impact on the community structure of the mangrove population may have further impact on biodiversity, with economic implications in view of the importance of mangrove forests to commercial fisheries in certain coastal areas (Ahmed and Suphachalasai, 2014). A study conducted in the Indus delta of Pakistan showed that rapidly escalating mangrove loss has seriously jeopardized the livelihoods of more than 135,000 people who rely on mangrove resources for their livelihood (Ifthikhar, 2002). Even small areas of mangroves need to be conserved and managed as these habitats are critically important as nursery grounds for fish and other marine organisms and many livelihood and commercial fishery activities are dependent on the productivity of these habitats. Series of conservation measures have been initiated by the countries. For example, Bangladesh has the world s largest areas of new mangrove plantations, and significant areas have also been planted in Pakistan and India. Many remaining mangrove areas are in protected areas. In India, mangroves have been listed as ecologically sensitive areas under the Coastal Regulation Zone notifications of India Annex 3. 20

21 Coral Reefs Found only in tropical ocean waters, warm water coral reefs cover less than 0.2 percent of the ocean floor. Over six percent of the world s coral reef area is found in South Asia, which includes some of the most diverse, extensive and least disturbed reef areas in the Indian Ocean. Distribution of coral reefs is a mirror image of that of mangroves; while the major mangrove areas are recorded from the north, the most extensive and diverse reefs are found in the south (Wells et al, 1995). A study conducted by Roberts et al (2002), identified the Northern Indian Ocean, as one of the ten centers of coral biodiversity hotspots with high endemism. The atolls of the Maldive ridge (including Laskahdweep and Chagos) are the most extensive coral reef system (8, 929 km 2 ) in the Indian Ocean and the largest atoll system in the world. This atoll system together with Sri Lanka has been collectively identified as one of the ten global priority areas for coral reef conservation. The South Asian Seas coral reefs also provide a critical link between the Southeast Asian and the western Indian Ocean coral reefs species. All three major reef types (atoll, fringing and barrier) are represented in the region to varying degrees (Spalding et al, 2001). There are extensive reefs around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as well as in the Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka. Coral reef growth is inhibited in the North-east coast of India, the entire coastline of Bangladesh and Pakistan due to freshwater and sediment inputs from larger rivers such as Ganga, Indus, Krishna and Godavari. There are four major coral reef areas in India in the Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kachchh, in the Malvan coastal waters between Mumbai and Goa, Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (5,790 km 2 ). Sri Lanka has many fringing coral reefs and several offshore coral reefs in the Gulf of Mannar. In Pakistan, sparse coral growth can be found around Astola Island and in the coastal waters of the Jiwani coast. Bangladesh has coral reefs only around St. Martin s island (Spalding et al., 2001; Wilkinson, 2008; Rajasuriya et al, 2004; Rajasuriya et al, 1998). More than 250 reef building coral species have been recorded from the region (See Table 2.1), with the most common coral genera being Acropora, Montipora and Porites (Spalding et al, 2001). A study conducted in Andaman and Nicorbar islands of India indicated that the coral reef diversity in the region might increase up to 400 species (Venkataraman, 2003). Among the deep water (Ahermatypic) corals, 227 species belonging to 71 genera and 12 families have been reported from the Indian Ocean region. Although 44 species of deep water corals have been identified from India, so far very little attention have been paid to address the knowledge gap in deep-water corals of the region (MoEF/GoI, 2005). Table 2.1: Status of Coral reef of South-Asia Reef Area (km 2 ) 1 No of hard coral sps Bangladesh <50 52 (25 living) 2 No. of reef fish Reefs at % of Reefs species risk (%) 1 now dead India 5, , Maldives 8, , Pakistan < 50 na na na na Sri Lanka Sources: Spalding et al, ; Uddin, ; Rajasuriya et al,

22 Reef resources provide the base for tourism and fishery, which are important economic sectors of the countries. In Maldives, the number of annual tourist arrivals in certain months exceeds the total local population, and tourism continues to be the largest economic activity and the main source of foreign exchange earnings contributing 28% of the countries GDP (MoTAC/GoM, 2013). Intact coral reefs and sand-stone reefs in Sri Lanka also have contributed to reduce the force and energy of the Tsunami waves, since a severe damage to inland areas is visible in areas such as Oruwella, where the near-shore coral reefs has been severely destroyed by mining and bottom-set netting over the past decade (IUCN, 2005). Table 2.2: Globally recognized coral reef areas of the region Coral Reef system Global Significance Biodiversity value Gulf of Mannar, India UNESCO- MAB & WHS area Ninety-four seleractinian coral species belonging to 37 genera. Maldives, Chagos and Lakshadweep Atolls, and Sri Lanka WWF Global 200 Ecosystems UNESCO MAB (Baa Atoll) Over 250 coral reef species, act as a stepping stone for coral larvae transport from eastern to western Indian Ocean Andaman Sea (including Andaman & Nicorbar islands of India) WWF Global 200 Ecosystem UNESCO MAB (Great Nicorbar) Extensive fringing reefs exist here, as well as a 320 kilometers-long barrier reef on the west coast. Much of the wildlife on these islands is endemic. Threats to Coral reefs in South Asia Coral reefs are threatened by a number of factors including: climate change related coral bleaching; sedimentation; diseases; overharvesting of resources including fish for food and ornamental fish; use of destructive fishing methods such as trawling and dynamiting, pollution and coastal development. Coral reefs in the Indian Ocean were seriously damaged due to the unprecedented bleaching event in 1998 from which many reefs have not recovered to their pre-bleaching status. South Asian reefs also suffered damage from the 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean, including from and. Andaman & Nicobar Islands lost some fringing reefs due to upliftment or subsidence (Keating and Helsley, 2005, Obura et al., 2008; Wilkinson et al., 2006 and Wilkinson 2008). Sea grass beds and seaweeds Extensive seagrass beds are found in southern India and in the many estuaries of Sri Lanka. They cover an area greater than that of mangroves and coral reefs combined, making the largest contribution to primary productivity in coastal waters. In India the major areas are in the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep group of islands, Andaman and Nicobar group of islands and along the West Coast. Distribution is up to a depth of 15 m. The highest species diversity is found in the shallow sandy marine areas (Green and Short, 2003). India is bestowed with 15 species of seagrasses belonging to six genera (MoFE/GoI, 2014). About 120 species of seaweeds have been recorded from India (Venkataraman, 2003). Information on seagrass meadows in Bangladesh is scanty. They are found mainly in the eastern coast of Bangladesh and five species of seagrasses have been recorded from the Bakkhali River Estuary area (Abu Hena and Khan, 2009). Five species of seagrasses as well as 285 species marine algae have been recorded from Maldives (MoHE-GoM, 2010). There is little information on the extent and diversity of seagrasses and 22

23 seaweeds in Pakistan, although there are records of the presence of Green Turtles, which feed on seagrasses. In Sri Lanka, the sea grass beds from Puttalam lagoon to Jaffna lagoon are extensive and are important feeding grounds for dugongs as well as commercially important species of fish, crab, prawns and polycheate worms (CCD, 2006). Threats to seagrasses vary in each country. The most extensive damage is caused by trawling for shrimps and bottom dwelling fishes. Extensive trawling in the Gulf of Mannar region is causing large scale damage to seagrass meadows and also threatens the survival of the Dugong dugon both in India and in Sri Lanka. Illegal trawling by Indian fishermen in Sri Lankan waters in the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay and Palk Strait are causing much damage to seagrass meadows. Seagrasses are also damaged due to pollution, and high sedimentation especially in Bangladesh where high sedimentation and coastal pollution are major problems. Similar problems are found in the Gulf of Kachchh. Further damage is caused by cutting access channels through seagrass meadows and by boat propellers. Seagrasses in the lower inter-tidal areas and around a number of islands in the Gulf of Kachchh have declined. Halophila decipiens, which has been a common species in the west coast until recently, has disappeared (Green and Short, 2003). Overexploitation of fauna such as sea cucumber, shrimp and sea urchins alter the balance of the seagrass ecosystem. In many areas these species have declined due to heavy exploitation. A study conducted in Sri Lanka revealed that all the high value sea cucumbers have been totally overexploited (Long et al., 2010). Deltas Estuaries and Lagoons Almost all of Bangladesh lies in the active delta of three of the world s major rivers: Ganga, Brahmaputra and Meghna (GBM system). The major part of the Gangetic floodplain is located in India. The high sediment load carried by the rivers has led to the continuous formation of new islands off the coast of Bangladesh, which the government is reclaiming by planting mangroves. Other major rivers with deltas on the eastern Indian coast include those formed by the Mahanadi, Godaveri-Krishna, Kaveri and Tambraparani rivers. The Indus flows through most of Pakistan and fall into the Arabian Sea. The Mahaveli is the largest river in Sri Lanka. The Maldives does not have any rivers (Rajagopalan & Lakshmi, 2003). There are 17 major lagoons within the coastline of India, while the Pulicat and Chilika are noteworthy estuaries rich in biodiversity (Venkataraman, 2003). In Sri Lanka the total area of estuaries and lagoons has been estimated at 158,017 ha and there are 45 estuaries belonging to two types: basin estuaries where river discharges into relatively shallow basins, which in turn open into the sea (Puttalam, Negambo and Jaffna); and riverine estuaries, where river discharge into the sea by way of relatively narrow channels (Kaluganga, Kelani Ganga estuaries). Around 40 true coastal lagoons are recorded mainly from southern, southeastern and eastern coasts. Sand barrier formations has transformed some basin estuaries into lagoons (Koggala Lagoon) and in some cases (Batticaloa, Kokkilai Lagoons) seasonally formed sand barriers result in temporary lagoons with restricted connection to the open sea (CCD, 2006). The health and the biological diversity of the estuarine and lagoon ecosystems are deteriorating dayly due anthropogenic interventions including dumping of solid waste and the release of untreated sewage and industrial effluents (Venkatraman, 2003). In countries such as Sri Lanka sand mining in major rivers, 23

24 especially closer to river mouths has reduced the amount of sand, which would otherwise be available to replenish sand lost during storm events. This has resulted in large-scale coastal erosion in the south and west coasts of the country. As described above, the mangrove forests of the Indus delta in Pakistan show a dramatic decline and it has reduced from 2,600 square kilometers in the late 1970s to 1,300 square kilometers in the mid-1990s, mainly due to water diversion in the upstream of the river. About three-quarters of the water entering the Indus basin is now diverted and only a quarter reaches the delta and the Arabian Sea (Iftikhar, 2002). Beaches, Sand-dunes and cliffs Bangladesh is notable for its 145 km stretch of beach from Cox Bazar to the tip of Teknaf Peninsula (Pernetta 1993b), and in Maldives there are numerous sandy beaches on the islands of the atoll chains. Sri Lanka has about 11,800 ha of beaches and spits extending over 300 km of coast, and sand dunes covering an area of 7, 606 ha (Pernetta 1993c). Various forms of rocky shores dominate both the east and west coast of India. Coastal cliffs are the most observed characteristic geomorphic feature along the Indian coastline. Sand dunes in India support diverse flora are categorized as ecologically sensitive areas under the Coastal Regulation Zone notification of There are around 148 species of sand dune vegetation reported from the east and west coasts of India. The dominant species are, Spinifix littoreaus, Hydrophylax meristima, Ipomea pescaprae, and Asparagus dumosus (Apate, 2013; and Untawale, et al, 2000). In Pakistan, the most important beach is situated southwest of Karachi, which stretches for 20kms. The mainland coast of India has beaches along 55 percent of its length while in Sri Lanka beaches are found along percent of the coast, where majority are sandy barrier beaches backed by lagoons and wetlands. Dunes are also an important feature in Sri Lanka with extensive dune system on the west and south east coasts. Mature and intact sand dunes (i.e., old and broad dunes covered with scrubland vegetation) occurring in the Rakewa, Usangoda and Kalamatiya area have functioned as an effective barrier against the December 2004 Tsunami waves, thereby protecting inland ecosystems and human settlements (IUCN, 2005). The atoll islands of Maldives and Laccadives are bordered by sandy beaches derived from the coral reef surrounding them. Island beaches are highly dynamic and sand migrates around the island in response to the reversing monsoonal influence (Brown, 1997). After the December 2004 tsunami that hit the southeast coast of India, there has been recognition among the coastal communities living adjacent to coastal sand dunes about the value of sand dunes in not only protecting the hinterland and coastal hamlets, but also their role in preventing saltwater intrusion as a result of inundation by large waves. There is also better recognition of their cultural, social and ecological significance. Further sandy beaches and sand dunes are important turtle nesting grounds. In spite of all this, sand dunes have not enjoyed the kind of attention or popularity that is given to other coastal ecosystems like mangroves (Namboothri et al, 2007). Human settlement is increasing on lands near sandy shores. Issues such as flattening of sand dunes and sand mining have severe consequences on shore erosion. Sandy shores are widely used for recreational purposes. The threat to sandy shores is further aggravated because they are relatively poorly understood. In 2004, an extent of 1,214 km of the 5,422 km Indian coastline was reported to be affected by sea erosion (Apte, 2013). 24

25 1.2. Ongoing Initiatives for the Protection of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems Protection of Biodiversity has a long tradition in the history of South Asia, as natural resources are closely linked to many religious beliefs and cultural traditions. The modern conservation in the region stems mainly from the establishment of forest reserves in the 19th and early 20th centuries to safeguard timber, soil and water resources (IUCN, 1992). At National level there are numerous government agencies and other stakeholders including NGOs, and community itself who are responsible for protecting the habitats and the ecosystem services they provide (Annexes 2 and 3). These legislations mainly protect the ecosystems through establishing Protected Areas, and this aspect will be discussed in length on Section 2.5, which will address Aichi Target 11 on Protected Areas. The regional and international initiatives for major coastal habitats protection are given in Annex 1. Few are ongoing projects that will depend on continuous donor funding for long-term survival (e.g. Mangroves for the Future, BoB LME project etc). Some are intergovernmental processes that depend on member governments for funding and policy directives. Conventions such as Ramsar, UNESCO- MAB and UNESCO WH assist in protecting and obtaining international attention through increased donor funding and technical assistance. Further Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and other bilateral donors such as the Government of Netherlands have been assisting the countries to safeguard and sustainably utilize the resources in these important ecosystems Conclusions and Recommendations Sensitive marine and coastal habitats are widespread in South Asia. The most extensive mangrove areas are found in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan mainly around the large rivers and coastal Lagoons. The main coral reefs are in the Maldives Archipelago, in four locations in India (Lakshadweep, Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kachchh and Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands) and Sri Lanka. The major seagrass areas are in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, Bangladesh, Gulf of Kachchh and Indus Delta area and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Although conservation efforts have been carried out by respective governments and non-governmental organizations with the support of international organizations, most of these habitats continue to degrade due to various reasons listed in this report. Several common problems impede proper conservation and management efforts. The main issues are: Overlapping responsibilities within government departments: often different departments are responsible for the same resource/ecosystem, creating another layer of difficulty in decision-making and confusion Slow or ineffective implementation of plans and regulations: Laws and plans for protection of certain habitats are existing, but they are not being implemented due to lack of resources and lack of enforcement and monitoring Ineffective laws: not responding to the specific needs of the people and the protection of coastal and marine ecosystem 25

26 Lack of political will: even when the laws are adequate, they may not be implemented due to slow processes and absence of champions or leaders. Corruption: hindering the implementation of well-intended initiatives. Lack of skills and/or resources (human, technological and financial): which also limits the implementation of plans and other interventions Poverty among coastal communities: when people are struggling with day to day survival, it is more difficult to discuss topics related to environmental conservation Lack of awareness: coastal communities, private and public sector often lack awareness on the services that ecosystem provide Lack of ownership and open access regimes: conflicts can arise when it is not clear who has access and ownership of resources, and who is in charge of protection of coastal and marine ecosystems Every country in South Asia has developed several policies and conservation plans for the protection and sustainable use of marine and coastal resources. However, some legislations, laws and regulations, remain inadequate, or poorly implemented, often due to political interference. Despite these policies and management plans the habitats continue to degrade and their resources are being overexploited. There is also little control over shared stocks of fish and other marine organisms (see section 4, Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture for SAS). To address these issues, it is recommended that SAS region focuses on: Improve legislations and their implementation Harmonize policies on environmental management among neighboring countries Establish quotas for harvesting living resources, especially on migratory and highly threatened species Establish marine protected areas, fish refugia and form networks with corridors among neighboring habitats Develop capacity in governance Address issues such as land-based pollution including agricultural runoff, sewage discharge and industrial waste. Improve and use existing instruments such as Environmental Impact Assessment Process, Environmental Protection license process to mitigate the impact of the industry Create awareness among governments, private sector and coastal communities on the use of agrochemicals and other pollutants and their effect on marine and coastal ecosystems Reactivate regional bodies such as the South Asia Coral Reef Task Force (SACRTF) to improve conservation and management of sensitive habitats. Incentives and restructuring subsidy systems. Broadening collaboration with and responsibility of the private sector 26

27 2. Preventing Species Extinction Dimming the Red Light Aichi Biodiversity Target 12 recommends that by 2020 the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented and their conservation status, particularly of those most in decline, has been improved and sustained by undertaking following actions: Preventing extinction Preventing further extinction entails that those species which are currently threatened do not move into the extinct category. Improving the conservation status of threatened species - An improvement in conservation status would entail a species increasing in population to a point where it moves into a lower threat status. Using the IUCN criteria a species would no longer be considered as threatened once it moved into the near threatened category. Box 2: Globally Threatened Species in SAS region SAS region is critical to the recovery of the endangered north Indian Ocean blue whales Considerable number Irrawaddy Dolphins are found in the estuarine waters of Bangladesh and the Chilika Lagoon of India One of the largest remaining population of Bengal Tigers are found in Sundarbans mangroves, spanning between Bangladesh and India Almost half of the world s threatened sea turtle populations are found in the northern Indian Ocean and the largest rookery of olive ridley turtles are found in Orissa, India Migratory Waders including Spoon bill Sand pipers feed in the coastal wetlands, especially in Sonadia Island of Bangladesh 3 Protected Areas in Andaman and Nicorbar islands have been identified under Alliance for Zero Extinction, for the protection of endemic shrews and the Narcodam Hornbill 2.1. Species of Conservation Concern and the major threats for their survival Within the Northern Indian Ocean no systematic assessment of the Coastal and Marine Biodiversity has been carried out so far and there is considerable data and information gap both in spatial and temporal coverage. Reports of major regional/national programmes contain only group/taxa details and not the species details. On a regional scale, there is lack of clarity on the coastal and marine biodiversity as the formats adopted by various groups/authors, the number of species reported under each taxonomic group and the total number of species reported show considerable variation and inconsistency (MES/GOI, 2014). Yet the available information indicates that South Asian Seas region is rich in species diversity. For example, more than 15,000 marine species have been recorded from India alone (MoE/GOI, 2014). Published literature indicates that the region is important for the survival of around 100 globally threaded species (i.e. species included in the IUCN Red List of threatened species- critically endangered, 27

28 endangered and vulnerable, the CITIES and CMS Appendices). Table 2.3 provides a summary of globally threatened species found in coastal and marine habitats of South Asia, while Annex 4 gives a comprehensive list of species. Table 2.3: A summary of Species of global concern, recorded from Coastal and marine habits of South Asia Mammals - Cetaceans - Sirenia - Other Total No of species IUCN Red List (Thretned Categories- CR, EN, VU) No. of Species of Conservation concern CITES Appendices CMS Appendices Waders & Sea birds Reptiles - Marine turtles Sea snakes - Salt water Crocodiles - Other Fishes Invertebrates - Coral - Mollusks - Other Plants - Mangroves Mammals Most marine mammals in the region, such as whales, dolphins, porpoises and dugongs, are transboundary species. Terrestrial species such as the endangered Bengal tiger, the Leopard and Asiatic elephant are also encountered from forested areas within the coastal zone. Cetaceans (Whales, Porpoises and Dolphins) - The SAS region is rich in Cetacean diversity with 31 species, accounting for one thirds of the recorded cetaceans worldwide. Of these, nine species are globally threatened (Refer Annex 4) and most are listed as Data while national species assessments have not been done for the majority of species. The Cetaceans vary in size from the largest blue whale to the very small finless porpoise. 28

29 Box 3 - Irrawaddy Dolphin population in Bangladesh As recently as in 2009, nearly 6,000 Irrawaddy Dolphins were found living in freshwater regions of Sundarbans mangrove forest and the adjacent waters of the Bay of Bengal. This discovery gives a great hope for the survival of this threatened species and conservation of this habitat needs to be prioritized, as previously, the largest known populations of the dolphin had numbered in the low hundreds. However, the newly discovered population is already threatened by climate change and fishing nets. The Government of Bangladesh declared three new Wildlife Sanctuaries to help protect this species as well as the threatened Ganges River Dolphin. These Sanctuaries safeguard 19.4 miles of channels with a total area of 4.1 square miles. Source: MOEF/GOB, 2010 and The region is critical to the recovery of the endangered north Indian Ocean blue whales, as a migratory as well as resident population s occurs in Sri Lanka, India and Maldives. The Irrawaddy dolphin, which is endemic to the North-eastern Indian Ocean, has distinct estuarine and coastal populations in Bangladesh (See Box 3) and in the Chilka lake of India where 138 individuals were recorded recently. Additionally, two freshwater dolphin species, the Ganges and the Indus dolphins inhabits the largest river systems of South Asia including their estuarine zones (Anderson et al, 2012, Hyot, 2011; Mohanty and Otta, 2008; de Boer et al, 2003; Ballance, 2001). Sirenia (Dugongs) - The dugong (Dugong dugon) is listed as vulnerable to extinction at a global scale. The species is listed in CITES Appendix I and CMS Appendix II. The dugong has a large range that spans some 48 countries and territories including India and Sri Lanka (Marsh, 2008). Most sightings of dugongs in Bangladesh were reported as accidental capture or anecdotes from fishermen (Shah-e-Alam, 2011). Dugongs are believed to be extinct in the Maldives, but are reportedly sighted in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, followed by the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Sivakumar & Nair, 2013). The main threats to cetaceans and dugongs include: Stranding due to shipping, naval exercises etc. (especially the larger species), water pollution (mainly affect estuarine and near shore species) and marine debris and discarded or lost and floating fishing gear, noise pollution from military and seismic sonar, damming of rivers, haphazardly developed tourism (especially in whale and dolphin watching) and global climate change. Small cetaceans are primarily threatened due to fisheries related mortality with large numbers being taken as accidental by-catch throughout the region. Tigers - The Sundarbans mangrove forest is the home of some 100 endangered Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris), possibly one of the biggest remaining tiger populations on the globe (Neumann-Denzau and Denzau H, 2010). 29

30 Waders and Sea birds The coastal wetlands in South Asia form an important feeding, nesting and wintering grounds for large number of waders. Sandy beaches, intertidal mud flats, and rocky outcrops are important as foraging sites, while the mangroves serve as breeding ground for species such as egrets, herons, storks, warblers and raptors. South Asia belongs to the Central Asian-Indian flyway of the Asia Pacific region covering large intra-continental territories of Eurasia between the Arctic and the Indian Ocean. This flyway is important for migratory waders, with arctic-breeding species travelling from northern and central Siberia to winter in South Asia, principally along the coast of Bangladesh, east coast of India (e.g. Great Knot- Refer Annex 4), Sri Lanka. A significant population for the Spoonbilled sandpiper, one of the, if not the most, threatened migratory waterbird in the world, winters in the huge inter-tidal areas of the coast of Bangladesh. Annex 5 and 7 outlines important bird areas (IBAs) in the region, where high concentrations of species of global significance are encountered. According to the Bird life International Red Data Book, the following three coastal habitats occupy some of the largest wader concentrations in the region: Indus delta and Run of Kutch; South India and Sri Lanka (Pulicat and Chilika Lakes and Point Calimere of India; Bundala and Yala National Parks of Sri Lanka); and Bay of Bengal coast, mainly the Sundarbans). The intertidal mud and sand flats of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta IBA support the largest known concentrations of Spotted Greenshank, Spoon-billed Sandpiper and Indian Skimmer in the world. The seabirds of the region are poorly known and do not appear to be abundant in the region, yet considerable populations are found in the following locations: - The Sundarbans are an important staging and wintering area for gulls and terns, - the islets of Adam's Bridge, off Sri Lanka have some seabird colonies. - Pitti islands of Lakshadweep, three pelagic species are of significance; Sooty tern, Noddy Tern and Large crested Tern - Haa Alifu Atoll of Maldives, supports a large seasonal concentrations of Lesser Noddy Most of the water birds inhabiting the coastal wetlands of South Asia are decking, although information on status and trends is generally poor. In most countries there has been little previous investment in conservation and low involvement of local stakeholders in the sustainable management of wetlands. For example, along India s east coast, many important wader habitats have been severely degraded by a range of threats including the depletion of groundwater, saltwater intrusion, intensive species, illegal hunting and the extension of salt-based industries. At the Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, ringing and census data show that there has been a dramatic decline in many species of waders since the 1980s. Populations of the two most common sandpipers, the Little Stint and Curlew Sandpiper, have decreased by over 70%, and once numerous species such as Pied Avocets and Black-winged Stilts are now scarce. For Sea birds the main reason for mortality is due to long-line fisheries and gill-nets (BirdLife International, 2005 and Chan et al, 2004). 30

31 Reptiles The reptilian population that the coastal and marine habitat of South Asia harbours around 26 species of sea snakes (MoEF/GOI, 2014), five species of sea turtles and several globally threatened terrestrial turtles and terrapins (MoEF/GOB, 2010; CCD/GOP, 2014). Marine Turtles - Out of the seven species of marine turtles recorded worldwide, five species are found from the coastal waters of South Asia and at least four of them have significant nesting grounds within the regions beaches (Refer Annex 6). On a global scale these turtles are listed in the IUCN Red list of Threatened Species (IUCN Red List, 2014) as Critically Endangered (Hawksbill), Endangered (Loggerhead and Green turtle), and Vulnerable (Olive ridley and Leatherback). Green turtle nesting sites are the most widely distributed within the region, while the only reported recent loggerhead nesting sites are from Sri Lanka (Shankar, 2004). In the late 1970 s and up to early 1980 s, there were several reports of Loggerheads nesting on the Andaman and Nicorbar islands. However there is absolutely no evidence of this species nesting in the Islands now (Andrews, 2000). The single largest breeding ground of olive ridley is found in Orissa on the east coast of India, where mass breeding occurs in three nesting beaches; Gahirmatha, Deviriver mouth and Rushikulya. The nesting at Gahirmata at the mouth of the river Maipura near Dhamra, is the largest sea turtle rockery in the world with 100,000 to 500,000 turtles nesting there each year (MoEF/GoI, 2005). According to a study conducted in 2011, almost half (45%) of the world s threatened sea turtle populations are found in the northern Indian Ocean. Threatened populations of Loggerheads and Olive Ridley Turtles are found in waters and on nesting beaches within EEZs of countries such as India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh (Wallace et al, 2011). All sea turtles have declined in recent times, and until 1980s the major threats for turtle conservation were trade, and egg and meat consumption by humans. Presently, the threats to their survival are more indirect, such as development activities along the coast, pollution of coastal waters, and incidental capture in fishing nets (Table 2.4). Table 2.4: Major threats to the survival of marine turtles in South Asia Country Bangladesh India Maldives Pakistan Sri Lanka Major Threats Obstruction by fishing trawlers and fishing nets, poaching of eggs and loss of nesting beaches due to erosion and construction, man-made barriers Heavy trawling related mortality, Incidental catching during fishing, Sand mining at Kerala and Andaman-Nicorbar islands, Loss of habitat due to tourism development, Predation by tigers and dogs, Meet consumption and egg poaching by humans; natural disasters (Tsunami, cyclones) Trade of turtle shells and eggs, infrastructure development for tourism. Oil spills, Shrimp trawling, predation by wild-animals Improper hatchery practices, Coastal developments; Exploitation by humans for eggs and meat, and Incidental by-catch. Fish species The fish population in the Indian Ocean is extremely diverse with 2,546 species of fish belonging to 969 genera, 254 families and 40 orders. Over 1,200 species of fish have been recorded from the reefs and 31

32 surrounding ocean of the Maldives alone (Wells et al, 1995). Around 1,000 species of marine fish have been recorded in Pakistan s coastal waters; however, no analysis of their population status and distributional range is available (Climate Change Division/GoP, 2014)). Around 475 fish species have been recorded from the marine waters of Bangladesh (MEF/GoB, 2010). 2,546 marine fish species have been recorded from India (MoFE/GoI, 2014). As indicated in Annex 4, a considerable number of marine fish species recorded from the South Asian Seas are globally threatened. Given below are two examples, where the fish are threatened either as a by-catch in commercial tuna fishery (Sharks) or due to direct exploitation (Humphead Wrasse). Sharks - Most sharks are long-living species that grow slowly, mature late, and have low reproduction rates. These biological factors make sharks particularly vulnerable to overfishing. Globally around 17% of sharks and their relatives are threatened, an additional 13% are considered Near Threatened, and a high proportion (47%) are Data Deficient. In the South Asian Seas region some of the globally threatened species encountered are Whale sharks, Great Oceanic white tip, Scalloped hammerhead and Great hammerhead shark. However, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka are within the 15 top shark-fishing nations. Humphead Wrasse is widely distributed in coral reefs and inshore habitats throughout the tropical Indo- Pacific. It is particularly heavily exploited at the centre of its range in South-eastern Asia, due to the live reef fish trade. Fishery-dependent and trade-related data suggests overall declines of at least 50% over the last 30 years, which has qualified this fish for an Endangered listing (Red list, 2014). The impact of fishery on marine biodiversity will be further discussed in Section 4 (Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture for the SAS region). Invertebrates Reef Building Corals - Over one-quarter (27%) of the world s 845 species of reef-building corals have been listed as threatened, an additional 20% are considered Near Threatened, and 17% are Data Deficient (IUCN Red List of Marine Species, 2008) (see Section 1.1. for more details). Plant species Mangroves As indicated by Polidoro et al, 2010, eleven of the 70 mangrove species (16%) are at elevated threat of extinction. Particular areas of geographical concern include the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Central America, where as many as 40% of mangroves species are threatened with extinction. Sonneratia griffithii, which is critically endangered is found in India, Bangladesh and Southeast Asia, where 80 percent of all mangrove area has been lost over the past 60 years (see Section 1.1 for more details) 2.2. Opportunities and constraints in preventing species extinction At National levels, marine species have varying degree of legal protection in all five countries but enforcement of these legal provisions are not as effective as they should ideally be for various reasons. Listing Species in Appendices of fishery and wildlife legislation as well as declaration of protected areas are two main actions undertaken by national governments. 32

33 Yet a major drawback to national conservation efforts in all countries of the region is a lack of knowledge and scientific data upon which conservation strategies and measures can be designed effectively. Studies being conducted are either opportunistic or mostly small research initiatives lead by individual researchers, NGO s or Universities, under externally funded projects, which are sporadic and do not yield the kind of long-term data that can inform conservation or management. As a result of the lack of research in the region there are large gaps in knowledge and for most species: population estimates or trends, distribution and movement patterns, and human-marine mammal interactions are not monitored. At the regional and international levels there are several initiatives for the protection of the species as described below: - The waters of all SASP countries are within the Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary, declared by the International Whaling Commission in However the provisions of this Sanctuary only apply to large whale stocks that were once commercially exploited and small cetaceans are not taken into consideration. - Under the auspicious of the Convention on Migratory Species there are 3 Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) targeting marine species: Marine Turtles, Dugong, and Marine Sharks (Refer Annex 1). - CITES listing for example 18 shark and ray species have been listed in Appendix 11 and from September 2014 there will be trade regulations for importing and re-exporting the species many of them are found in the SASP region (Refer Annex 4). - BirdLife International initiatives such as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) programme - Listing wetlands important for wader population under Ramsar Convention. - Numerous resolutions adopted by FAO, IOTC and BOB-IGO with regard to safeguard the commercially important fish species 2.3. Conclusions and Recommendations The most important cetaceans that need priority conservation measures within the region are: Blue whales, Pacific humpbacked dolphins, Irrawaddy dolphin, and the Dugong. Collaboration between countries in relation to conservation and research is important because: - The habitat and range of many species is not confined to the waters of a single country. - For certain shared populations standardization of conservation activities through co-operation and collaboration between countries is crucial if the population is to be viable in the long term (MoU Dugong). - Collaboration can facilitate maximization of scarce resources for marine mammal research which is costly and difficult for individual developing countries to carry out on their own. Policy statements of most countries in the region recognize cross-cutting issues between different uses of coastal and marine ecosystems, such as the fisheries sector, marine transport, coastal tourism, municipal development and offshore minerals exploitation. All South Asian nations have expressed their commitment to sustainable harvesting of marine and coastal resources and to conserving biodiversity. 33

34 However, the implementation of these policies is varied and differ in effectiveness. The reasons include overlapping jurisdictions, conflicting mandates, inadequate coordination, socio-economic and poverty issues and capacity constraints. The specific recommendations for the region include: - Improve knowledge base through joint research, collaborative assessments and long-term monitoring - Strengthen taxonomic capacity and formulate standard format for data collection and analysis; - Identify migratory routes of species as well as resident and transboundary stocks - Assess upwellings and salinity changes, and impact of climate change - Coordinate research - Harmonize legislation protecting marine species at national and regional level; - Train enforcement staff of different agencies; - Develop MPAs to cover Migratory routes - Promote collaboration between different stakeholders - Regularly update IUCN Red List assessments at national level, or develop a regional level Red list - Introduce eco-labelling and certification systems for sustainable fishery - Secure funding 3. Combating Marine and Coastal Invasive Alien Species The Aichi Target 9 establishes that by 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority species are controlled or eradicated and measures are in place to manage pathways to prevent their introduction and establishment Main Entry Pathways of Marine and Coastal Invasive Species (IAS) in SAS Invasive Alien Species (IAS) are those introduced (accidentally or intentionally) species, which outcompete native species and cause economic and ecological damage by spreading in natural ecosystems (IUCN, 2009). Main transmission pathways for IAS in coastal and marine ecosystems are due to ship ballast water, aquaculture, aquarium and ornamental trade, and other land based IAS that reach the coast and marine environments. Ship ballast water is the largest vector of transfer of IAS. It is estimated that at any given moment worldwide, between and different species are being transported between bio-geographic regions in ballast tanks alone (Bax et al, 2003, IUCN, 2009). The increase in transoceanic trade through SAS region s ports is an area of concern. For example, in India, nearly five thousand ships call annually at Mumbai Port, collectively discharging approximately two million tons of ballast water (Puthucherril, 2008). Ballast water is capable for transporting viral and bacterial pathogens (e.g. cholera), as well as resistant cysts of toxic dinoflagelates that could lead to harmful algal blooms and shellfish poisoning (Bax et al, 2003). Another important transfer of IAS in ships is through hull fouling, which is the attachment to the hull of ship certain organisms, such as mussels, sponges, algae, etc., and there is a risk that these alien organisms will spread and establishing themselves in new ports and bioregions. The recent use of metal hulls and anti-fouling paints and faster ship speeds have contributed to less hull fouling, although shipping has increased and therefore the problem of hull fouling remains relevant. 34

35 Aquaculture is a main economic activity in the region and the introduction of alien species through this industry is also an area of concern. In the Asian context, around 50 species of finfish that are alien to one nation or the other are being cultured (de Silva et al. 2006), including species that are farmed in accordance with national laws and regulations as well as those that are illegally introduced. India, the second largest aquaculture producer in the world (FAO, 2012), has a thriving industry focusing on various cyprinids, freshwater prawn and marine shrimp. 40% of the national production it is achieved through the culture of alien cyprinids, notably the common carp and different species of Chinese carps (de Silva et al. 2006). Unregulated introduction and illegal farming of several new exotic species also occurs in the region, with several of these species being listed as potential pests, and capable of negatively impacting the native aquatic biodiversity (see Box 4). A related sector, the aquarium and ornamental industry, is another area of concern, as IAS traded are usually healthy adults, which make them a bigger threat of invasion if released to the wild (Padilla & Williams, 2004). Box 4 - Introduction of American White Shrimp Lessons Learned The white leg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), formerly known as Penaeus vannamei has spread from Taiwan in 1995 to almost all Asian shrimp farming countries. In India, it was introduced clandestinely during 2001 in the states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh under the believe that it out performs P. monodon on all aspects of aquaculture. The rapid growth in the farms of this species has had its setback. Despite the rapid expansion of farming of L. vannamei, farmers have suffered significant economic losses due to various viral diseases. It is suspected that the Taura Syndrum virus and infectious Hypordermal and Hepatopoietic Necreosis virus, exotic viral pathogens invaded the Indian shrimp farms through L. vannamei. Various possible problems include its impact on the wild and indigenous stocks, potential to act as carries of diseases, biodiversity issues, etc., remains to be studied. The consequences of introduction of L. vannamei point to the importance of precautionary approach that should be taken before introductions are allowed. Source: Ministry of Environment and Forest /Government of India (2010): Achieving 2010 Biodiversity Target: India s Contributions. Further numerous land invasive are affecting the coastal and nearshore ecosystems of the region. Species such as Prickly Pear (Opuntia dillenii) and Mesquite (Prosopis juniflora) are spreading in sand dunes and beaches and destroying natural vegetation. In southern Sri Lanka, O dillenii has spread in sand dunes and beaches after the tsunami preventing the regeneration of natural vegetation such as Spinifex (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006). The Bangladesh portion of the Sundarban mangrove is also threaded by spread of invasive plant species such as Derris trifoliata, Eichhornia crassipes and Eupetorium odoratum. D. trifoliata, a climber, poses a threat to many regenerating tree seedlings owing to its aggressive twining and strangulating habit. This species is widely distributed throughout the mangrove forest irrespective of local ecological and environmental conditions. The dense populations of Derris trifoliata form a cover over the seedlings and saplings of Heritiera fomes, Excoecaria agallocha, Sonneratia apetala, among others (Biswas, 2007). IAS can lead to the loss of native biodiversity due to: preying upon native species, competition for habitat, transmission of parasites and diseases, genetic dilution due to hybridization, changes to ecosystem function and nutrient cycles and decreased water quality. Many of these impacts would have 35

36 economic impacts, by interfering with biological resources that support fishing and mariculture, disrupt tourism; damage infrastructure, and other costs related to clean up, control, treatment and quarantine measures Current Status and Recommended Actions for Mitigate the Threats of IAS The present IAS status and recommendations to mitigate the threats posed by them are provided in the Annex 8. In general, countries have inadequate legislations or policies to deal with IAS, quarantine measures are also weak, and there are insufficient scientific information to address prevention and control of IAS. Regional actions The Regional South Asian Seas Programme, through SACEP coordination, is currently working for the creation of a Ballast Water task force and a Regional Strategy for Ballast Water Management Strategy. Other relevant international instruments that support the management of IAS in coastal and marine environments include: - For Aquaculture, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF), discourages the use of invasive alien species in aquaculture (including mariculture) and calls for accurate assessments of the risks of using alien species. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea s Code of Practice on the Introduction and Transfer of Marine Organisms is one of the most comprehensive instruments to help in the responsible use of introduced species but is only voluntary (IUCN, 2009). - For Ballast water, the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments (BWC) was adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in 2004, but has only been ratified by Maldives from the SAS countries. The Convention will enter into force 12 months after it has been ratified by 30 states representing 35 percent of the world s merchant shipping tonnage. In addition, the IMO has also developed several Ballast Water management guidelines 2 to support the implementation of the IMO Convention. Additionally, hull fouling is often treated with harmful substances, such as anti-fouling paints to prevent marine life to attach itself to the hull of ships. In order to reduce these impacts, the IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships in 2001, which entered into force in 2008, and which sets the standard of what type of substances are banned for use for hull anti-fouling. - The Global Ballast Water Management Program is an effort of the IMO, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and the shipping industry to assist less industrialized countries to tackle the ballast water problem. While ballast water and aquaculture are encouragingly starting to being addressed, it is necessary to understand what are the other vectors and transmission pathways responsible for distributing invasive alien marine species in the South Asia region, and more needs to be done at national, regional and global levels to understand and address these issues

37 3.3. Conclusions and Recommendations While prevention is cheaper and safer option, it requires full commitment of countries. The management of threats is only possible if taken care at the global and regional levels, not only because of the global nature of the IAS problem, but because the development of national initiatives without international consensus will also complicate international trade (Bax et al, 2003). Measures to address control and eradication needs on Invasive Species include: - Create an Early Warning of International Outbreak of Marine Invasive Species, with a regional framework to manage the risks and the responses (Bax et al, 2003). - Develop an IAS Expert Working Group to address the scope of the IAS problem on marine and coastal biodiversity in SAS, identifying the specific pathways and risks in the region. - Carry out a capacity building assessment needs in SAS countries, and develop a capacity building plan for the SAS region. - Urge all SAS countries to ratify the IMO - Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments. - Support countries to establish national and regional standards and procedures for the management and control of ships' ballast water and sediments - Promote a shift in from developing organizations to direct their investment in the use of native species for aquaculture purposes, either as primary species for human consumption, or as food products for aquaculture species growth (Hewitt, Campbell, & Gollasch, 2006) - Evaluate the short-term benefits to society against the consequences of short and long-term impacts, through a clear, transparent and participatory decision-making process, based on scientific evidence and a precautionary approach. - Conduct risk assessments previous to the introduction of new aquaculture species and aquarium species - Collaborate with the aquarium trade industry, for the certification of stocks, and preventing species being released. 4. Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture for the SAS region The Aichi Target 6 aims for fisheries to be managed sustainably, legally and applying ecosystem based approaches, avoiding overfishing and ensuring that recovery plans are in place by Additionally, the Aichi Target 7 aims for aquaculture to be managed sustainably and ensuring the conservation of Biodiversity by Main fisheries and aquaculture impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity Fisheries The SAS region is rich in both marine and inlaid fishery, and for Bangladesh and India inland fishery production is higher than marine fishery production (FAO, 2008). Marine fisheries make a modest contribution to the GDP of the bordering countries, with the exception of the Maldives, where this sector contributes 11% to GDP and 74% of the country s export commodities. Primary export commodities are shrimp and tuna, which make a significant contribution to national foreign exchange earnings. For example, in Bangladesh, fisheries account for more than 11% of annual export earnings 37

38 Rapid development of aquaculture, mainly of shrimp, in the extensive coastal and brackish-water areas has made a significant contribution to the growth of national export earnings (FAO 2005). However, as fisheries production increases, the sector represents one of the biggest threats to marine biodiversity, and to its own existence, as fisheries require of healthy ecosystems to thrive. The growing demand of fish in local markets, due largely to the growing awareness on the nutritive value of fish, has been coupled with improvements in fisheries technology, bigger and better vessels, better fish finding and geo-position equipment, communication systems and storage facilities, aspects that are having an important impact in marine fisheries production (Aswathy, 2011; Dineshbabu, 2013), Marine fishery catch trends have been oscillating within SAS countries, with increases in production in some countries, such as Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka (due to the end of fishing restrictions imposed during the civil war from the north and east of the country) and decreases in others, such as Pakistan and the tuna fisheries in Maldives. According to FAO analysis, the Southern Bluefin Tuna stocks are depleted, while species such as Croakers and drums Ponyfish and Giant Prawn are being over-exploited in the region. The below table (Table 2.5) provides an overview of the trends in catch assessment 3 by countries. Country/ area Time period Large demersal Small demersal Large pelagic Small pelagic Anchovy/sardine Trash fish/l Low-value fish Surimi species Shark/ rays Squids/cuttlefish Crustaceans Bangladesh India Maldives Sri Lanka 1999 to to to to o + nd - o o + o nd nd nd - nd nd + + o nd - nd + Table Trends in catch composition in the SAS countries (based on APFIC, 2012, excludes Pakistan). Notes: different groupings were assessed in terms of their relative occurrence in the catch (percent): increased (+); decrease (-) or were stable (o) over a specific time period, nd denotes no data available 3 Adapted from APFIC No information available for Pakistan (Arabian Sea). 38

39 The Trans-boundary Diagnostic Analysis carried out by the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) project during 2012, identified the main trans-boundary issues relevant to the overexploitation of marine living resource in the Bay of Bengal to be 4 : - Decline in overall availability of fish resources - Changes in species composition of catches. - High proportion of juvenile fish in the catch - Changes in marine biodiversity, especially through loss of vulnerable and endangered species. These issues are mainly due to overfishing (including by-catch and discards), unsustainable and destructive fishing practices that modify or destruct habitats, and illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing that seriously undermines the sustainability of fisheries management efforts (FAO & UNEP, 2010). The impacts of overfishing on marine biodiversity include: the modification of community structure (e.g. trophic structure), the reduction in species richness or other taxonomic diversity indices, and risk of the impacted species populations becoming threatened, endangered, or even locally extinct. The impact of overfishing on the ecosystem may be direct or indirect, but it becomes more acute with the increase of fishing pressure, unreported by-catch and discards and IUU fishing. Box 5 Increase in Fleet Size India, which contributes to 63,7 % to the fisheries production in SAS countries, has seen an increases in fleet size, with the consequent increases in yield, employment and exports, but also leading to excessive fishing pressure. The target of juvenile species is seen as a clear indication of overfishing in the region (Dineshbabu, 2013). Other issues and processes occurring in the region that are (or will in the near future) promoting unsustainable practices include: - Trawl fishing remains a cause of great concern for the conservation of marine biodiversity, due to the lack of selectivity and elevated by-catch (incidental capture of non-target species that is retained), the destruction of vulnerable ecosystems such as coral reefs and other disturbances of the seafloor and benthic communities (Hiddink et al, 2006, Biju Kumar & Deepthi, 2006). The trawl fishery is multispecies, although their main target is shrimp and other high-value species. Large portion of the bycatch is brought back to landing centers to be later used for fishmeal and animal feed. The percentage of discards may be around 3 % Up to 800 species are taken by the trawls, indicating an urgent need to regulate trawl fisheries (Vivekenandan, 2013). - Dynamite/blast fishing is an example of destructive fishing. Explosives are used to 4 The analysis includes Bay of Bengal area, which are SACEP maritime countries (except Pakistan) 39 Figure 2 Impact of blast fishing

40 kill fish for easy collection, with tremendous negative effects on marine ecosystems such as coral reefs, as well as other vulnerable species linked to that ecosystem. Although not reported in South Asia, there is evidence that it exists (Arjan Rajasuriya, personal observation,). Another very harmful practice is the use of cyanide fishing, which is used to stun the fish and capture it alive, but with very negative impacts to the habitat and other marine vulnerable species in the surrounding area. - Unaccounted Mortality is one of the main issues that undermine fisheries management due to: misreporting, discarding (if the related deaths are not accounted for), escaping (e.g. encountering the gear but not being retained by it), dropping out during hauling, and ghost fishing. - IUU Fishing compromises existing efforts to improve fisheries management, adding to the uncertainty in decision making regarding the sustainable level of exploitation of fish stocks. IUU fishing is likely to ignore any specific regulations implemented to protect vulnerable species or habitats, or any type of measures to protect biodiversity, it may also be focused on high value species that are also highly vulnerable to fishing, and where risk of extinction may be of greatest concern, and could compromises measures for biodiversity conservation in legal, reported and regulated fisheries (FAO & UNEP, 2010). - Fisheries subsidies role maintaining or promoting the over-exploitation of fisheries resources needs to be better understood, specifically by looking at how they shape unsustainable practices in the marine capture fisheries sector. - Increased market demand for low value/trash-fish, specially directed for fishmeal, particularly for those countries were the demand of fishmeal for aquaculture is increasing. - Increased production of surimi in the region, which requires high amounts of raw material that comes from demersal species. The negative impacts of these issues are expected to worsen due to climate change. Further the loss of spawning and nursery areas of some commercial species due to the degradation of coastal habitats such as mangroves, or the loss or destruction of migratory paths are also affecting the fishery resources of SAS. For example, anadromous species such as Hilsa shad, which lives in the sea most of its life but migrates inland through rivers for spawning, are vulnerable to river basin changes, such as barrage development. The closure of the Kumar River under the Ganges-Kobadak Project, cut off the Hilsa migration route and, as a consequence, the Hilsa fishery in Bangladesh and India was severely affected (Ara-Mome, 2007). Aquaculture South Asia s total aquaculture production amounted to 6,138,043 tonnes, equating to just under 8 percent of the total world aquaculture production. The growth rate was 9 percent/year in terms of volume and 13 percent/year in terms of value between 2000 and 2010 (APFIC, 2012). The sector contributes to food security for millions of people, ensuring fish provision against a backdrop of declining wild fish stocks. In Bangladesh alone, more than 0.70 million people are employed in the farmed shrimp sector. The mainstay of the South Asia subregion has been production of freshwater fish, especially the omnivorous and herbivorous Indian carps. This increase is probably not heavily dependent on marine sources of feed, which may represent a real contribution in terms of food security (APFIC, 2012). Other 40

41 relevant species produced include lower value species, such as aquatic plants and mollusks, and other high value species such as marine finfish, and crustaceans. Aquatic plants had the strongest increase, of 43 percent/year between 2001 and 2010 although the production remained low at just tonnes (FAO, 2010). The culture of mollusks also increased rapidly by 28 percent/year between 2000 and 2010 with a production of tonnes. Most mollusk production in the region is of green mussel (Perna viridis) and Indian backwater oyster (Crassostrea madrasensis), and are both mainly produced in India. Marine finfish increased at a 14 percent/year between 2000 and 2010, however, production again remained small, at just tonnes in The main group cultured in the region is crustaceans, with a slower growth rate of just 2 percent/year between 2000 and 2010, and a production of tonnes in Main crustacean species produced are the giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon), mostly from India and Bangladesh. Some of the negative impacts of the aquaculture sector include: - the loss of large amounts of wild larvae - physical degradation of coastal habitats, such as the conversion of mangrove forest and the destruction of wetlands, land subsidence and the salinization of ground and surface water - discharge of suspended solids and enrichment of nutrients accompanying the aquaculture operations - changes in benthic communities and the eutrophication of coastal wetlands - risk of transmission of diseases from aquaculture species to wild stocks - introduction of non-native species into the natural ecosystem that can lead to displacement or competition with indigenous species (see section on Alien Invasive Species) These negative impacts could be minimized by applying sustainable practices that do not add pressure over wild stocks or over coastal and marine biodiversity Existing Strategic Actions - Policy, Legislative and Institutional Responses to Issues in the Fisheries and Aquaculture Sector in the South Asian Seas (SAS) Fisheries There is a considerable verbal and written support by countries towards sustainable fisheries management, with increased reference to good fisheries management initiatives, such as the Declaration of Fisheries Management Areas (Sri Lanka), Fleet Reduction targets in line with capacity limits (India), Marine and freshwater protected areas/no take-zones (Bangladesh), and Gear Restrictions (India). Additionally, National Action Plans on Sharks are being developed, with ongoing discussions of developing a regional plan for Bay of Bengal region. Despite the good intentions, however, many of the plans are not fully adopted by national authorities, and implementation is still weak in the SAS countries. Annex 1 outlines existing policy and management measures for the SAS region. A policy analysis carried out by BOBLME (2012), which looked into capture fisheries, the marine environment and integrated coastal management, concluded that the majority of countries are determined to increase marine capture fisheries despite doubts over the availability of fish. All countries emphasized the need to expand their national fleets offshore, mainly due to fully exploited inshore fisheries (as a way to reducing conflict), but also towards supporting the national fishery industry to 41

42 generate employment, ancillary industries and providing food security (Huntington, Tim & Graeme Macfadyeb, 2012). The analysis also identified: - the need for greater emphasis of catch certification and traceability for capture fisheries as well as aquaculture, both for domestic as well as regional and international markets - reduction of tariff barriers requires much greater policy attention - the need for balancing increase in exports with food security and environmental needs - capacity development needs - insufficient budget for MCS as major issues for successful policy implementation - challenges to incorporate elements of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing (CCRF) - increasing mention of EAF, but little implementation - a need for greater regional cooperation in adopting EAF and updating policies. International Agreements to promote Sustainable Fisheries and Regional Responses A number of international instruments have been formulated to address the issues of responsible fishing and sustainable management of fish stocks (see Annex 1 for more details). At the global level, two important instruments are the Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels (the 1993 FAO Compliance Agreement) which none of the SAS countries are party to, and the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982 (UNCLOS), which has been ratified by all five SAS members. Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (the 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement), which have been ratified by Maldives and Sri Lanka. India has acceded this international agreement while Bangladesh and Pakistan are signatory (Refer Annex 1). The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) entered into force on 29 December 1993, and is a strong commitment of the international community to sustainable development and the conservation of biodiversity, which has been ratified by all five SAS members. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF) came to force in 1995, to ensure the benefits of fisheries for future generations by encouraging responsible fishing practices. The FAO 2009 Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing, which lays out in detail the commitments and obligations that port states have relating to the use of their ports by fishing vessels and the vessels which service the fishery, has not yet entered into force but has been open for signing since 2009 and five countries in the region have already signed or acceded to the agreement (only Sri Lanka from South Asian Seas countries, APFIC 2012). 42

43 With the exception of Pakistan, which is located in the Arabian seas, the other four SAS countries were also Party to the agreement making the Bay of Bengal Programme Intergovernmental Organization (BOBPIGO, 2010). India, Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka are also members to the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC), which aim is to promote the conservation and optimum utilization of tuna stocks in the Indian Ocean. In 1979, the International Whaling Commission declared the Indian Ocean a Whale Sanctuary, prohibiting commercial whaling in the whole of the Indian Ocean. All South Asian Seas countries are also signatories to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), with the recent inclusion of Maldives. The Convention has included 18 species of sharks and Mantra rays in Appendix II to ensure sustainability in their stocks. Improving Fisheries Management through an Ecosystem Approach The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF) strives to balance diverse societal objectives, by taking into account the knowledge and uncertainties about biotic, abiotic and human components of ecosystems and their interactions and applying an integrated approach to fisheries within ecologically meaningful boundaries (FAO 2003). EAF aims to implement sustainable development concepts into fisheries management by addressing human and ecological well-being. The Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project Regional Fisheries Management Advisory Committee has provided an excellent example of advice on the major issues facing the regional fisheries for hilsa shad and Indian mackerel using the EAF. In Annex 9 there is an overview of the findings of the working group that could be used as example for other stocks. The EAF explicitly encourages the participation of all the relevant stakeholders in order to translate high level policy goals into day-to-day management activities. Voluntary certification schemes for capture fisheries Due to greater consumer awareness, voluntary certification schemes are on the rise. Despite their focus on sustainability, which has the potential to improve fishery management, the development and use of these types of schemes has certain challenges, such as UNEP has identified (UNEP, 2013): - the need of reliable data availability - risk of distortions to local markets and livelihoods due to an increase on exports - high certification related costs, which may hinder the capacity of small enterprisers to achieve certification. The only example of certification in the SAS countries is the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) Certification to Maldives pole-and-line skipjack tuna, which obtained certification in By-catch management Improving fisheries management would also require scientific studies of the ecosystem to which the bycatch species belongs, contributing to the knowledge of the state of non-target populations species linked to the fishery, whether they are increasing, decreasing, remaining stable or whether they are in danger of extinction. It is recommended that by-catch management plans should be developed for each 43

44 fishery, with the use of more selective fishing gear, and changes in fishing areas and seasons, including conservation management measures to protect most vulnerable and threatened species. Aquaculture Some SAS countries have specific regulations to manage aquaculture specifically in coastal areas, promoting sustainable aquaculture without causing damage to coastal ecosystems (e.g. Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act, 2005, Government of India). Due to greater consumer awareness on the impacts of aquaculture, there has been a rise of voluntary schemes for sustainable aquaculture development. The 2011 FAO Technical Guidelines on Aquaculture Certification set the minimum criteria for developing aquaculture certification standards, and should be followed by SAS countries to improve the sustainability of their aquaculture operations Conclusions and Recommendations Interventions should be designed and implemented with a holistic approach, taking into consideration not only fisheries concerns but also habitat and biodiversity concerns, as well as socioeconomic impacts. Some of the areas that require attention in the South Asian Seas region include: - Improving cooperation in areas of fisheries and aquaculture, particularly in the management of trans-boundary stocks, - Support South Asian countries in the implementation of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF), - Improve fisheries and aquaculture management, incorporating EAF and EAA principles and guidelines, - Combat IUU fishing, with clear measures on how to address the issue at the regional and national levels, and an effective Monitoring, Surveillance and Control (MSC) system - Identify and protect vulnerable habitats and species, including spawning and nursery grounds, - Prevent habitat degradation, by prohibiting destructive fishing methods in ecologically sensitive habitats, etc., - Ensure the maintenance of genetic diversity and the integrity of aquatic communities, through responsible and sustainable aquaculture, - Improve stakeholder involvement, through co-management mechanisms, - Implement measures that minimize by-catch, waste and discard, - Control the impact from fishing gear on habitats. - Improve aquaculture systems, increasing the sustainable use of natural resources (land, water, wild fry, etc.) and reducing unsustainable fishmeal production, - Introduce risk analysis and risk management measures when introducing species for aquaculture, to reduce environmental impacts, and the spread of diseases and pathogens. 5. Clean and productive waters: Prevention of Marine Pollution, especially through Excessive Nutrients Rapid economic development and population growth, much of it along the world s coasts, plus increasing agriculture and livestock production and processing, have placed huge environmental pressures on coastal ecosystems from direct resource use and the rising influx of nutrients and other pollutants from the land and atmosphere. Nutrients, such as Nitrogen (N), are a key part of delivering food security and sustainable development. But excess use and inefficient practices lead to nutrient 44

45 over-enrichment of water, sediment and soil causing eutrophication, algal blooms, species composition changes and ultimate habitat change in coastal areas. In addition changes in chemical properties like PH, and ion exchange in soil contribute to soil acidification, groundwater pollution in affected areas. These directly impact the marine and coastal ecosystem services and livelihoods they support. To mitigate these above issues, the Aichi Target 8 recommends that by 2020, pollution, including from excess nutrients, should be brought to levels that are not detrimental to ecosystem function and biodiversity. Presently this chapter only discusses pollution due to excess nutrient loading, yet the possibility of adding oil spills and marine debris to this section is under consideration Main Sources of Nutrient loading and their negative effects Box 6 Main Facts on Marine Pollution in SAS The world s largest natural hypoxic zone develops seasonally over the Western Indian continental shelf which appears to have intensified in recent years most likely because of enhanced nitrogen loading South Asia is the second largest fertilizer consuming region in the world with consequent pollution especially related to fertilizer overuse. Large urban centers within the coast line are without adequate sewage treatment facilities, and in many instances raw sewage are directly disposed to the marine environment The majority of the anthropogenic activities are conducted in the coastal zones or within the river catchments that releases to coastal zones. The consequence of these activities (agriculture or industrial activity, transport and commerce, power generation or urban developments) results in an inevitable release of pollutants (Fig. 5.1). Over the last 20 years, considerable data and expertise in understanding and addressing the various sectoral drivers, pressures, sources, impacts and response to nutrient enrichment and consequential eutrophication have been gathered. Model studies indicate that globally, roughly equal amounts of reactive Nitrogen reaches the oceans from fertilizer, manure and atmospheric deposition with smaller fractions from sewage (Setzinger et al., 2010). For the countries of the south Asian Seas region, fertilizer input is the most important contributor to nutrient pollution, although marginal differences may be observed in the context of a specific country. For example, in the case of Maldives, where agriculture plays a minor role in the economy, sewage is the major contributor (SACEP, 2014). Signs of degradation of aquatic, estuarine, coastal and marine ecosystems due to nutrient loading are evident at various locations in South Asia, with several reports on eutrophic zones due to excessive growth of algae and fish kills due to hypoxia. Estuarine and coastal systems in South Asia are N-limited and N loading through upwelling, sediment transport and sediment release can trigger algal blooms and 45

46 eutrophication (SACEP, 2014). For example, Nitrogen limitation has been reported from Mandovi-Zuari and Cochin estuaries on the west coast and Godavari and Hoogly estuaries on the east coast of India. Martin et al, (2011) report that anthropogenic nutrient loading (a six-fold increase in nutrient and chlorophyll levels during the last few decades) have caused a change in the benthic diversity of the Cochin estuary followed by an invasion of opportunistic polychaetes. In the Kodungallur-Azhikode estuary (Kerala, west coast), the major source of nutrients was associated with river discharge during the south-west monsoon (Jayachandran et al., 2012). A few of these issues are also trans-boundary issues, like discharge of untreated/partially treated sewage, and sewage and organic discharges from the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna River (BOBLME- TDA, 2012). Moreover, high nutrient discharges from rivers could intensify large-scale hypoxia, and a few hypoxic zones are already identified in the South Asian Seas. The world s largest natural hypoxic zone develops seasonally over the Western Indian continental shelf which appears to have intensified in recent years most likely because of enhanced nitrogen loading through runoff and atmospheric deposition (Naqvi et. al., 2000, 2009). Increasing reports on the number and frequency of algal blooms along the coast and concerns of development of hypoxic zones makes it imperative for efficient nutrient management in South Asian Seas countries, especially because more than 90 per cent of fisheries depend in one way or another on estuarine and near-shore habitats which are increasingly being impacted by nutrient over-enrichment of coastal waters. While nutrients are chemicals essential for the growth of organisms, nutrient pollution refers to the contamination by excess inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus into aquatic systems. This nutrient enrichment, eutrophication, initially stimulate growth of phytoplankton, microalgae and macroalgae, which in turn can lead to other impacts such as: - Loss of subaquatic vegetation as excessive phytoplankton, microalgae, and macroalgae growth reduce light penetration. - Change in species composition and biomass of the benthic (bottom-dwelling) aquatic community, eventually leading to reduced species diversity and the dominance of gelatinous organisms such as jellyfish. - Coral reef damage as increased nutrient levels favor algae growth over coral larvae. Coral growth is inhibited because the algae outcompetes coral larvae for available surfaces to grow. - A shift in phytoplankton species composition, creating favorable conditions for the development of nuisance, toxic, or otherwise harmful algal blooms. - Low dissolved oxygen and formation of hypoxic or dead zones (oxygen-depleted waters), which in turn can lead to ecosystem collapse due to mass fish kills. 46

47 Agriculture - Fertilizer Aquaculture - Fertilizer Surface runoff Municipal and sewage Tannery Textile Industry Ship Breaking Port activities - Dumping - Oil spill - Accidents Paper Fertilizer Erosion and sedimentation River and canal flow Tidal surge Mangrove Forest Nutrients and Pollutants in coastal and marine environment Figure 3 - Pathways of entering nutrients and pollutants in coastal and marine environment The following section provides a summary of the main pollution pathways to coastal and marine ecosystems. Agriculture Agriculture remains the major livelihood in SAS nations. However, fertilizer input continues to be the most important contributor to nutrient pollution, although marginal differences may be observed in the specific context of each country. While the world demand for total fertilizer nutrients is estimated to grow at 2.0 per cent per annum from 2011 to 2015, Asia is the largest consumer of fertilizer in the world. Total fertilizer nutrient consumption in Asia is 60 per cent of the world total, and South Asia is the second largest fertilizer consuming region in the world (FAO, 2011) with consequent pollution especially related to fertilizer overuse. Aquaculture Fisheries and aquaculture are practiced to a great extent in south Asian countries and the produce serves as one of the major source of protein to ensure food security as well as income through export, and a source of livelihoods. However, it also comes at a cost. For example, shrimp aquaculture demands the use of a variety of chemicals apart from artificial feed to achieve higher production. Chemicals used in shrimp culture include disinfectants, water and soil treatment compounds, algaecides and pesticides, plankton growth inducers (fertilizers and minerals) and feed additives. Highly polluted effluents from shrimp farms that are discharged into the coastal waters leads to eutrophication of the receiving waters. BOBLME (2013) revealed that much of the coastal pollution in the Northwestern Province of Sri Lanka has been attributed to ad hoc development of aquaculture leading to the discharge of high amounts of 47

48 effluents from shrimp ponds. This has already caused considerable pollution in the Dutch Canal (in the west) and the surrounding coastal areas. Domestic sewage Domestic sewage includes household waste liquid from kitchen, washing, bathing and toilets. Untreated sewage contains water, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), solids, pathogens, chemicals including detergents, oils and greases and heavy metals, among other constituents. In most countries, except for the large cities and towns, wastewater generated from homes is usually let untreated into the nearest water body. In Bangladesh, only a third of Dhaka city has wastewater collection and treatment facility while another third uses septic tanks. Most of the untreated or inadequately treated wastewater directly or indirectly reaches the river systems and finally reaches the bay through different canals, drains and estuaries (DFID, 2005). Similarly the mega coastal cities in India such as Chennai and Mumabai generate large amounts of wastewater, of which about half is not treated before discharge. The wastewater from metros cities located on the coast is mostly disposed into creeks, canals or backwaters. It is estimated that 0.6 million tonnes of nitrogen and 0.1 million tonnes of phosphorus reach the coastal waters annually (CPCB, 2009). Disposal of untreated sewage and food waste are believed to be major contributors to the nutrient influx to the marine environment in Maldives. This is evident from the growth of seagrass beds in the vicinity of islands following inhabitation or increased population in the islands. There are neither existing guidelines nor a framework for monitoring and assessment of nutrient levels in the marine environment (BOBLME, 2010). In Pakistan, it is estimated that approximately 362 million gallons per day (MGD) of sewage is generated in Karachi and adjacent areas from domestic and industrial sources. Approximately, 60 % are industrial effluents and 40% domestic discharges. The industrial waste-water and sewage are discharged into the two seasonal rivers: the Lyari River and the Malir River of Karachi. These rivers act as main open sewers for liquid waste disposal from the city. The Lyari and Malir Rivers are thus contributing about 59% and 25% of the total pollution load of Karachi City respectively, while 15% of the pollution load is directly discharged into the adjacent open seacoast or discharged via Gizri, Korangi and Gharo Creek (Amjad and Rizvi, 2000). Colombo is one of the few cities in Sri Lanka with an installed sewerage system, yet its capacity is inadequate to cater for the entire Colombo city as it is about 100 years old, and needs frequent repair. Another problem is the illegal sewage connections to sewerage lines and unauthorized connections to storm water drainage systems and combined sewers, leading to pollution of coastal water bodies such as the Beira Lake. Tourism expansion in southwest and southern areas of Sri Lanka has led to water quality degradation as well as visual pollution on beaches and near shore waters. The development of squatter settlements connected with tourism development is another cause for concern as it contributes to fecal pollution, being not only a health issue, but also poses a severe threat to recreational activities such as contact sports in coastal waters (CZMP, 2006). The high BOD and COD levels found during the one year study conducted by the University of Moratuwa in the coastal waters coincided with areas where tourism is predominant Marawila, Mount Lavinia, Wadduwa and Beruwala showed high levels during the northeast monsoon as tourist season falls in the months of December and January (Jayaweera, 2003). 48

49 Industrial actions Several industrial operations release effluents into the coastal areas There are more than 8,542 industrials establishments along the coastal zone of Bangladesh that deals with jute, paper and pulp, textiles, fertilizers, rubber and plastic, tannery, food and beverages, sugar, pharmaceuticals, tobacco, distilleries, cement clinker, ship breaking etc. The textile industries discharge waste water of 40,000 m3/day and pollution load of these industries is 26,000 kg/day. A rough estimation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) released from Ship breaking yards at Sitakunda, Chittagong at 22.5 tons per year (Islam, 2004). Approximately 95% India s trade by volume and 70% by value is moved through maritime transport. There are eight major ports on the Bay of Bengal coast and fifty three minor ports of particular concern is the potential for serious damage to livelihoods dependent on marine and coastal livelihoods in the event of major marine accidents such as oil or chemical spills from tankers (GoI, 2009). Major industries and mining activities situated within the coastal areas of India include textile industries, tanneries, paper and pulp mills, breweries, chemical factories, cement factories, sugar refineries, food processing industries (e.g. fish factories and slaughterhouses), fertilizer factories, oil refineries, and oil and gas exploration (an emerging activity). These contribute to transboundary marine pollution problems through inappropriate disposal of liquid wastewater, solid waste or atmospheric emissions. In Pakistan, Karachi is not only has the largest port in the country but it is also the industrial hub of the and the main source of pollution in the coastal waters of Sindh. There are currently over 6000 big and small registered industrial units operating in Karachi. These industrial units are located in Sindh Industrial Trading Estate (SITE), Landhi, Korangi, Malir and the Port Qasim Authority area). Industries that contribute most toward coastal water pollution in Sri Lanka are those dealing with textiles, paper, tanning, metal finishing and engineering, paints, chemicals, cement, food and beverages and distilleries. Small Industries that deal with coconut fiber retting also have highly localized impacts on water pollution. Most industries are not yet equipped with the basic infrastructure for waste treatment, while others are constrained in the use of available waste treatment facilities due to the high costs involved (CZMP. 2006) Existing strategic actions (national and regional levels) At national level, all SAS countries have enacted numerous legislation and policy on agriculture, waste management, aquaculture, fertilizer and agrochemicals to address this issue, yet the implementation is week as well as the nutrient loading issue is not address holistically, but on piece meal level. The countries are also party to various international treaties and are in agreement on implementing the international standards of coastal water management: - GPA, adopted in 1995, is a voluntary, action-oriented, intergovernmental programme led by UNEP, to prevent the degradation of the marine environment from land-based activities - The Global Partnership on Nutrient Management (GPNM) -a multi stakeholders global partnership for strategic advocacy and co-operation at the global and regional levels to build consensus in promoting nutrient use efficiency and work with stakeholders to develop guidance, strategies or policies on sustainable use of nutrients - Land Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone (South Asia node) 49

50 - BOBLME project - SACEP/SASP activities - SARRC Coastal Zone Management Center 5. 3 Conclusion and Recommendations There are clear overall indications of the effects of nutrient pollution throughout South Asia and a few of them are transboundary nature. Signs of degradation of aquatic, estuarine, coastal and marine ecosystems due to nutrient loading are evident at various locations in South Asia, as seen on eutrophic zones due to excessive growth of algae and fish kills due to hypoxia. Estuarine and coastal systems in the region are Nitrogen limited and Nitrogen loading can trigger algal blooms and eutrophication. Some of the estuaries, especially along the Indian east coast, are Phosphorus limited and are adversely affected by Phosphorus loading. The Western side of the Indian peninsula is already prone to seasonal development of natural hypoxic zones, whereas the East coast is relatively less prone to hypoxia. However, the most crucial factors of governance that contribute to nutrient pollution across the region are inadequate emphasis on nutrient use efficiencies and environmental standards in agriculture, poor sewage management and inadequate understanding that nutrients which are essential for food production, can be cause of pollution when released to the natural environment. The situation merits strong national and regional interventions, with a thorough assessment to understand the extent and scale of the problem, as well as to define remedial actions that could be pursued at various levels. The available information on nutrient losses from various human activities and their accumulation in the coastal zones of South Asia is very limited. This calls for detailed studies with actual long term measurements and simulation of nutrient pollution from source to sink (land to sea) for informed decision-making. Some of the recommendations identified for the region are: - Systematic studies should be initiated to quantify the sources, flows, fate and extent of current industrial, agricultural and municipal effluents and the nutrients they contribute to water bodies and their impacts on aquatic life, fishing as well as human health. - Methodologies and mechanisms should be developed for collection and sharing of data on the nutrient pollution status in different coastal regions of South Asia. - Sustained efforts are needed for increasing nutrient use efficiency, land and water productivity to improve agricultural productivity, sanitation and reduce pollution. - Land-based pollution should be minimized through integrated land use planning and land zoning for recycling of waste materials. - The nutrient load in the estuarine and brackish water fisheries and its impacts on fish catch, landing, species composition and seasonality, ecosystem productivity and human health need to be assessed to limit adverse impacts. - Pollution from ships and other transport systems as well as ship breaking industry should be tightly regulated through rigorous environmental impact assessment - Innovative new policies to combine the social benefits of eradicating open defecation with technologies (such as composting toilets or treatment plants) for recycling human wastes as fertilizers, along with awareness programmes to highlight the health hazards of untreated use of human excreta (or sewage contaminated with them) for crop production 50

51 - There is a strong need for a South Asian level intergovernmental working group/task force for coordinated sustainable nutrient management and protection of the region s coastal and marine environment, with governmental and civil society representatives from the above national bodies. This may work within, or coordinate with the existing intergovernmental processes, including the UNEP-GPA, SAARC, SACEP the BOBLME project, etc. and build on them for stronger regional cooperation on nutrient management. - Revisiting the existing regulations for nutrient pollution management in S. Asia and updating the national policies, regulation and action plans to accommodate the new challenges. Concurrent infrastructure development for rapid analysis of data and data sharing. 6. Ecologically representative and Effectively Managed MCP Network - Protecting biodiversity today for our future wellbeing Aichi Target 11 requests countries that by 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effective and equitable management, are ecologically representative and there are well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, integrated into the wider landscape and seascape. Box 7 - Prominent Categories of MPAs Fully Protected no take zones Multiple use (balance between biodiversity conservation and human utilization of resources) Areas protected under Multilateral initiatives UNESCO MAB, World Heritage, Ramsar Shared MPAs - between two or more nations o Trans-boundary (within the jurisdiction of two or more countries) o High seas PAs (areas beyond national jurisdictions) Protected Area (PA) within the coastal and marine environment can have many definitions and can take many different forms around the world. For the purpose of the Regional Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy (MCBS), the CBD definition is used, which describes a Marine and Coastal Protected Area (MCPA) as an area within or adjacent to the marine environment, together with its overlying waters and associated flora, fauna and historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other effective means, including customs, with the effect that its marine and/or coastal biodiversity enjoys a high level of protection than its surroundings 5. In the context of the Regional MCBS, it is also necessary to include indigenous and community conserved areas, or ICCAs, which are defined as natural and/or modified ecosystems containing significant biodiversity values, ecological services and cultural values, voluntarily conserved by Indigenous peoples and local communities, both sedentary and mobile, through customary laws or other effective means (ICCA Forum, 2012)

52 6.1 Main MPA areas in SAS, Levels of protection and Challenges in Enforcement [*Consideration: This section requires additional information (by country) on the extent to which each critical habitat (mangrove, seagrass, coral) has been included in MPAs, as well as classification of MPAs by IUCN category]. The overall legal framework for biodiversity protection and PA establishment in Bangladesh, India, Maldives and Sri Lanka is centered on a main national legislation, while Pakistan has enacted several state laws (Annex 10). Yet, owing to the sectoral nature of the administrative systems for biodiversity conservation on coastal and marine ecosystems, several other laws also supplement the main legislation in identification and establishment of MCPAs. These sectorial legislations vary in the degree to which their provisions support the conservation of species and habitats depending on the primary objectives of each sector. Of relevance to PA in SAS countries: - The PA coverage of Bangladesh is 10.72% of total Forest Area of the country and there are 17 NPs (45,745 ha) and 19 Wildlife Sanctuaries ( ha). These are declared under the Wildlife (Preservation) Act and of the PAs, eleven contain coastal elements; 2 NPs and 6 sanctuaries protecting mangroves and 3 sanctuaries established for the protection of dolphins (Refer section 2.1). Under the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995, 12 Ecological Critical areas (ECA) have been designated some of which are MCPAs. Only one MCPA has been declared under the Marine Fisheries Ordinance 1983, demarcating 698 km2 for the protection and management of Hilsa closures (MEF/GoB, 2014; BOBLME, 2011). - In India, presently there are 690 PAs covering 1, 66,851 km or 5.07% of the country's geographical area under the Wildlife Protection Act The 23 MPAs of peninsula India covers about 6158 km 2, which is 3.85% of the total PA coverage. Further there are 105 PAs in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, about 100 include marine areas. These MPAs cover more than 30% of the terrestrial area of the islands and protect more than 40% of the coastal habitat. In the Lakshadweep group of islands, Pitti Island (0.01 km 2 ) is the only island having the status of an MPA. Additionally, coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 1991 declares coastal stretches of sea bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers and back waters which are influenced by tidal action up to 500 m from high tide line and intertidal zone, as the Coastal Regulation Zone (MoEF/GOI, 2014) - The Maldives does not have any specific legislation for biodiversity conservation per se, but the existing Environment Protection and Preservation Act (Law No 4/93) incorporates provisions for PAs. Present PA system includes a network of 27 dive sites, in which only diving and bait fishing are allowed; 3 Protected Mangrove areas; and 4 protected islands. Maldives has pledged to become the first nation where the entire country and its Exclusive Economic Zone will be a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve by The entirety of Baa Atoll was declared a UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve in June 2011 (MEE/GoM, 2012). 52

53 - In Pakistan the PA system covers an area of 109,969 km2 or % of the area of Pakistan. 114 PAs cover 12% of the area of the country. No exclusive Marine PAs have been established. Hingol NP and three Wildlife Sanctuaries contain coastal elements such as mangroves, estuarine environment and salt marshes. There is neither a national biodiversity policy nor legal framework for mainstreaming biodiversity in the planning and development process. At least nine sites have been identified as potential MPAs including the Indus delta, Astola Island and Miani Hor (Sonmjani Bay) (CCD/GOP, 2014 and 2012). Box 8 Main facts on MPAs in SAS SAS is lagging behind in protecting Marine environment and presently less than 0.5% of the EEZ is protected Most MCPAs are contained in near-shore habitats such as mangroves or coral reefs Other than the Indian Ocean whale Sanctuary, there are no shared MPAs in the region to protect trans-boundary species or habitats Cooperation and coordination between biodiversity and fishery sectors in PA establishment is limited, despite being recognized by legislation - In Sri Lanka, the total Protected Area coverage at 2010 is around 1.84 million ha representing about 28% of the total land area of the country. Wildlife and the Forest Departments manage the majority of these. Additionally, 8 Environmental Protection Areas (EPAs) have been gazetted by the CEA under the National Environmental Act of The majority of these PAs are terrestrial, while 7 National Parks, 25 sanctuaries and 1 SNR contain costal and marine elements. Further 15 mangrove areas are designated as Conservation Forests. The Coast conservation Act (CCA) amendment No 49 of 2011 also paves the way for more positive coastal zone management. It has provisions to declare: affected areas where no development, dumping of waste or damaging activity can be carried out, beach parks for preservation of scenic beauty and biodiversity, and conservation areas for the protection of the coastal and aquatic eco-systems, where no development activity will be permitted. Several near shore areas (mainly lagoons and estuaries) have also been gazette as Fishery Management Areas under the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act (MoERE/GoSL, 2014). 6.2 Regional and Global Initiatives A number of regional and global initiatives are taking/will take place of relevance to marine and coastal protected areas, such as: The South Asian Seas Action Plan (SASP) emphasizes the importance of co-operation between the member states for the establishment and management of national protected coastal and marine habitats, and aims the establishment of a regional network of protected areas, through joint activities to protect coastal ecosystems and wildlife and through the training of technical and managerial personnel for the conservation of wildlife and habitats. 53

54 As part of the CBD work on Protected Areas and Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas, for the marine environment, a workshop for the Bay of Bengal region will be held in March The CMS Indian Ocean South-East Asia Marine Turtle Memorandum of Understanding (IOSEA) Marine Turtle Site Network is awaiting the nomination of sites by the SAS countries. No sites have been designated by the IMO as Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA). A PSSA 6 is an area that needs special protection through action by IMO because of its significance for recognized ecological or socio-economic or scientific reasons and which may be vulnerable to damage by international maritime activities. The BOBLME project has taken action for collaborative critical habitat management (e.g. Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka). The SAS region falls within the Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary established by Indian Whaling Commission. There are 19 Ramsar sites with coastal and marine elements within the region. Annex 1 provides biologically significant ecosystems designated under international process such as Conventions. 6.3 Conclusions and Recommendations The number of MCPAs has increased over the years to provide protection for coastal and marine ecosystems, especially near-shore habitats such as coral reefs, mangroves, estuaries, lagoons and beaches. Many are part of terrestrial PAs, but the protection of open waters remains comparatively very low. A more detailed analysis is necessary to determine whether the existing MCPAs are effectively conserving a representative range of habitats and ecosystem types, as well as species that need urgent conservation (e.g. turtles, sharks, etc.). Despite this increase on the numbers of MCPAs in the region, there are some existing issues regarding their management: - Lack of coordination: Different categories of PAs established under same law or several laws can be found within larger continuous habitats - eg: Indian Sundarbans contain a NP, three wildlife sanctuaries an a Tiger Reserve coming under same legislation and agency Negambo estuary in Sri Lanka 4 categories of PAs declared under four legal enactments coming under different agencies - Most of the MCPAs are small in extent, and as such, may not sufficiently protect species with wide habitat ranges or those reliant upon dispersal reproductive strategies - Conservation in the region has been focused on terrestrial issues and there is comparatively much less expertise in marine resource management, especially in protecting fishery resources and migratory species. Although Legislation specifically for establishing protected areas in the marine environment is somewhat developed, but not being utilized

55 - Majority of South Asia s PAs pay insufficient attention to ecological criteria and the requirements of communities - mobilization of local communities as well as private sector including dive and tour operators and hoteliers is a must Therefore, the development of effective national MPA (and other special conservation systems set seasonal or other type of restrictions) would require: (a) clarity in institutional mandates within agencies which have responsibilities for MCPAs; (b) development of strong coordination mechanisms within agencies with responsibilities relevant to the marine environment; (c) coordination between fishery and biodiversity sectors; (d) greater attention to ecological criteria and the requirements of communities; (e) mobilization of local communities as well as private sector including dive and tour operators and hoteliers; (f) PAs be re-categorized on the basis of ecosystem services they provide; and (g) PA valuation studies be carried out. Further collaboration between national, regional (BOB-IGO, SEAFDEC, SAARC CZMC, etc.) and Global partners such as UNEP, CBD (EBSA) and FAO in identifying, establishing and monitoring PAs within the Open Oceans and high seas - especially with regard to protecting migratory species. Some regional interventions for consideration could include: Look beyond national jurisdictions and adopt regional approaches for managing shared resources Transboundary and High Seas MPAs (e.g. The Chagos Maldivian and Lakshadweep archipelago; Seasonal marshes, mudflats and brackish water lagoons of Runn of Kutch Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay: Sundarban mangroves) Update the existing protected area database of UNEP-WCMC and develop a mirror site for the SACEP website as well as linking with the existing national websites Development of a regional capacity development programme to assist national partners that will include site networking and lessons sharing facilities. 55

56 PART III: The Way Forward - Framework for Action in addressing the Aichi targets within the context of the South Asian Seas Region Vision, Regional Targets and the Implementation Framework for the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy for SAS region SAS Vision Statement for 2020 and Beyond South Asian Seas countries share healthy marine and coastal ecosystems rich in biodiversity that will continue to provide ecosystem services for the wellbeing of the people, and the social and economic development of the region (Colombo Workshop Outcome, 2014). To this end the purpose of the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy (MCBS) is to provide a framework for cooperation and collaboration amongst the five maritime countries of South Asia and other stakeholders, for the application of Ecosystem Approaches in managing coastal and marine resources, that will ensure the conservation of biodiversity and safeguard ecosystem services for the wellbeing and poverty reduction of the people of South Asia. This strategy is underpinned by the following guiding principles: - The use of the Ecosystem Approach - Government commitment at every level - Maintaining Healthy and Resilient Ecosystems - Recognition of the economic, social and cultural values of marine and coastal ecosystems - Adaptive management and learning by doing - Precautionary approach and risk analysis - Participatory and Inclusive - Commitment to Human Rights and Gender Equality - Building and Strengthening Partnerships (not reinventing the wheel but collaborate and cooperate with existing initiatives and programmes) Regional Targets 1. Ensuring Ecosystem Services and Wellbeing GOAL 1: Ensure the provision of ecosystem services of the coastal and marine habitats for the wellbeing of coastal communities in SAS region (Aichi Targets 5, 10, 14 & 15). Desired Outcome: The health of ecosystems and livelihoods of coastal communities has improved as a result of protection, restoration and sustainable use of marine and coastal ecosystems services. Target 1: By 2030, at least 10 % of coastal habitats have been restored to pre-degraded status: mangroves loss halted by 2020 and mangrove area increasing by 2030, there is no net of coral reef or 56

57 seagrass by 2020, through a reduction of the key anthropogenic pressures that erode the resilience of coral reefs, seagrass and mangroves. [*Consideration: Indicators: Area covered; number, type and effectiveness of contingency, mitigation, management and monitoring plans created] Actions under Target Plan and implement scientifically sound restoration programs for degraded coastal and marine ecosystems (mangroves, coral reefs, seagrasses, lagoons and estuaries) 1.2. Increase equitable participation of coastal communities in managing the resource base through formal co-management mechanisms Build capacity among stakeholders for co-management, the ecosystem approach, natural resource governance, participatory management and monitoring, etc Develop and implement models for Benefit Sharing in marine management based on Ecosystem Service assessment and valuation, and build related capacity Establish a mechanism for enhanced regional collaboration in shared natural marine and coastal biodiversity management under SACEP Revitalize the South Asia Coral Reef Task Force and national Task Forces [*Consideration: Include action: Create a regional database with updated information of the status and trends of coastal and marine ecosystems (mangroves, coral reefs, seagrasses, lagoons and estuaries)] [*Consideration: Include action: Identify the main drivers causing seagrass loss, and develop specific actions to address them] [*Consideration: Include action: Enhance the capacity of SAS countries to develop and implement marine spatial planning and integrated coastal management]. 2. Prevention of Species Extinction GOAL 2: Globally threatened Marine and Coastal species (such as turtles, marine mammals, sharks, migratory shorebirds, seabirds, coral, sponges, mollusks, mangroves and seagrasses species) are protected and without risk of extinction within the SAS Region (Aichi Target 12) Desired Outcome: No extinctions of and reduced extinction risk among endangered marine and coastal species within the SAS region. Target 2: By 2020, all critically endangered and endangered species and the ecosystems they inhabit have been identified, including extent and status and there is improvement in [no further deterioration of] their conservation status as a result of measures for their protection. [*Consideration: Indicators: IUCN Red List, CITES, CMS; number, type and effectiveness of conservation plans created] Actions under Target Conduct surveys of critically endangered and endangered species, their distribution and threats to identify conservation measures needed. 57

58 2.2. Develop comprehensive recovery or management plans for priority species and Implement main conservation measures identified in the management/recovery plans Form national and regional committees to promote inter-agency dialogue for specific species as needed Establish principles and standards for tourism and other economic activities that use or affect endangered species Establish collaborative long-term monitoring programmes for transboundary species Build capacity on taxonomy, endangered species legislation, eco-tourism development etc. 3. Control of Alien Invasive Species GOAL 3: Marine Invasive Alien Species do not pose a threat to the native biota of the SAS Region Desired Outcome: The risk of introduction of marine and coastal IAS to South Asia is mitigated through management measures and safeguards, and alien species already introduced are controlled so as to prevent invasion. Target 3: By 2030, Marine and coastal IAS risks in SAS are identified, knowledge on control of transmission pathways is improved and countries adopt regionally coherent policies and practices for marine IAS prevention and control [*Consideration: Is this target sufficiently quantitative and measurable?] Actions under Target Ensure access to information on IAS, including establishment of regional data and information sharing mechanism and where possible drawing on and further developing existing databases such as GISD 3.2. Regional IAS risk assessment including identification of pathways for introduction and spread in the region Establish of a Regional collaborative mechanism on IAS, such as an Expert Task Force established under SACEP and in collaboration with relevant agencies such as IMO 3.4. Establish regionally coherent approaches/guidelines for e.g. risk screening for commercial use of non-native species (in aquaculture) and reducing risk of spread through marine species trade and tourism Raise awareness about IAS among the general public as well as policy makers 3.6. Ratification of the Ballast Water Convention by SAS countries and implementation of its provisions 4. Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture GOAL 4: Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture in SAS region underpin food security and economic development 58

59 Desired Outcome: Fisheries and aquaculture in the South Asian Region are managed so as to support livelihoods and food security of coastal people as well as economic development, without compromising ecological integrity and inter-generational equity. Target 4: By 2030, all fisheries and aquaculture activities are developed and managed using an ecosystem approach and guided by a management plan, and by 2020 there are specific measures in place in each fishery to avoid by-catch, particularly of endangered and vulnerable species. [*Consideration: Perhaps include more quantitative information, such as: Overexploitation of fish stocks has been reduced by xx% and plans are in place for recovery of depleted species?]. [*Consideration: Indicators: FAO, UNEP, CMS, CITES state and trends reports, number, type and effectiveness of measures developed and implemented] Actions under target Improve catch reporting and fisheries statistics, as well as environmental assessment of the effects of fishing Combat illegal unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, with clear measures on how to address this issue at the regional and national levels Implement measures that minimize by-catch, waste and discard Control/Minimize the impact of fishing gear on habitats, especially critical habitats, and endangered Develop regional protocols on Monitoring Control and Surveillance (MCS) Prepare recovery plans for all depleted species (with special focus on trans-boundary species) Promote and build capacity for application of an ecosystem approach in fishery resource management Drawing on global efforts where possible, develop regional guidelines on use of an ecosystem approach in aquaculture (including waste management and fish feed) Drawing on global efforts where possible, develop regional standards for sustainability certification of fishery and aquaculture products [*Consideration: Include action: Identify specific needs and develop and implement specific measures to limit by-catch of endangered and vulnerable species]. 5. Prevention of Marine Pollution GOAL 5: Marine Pollution, especially nutrient loading, is brought to sustainable levels in the SAS region Desired Outcome: Pollution loading from land and sea, and in particular nutrient loading, is brought to a level that does not degrade coastal ecosystems, threaten biodiversity, contribute to anoxia, or otherwise exacerbate ecosystem vulnerability to climate change and ocean acidification. Target 5: By 2020, nutrient use efficiency in agriculture is increased by 20%, and marine pollution from municipal wastewater and vessels is reduced by [*Consideration: have nutrient use efficiency targets been set at national levels or are such processes underway? how does the proposed target correspond to these?] [*Consideration: Include Indicator: GPA Indicators (Process, Stress Reduction, Environmental Status); Ports Environment Management Measures] Actions under target 5: 5.1. Update National Plans of Actions under GPA 59

60 5.2. Enhance the nutrient efficiency and recovery in agriculture, livestock, poultry and aquaculture sectors Improve treatment of sewage including enhancing nutrient recovery, through development of municipal secondary and tertiary treatment as well as other methods appropriate in rural areas 5.4. Promote efficient solid waste management practices [*Consideration: Should specific actions on marine litter, including a status and source study be included?] 5.6. Develop and implement marine water quality standards for SA seas Improve disposal facilities for oils and other waste in major and minor sea ports/harbors and fish landing sites. 6. Effective and Equitable Governance of Marine and Coastal Protected Areas [*Consideration: should this be merged with 1 Ecosystem Services and Wellbeing, including a specific target on arebased management, or retained in a separate section here?] GOAL 6: Marine and Coastal Protected Areas in South Asia effectively conserve biodiversity and generate ecosystem service benefits to stakeholders. Desired Outcome: Marine and Coastal Protected Areas in South Asia form an ecologically connected network of well managed sites with the participation of all stakeholders including indigenous and local communities, and support ecosystem service provision of the marine and coastal environment also beyond protected area sites, Target 6: By 2020, countries have put in place measures for effective and equitable management of PAs, including management plans and periodic assessment of management effectiveness for all protected areas and other area-based conservation measures, and at least 10 % of coastal habitats have been incorporated in newly established protected areas through a participatory approach. [*Consideration: This target requires baseline information on percentage of each ecosystem already in MPAs. Please include if you have this information]. [*Consideration: Include Indicator: MPA extent and management effectiveness; area/seasons/species covered] Actions toward target 6 [*Consideration: Could this section be strengthened with quantitative indicators?] 6.1. [*Consideration: Include action: Identify the percentage of coastal (and marine) ecosystems already covered by MCPAs] 6.2. Establish regional standards/practices for assessing and enhancing management effectiveness of existing MCPAs, drawing on existing international, regional and national tools and measures Identify vulnerable habitats and species (with particular attention to trans-boundary ecosystems) and develop area-based management measures for their protection Establish a regional institutional network mechanism for and the creation of a Regional Network of MPAs and Protection of Trans-boundary and migratory species, based on past regional efforts under SACEP/SAS. 60

61 6.5. Promote legislative and institutional reform to secure MCPA effectiveness and impact and guaranteeing equitable benefit sharing among stakeholders Organize exposure and exchange programs to learn from countries within the South Asian region, and also from other regions, to learn about effective management and governance measures. Regional Cross-cutting Actions [*Consideration: What cross-cutting actions are missing?] A number of priority actions cut across all Regional Goals and Targets and are critical to their achievement. This includes the following: Governance and Participation: - Develop equitable benefit sharing measures, with the local communities and other stakeholders, for benefits arising from conservation and protection measures. - Ensure full and effective participation of indigenous/local communities, regarding their rights and recognition of their responsibilities, particularly during the management of existing PAs, and the establishment and management of new PAs. - Ensure recognition of tenure rights of local communities and recognition and inclusion of traditional knowledge. Incentive Mechanisms - The use of incentives for each regional targets should take into account cultural and traditional aspects, avoiding or replacing perverse incentives. - [*Consideration: Include consideration of subsidy systems, e.g. reform of subsidies that contribute to biodiversity loss and environmental degradation, such as may fuel and fishing capacity subsidies, toward subsidies that reward and promote sustainable green economy practices?] Capacity Building and Training - Develop capacity building and training programmes for all relevant decision makers and stakeholders, at regional, national and local levels Information Exchange and Public Awareness - Organize exposure and exchange programs to learn from countries within the South Asian region, and also from other regions (e.g. thematic areas of effective management, natural resource governance, financial mechanisms for the protection of biodiversity, etc.) Enabling the Implementation of the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy SACEP s role implementing the Strategy and coordinating regional collaboration SACEP was created to fulfill a Vision based on the following assumptions: - Recognition of environmental degradation caused by factors like poverty, over population, over consumption and wasteful production threatening economic development and human survival; - Integration of environment and development as essential prerequisites to Sustainable Development, and - Importance of co-operative action in the South Asian region where many ecological and development problems transcend national and administrative boundaries. 61

62 The Mission of SACEP is to promote regional co-operation in South Asia in the field of environment, both natural and human in the context of sustainable development and on issues of economic and social development which also impinge on the environment and vice versa; to support conservation and management of natural resources of the region and to work closely with all national, regional, and international institutions, governmental and non-governmental, as well as experts and groups engaged in such co-operation and conservation efforts. Based on this and being the Secretariat for the South Asian Seas Programme, SACEP should be the agency to lead and coordinate the implementation and promotion of the Strategy, including crosscutting interventions, and make it operative. This does not mean that SACEP should be in charge of implementing each one of the actions, but rather, SACEP should be in charge of coordinating and collaborating with regional partners, including government departments, financers, and research institutions with member countries. Leadership for monitoring, reporting, resource mobilization and capacity building can rest with SACEP. Communicating the strategy A comprehensive communication strategy should be developed with the following goals: - to raise the visibility and understanding of priority actions of the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy; - to secure high-level political support from national leaders and international partners, to promote appropriate principles and tools that can be incorporated into national management frameworks, - to build the communications capacity within national partners to conduct effective outreach, - to establish branding guidelines, - to establish a protocol for the flow of information to and from the Regional Secretariat, the NBSAP secretariats, Technical Working Groups, Council of Ministers, and other stakeholders. Communication is a critical component for the success of the implementation of the strategy, and should focus reaching not only the obvious institutions participating in marine and coastal governance, but also other not so evident such as the Ministries of Finance and Economic Planning. The communication strategy can also assist SACEP in raising its visibility at the regional and national level and among domestic and international partners. Such a strategy is vital to achieving the overarching objectives in the Implementation Framework, and could be a part of an overall communication strategy for SACEP. Engaging broad partnership/stakeholder outreach and coordination is also essential for successful implementation of the strategy. Efforts need to be made early on, to engage relevant stakeholders to achieve the strategic goals and targets. Similarly increasing public awareness of the national, regional and global importance of the strategy needs to be started early on. Outreach actions should clearly delineate international, regional, national and local economic and social benefits. Specific target audiences both within the SACEP as well as external audiences and partners ranging from local governments and community groups, to international development partners and scientific organizations 62

63 need to be identified. Given that the strategy needs to reach varied audiences the outreach materials need to be developed accordingly and in the different national languages as well as in English. An initial assessment needs to be carried out to: identify objectives, target audiences, and key messages to be conveyed, identify specific outreach products and tools to be incorporated into a broader communications program, examine the potential to establish the communication strategy as a regional forum, develop a Work Plan and a Staffing and Management Plan for the first year (lessons learned during the first years will help refine and strengthen the plans for the outer years), identify national, regional and international partners to support the delivery of the communication program, identify supportive operationalization and institutionalization structures including the media, radio and TV, and assess how the information flow will be channeled between SACEP membership and outside agencies, Partners, and stakeholders. Conservation Finance: Options for financing Strategy implementation The sustainability of the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy will also be dependent on other additional considerations, such as the availability of funds to implement activities and carry out assessments, and partnerships created, contributing in different ways, for example, changing industry practices. National governments and other institutions will have to commit funds and incorporate the agreed plans into their national budgets. For other regional activities requiring extra-budgetary support, a number of financial instruments can be considered. Below is a list of possibilities: - The Global Environment Facility, GEF, in its evaluation of conservation trust funds emphasizes four essential conditions: a commitment of at least years; active government support for a public-private sector mechanism outside direct government control; a critical mass of people from diverse sectors of society working together to achieve biodiversity conservation and sustainable development; and legal and financial practices and institutions that are supportive and in which people have confidence. Other conditions noted by GEF include: the initial capitalization, together with other resources available on a recurrent basis, should allow a meaningful program, keeping operating costs within a range of 20-25%; a strong Executive Director; strong stakeholder involvement and financial and administrative discipline. - The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) launched the Carbon Fund in It provides performance-based payments to countries that have made significant progress in their REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) endeavors. Mangrove forests are eligible to apply to this Fund. The FCPF is a global partnership of governments, businesses, civil society, and Indigenous Peoples to combat deforestation and forest degradation, promote forest carbon stock conservation, and the sustainable management of forests. - The Conservation Finance Alliance (CFA) discusses a new type of environmental asset targeting the conservation of Protected Areas: Park Bonds which are defined as a fixed income product that offers investors the opportunity to participate in the financing of conservation projects through the capitalization of an International Trust Fund. Interest will be distributed to bond holders and identified beneficiaries. These Bonds could be issued by an International Trust Fund for Protected Areas (ITFPA), either hosted by a Multilateral Development Agency such as the World Bank or the Global Environment Facility. - The Conservation Trust Funds (CFT) are mechanisms for releasing funding on a regular basis that could be used to support the implementation of the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy. These funds are becoming increasingly popular but their establishment requires 63

64 technical expertise and institutional commitment. The establishment of CTFs require a group of diverse stakeholders with a common vision, a demand for funds from capable implementing organizations, the existence or possibility of quickly establishing a basic legal and financial framework, government buy-in and take into account the relevant political, legal and governance contexts, and linkage to existing regional or national environmental strategies or PA management plans, a consultative process, the identification of a diverse sources of finance, and ensure the mobilization of sufficient resources and protect against over-reliance on a single source of funding. - Other potential sources of funds include: the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank and other bilateral donors such as DIFID, CIDA, AusAid. - Lessons can be learned from other regions, such as the Mesoamerican Reef Fund, which was created in 2004 to help support financing of the conservation and sustainable use of the marine and coastal ecosystems of the Mesoamerica Reef, an ecoregion shared by four countries (Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and Honduras). Partnerships [*Consideration: Please identify possible partnerships for the implementation of the strategy and provide details of the type of support partners could provide] Implementing the strategy successfully will require of sound partnerships with collaborating agencies. They may include multilateral and bilateral agencies, IGOs, UN agencies, government agencies, private sector agencies, NGOs and community organizations. The Strategy should rely on the work of these other partner organizations (e.g. those named in Annex 1), as they shall be instrumental for implementing the Strategy. Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) An appropriate system for Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) needs to be established, not only to make sure that the interventions towards achieving the targets are on track, but also for capturing and sharing lessons. In order to efficiently monitor the progress of the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Strategy for South Asia, a systematic monitoring strategy with useful and measurable indicators need to be developed. The monitoring action plan needs to take into account: - Changes in the direction towards achieving the regional targets, such as: o Changes in population density, including migration patterns o Changes in the levels and frequency of threats o Improvements in management and effectiveness o Improvements in enforcement and compliance of laws and regulations - Progress towards the defined biodiversity outcomes, including measurement of environmental indicators - Clearly defined roles and expected deliverables of local, national, regional and international partners - New models and tools developed - Creation or strengthening of partnership with civil society organizations, government organizations, private sector and other relevant institutions. 64

65 The implementation and monitoring framework will be further developed in detail during the second workshop. The monitoring strategy will have to keep track of the progress of the regional actions, and be reported to member nations, bilateral and multilateral partners and to the CBD Secretariat. Implementation and Monitoring Framework [*Consideration: Please provide comments on the implementation and monitoring framework, including in particular in relation to indicators and how to measure these] Table 3.1 Implementation and Monitoring framework 1. Ensuring Ecosystem Services and Wellbeing GOAL 1: Ensure the provision of ecosystem services of the coastal and marine habitats for the wellbeing of coastal communities in SAS region (Aichi Targets 5, 10, 14 & 15). Desired Outcome: The health of ecosystems and livelihoods of coastal communities has improved as a result of protection, restoration and sustainable use of marine and coastal ecosystems services. Target 1: By 2030, at least 10 % of coastal habitats have been restored to pre-degraded status: mangroves loss is halted by 2020 and mangrove area increasing by 2030, there is no net of coral reef or seagrass by 2020, and there is a reduction of the key anthropogenic pressures that erode the resilience of coral reefs, seagrass and mangroves. [*Consideration: Indicators: Area covered; number, type and effectiveness of contingency, management and monitoring plans created] Activity Indicator/s Partners Time Frame/Possible funding sources 1.1 Plan and implement scientifically sound restoration programs for degraded coastal and marine ecosystems (mangroves, coral reefs, seagrasses, lagoons and estuaries) 1.2 Increase equitable participation of coastal communities in managing the resource base through formal co-management mechanisms. Extent recovered/replanted No of initiatives; diversity Species No of comanagement/community based mechanisms created and functioning for the sustainable management of coastal and marine resources. National (MoE, FD, DW, Research institutions, NGO/CBOs) International (SACE/SASP, SAARC- CZMC, Mangrove for the Future; IUCN, WWF, UNEP, RAMSAR, UNESCO- MAB; UNESCO-WH; Coral Reef Initiative, Global Coral Reef Monitoring Framework) Monitoring every 3 years Funding sources (to be discussed at the next WS) GEF - Biodiversity Monitoring every 2 years GEF - Biodiversity Governance effectiveness indicators on coastal areas. 65

66 Awareness programmes developed on the importance of conservation of coastal and marine resources. Sustainable livelihood options provided Build capacity among stakeholders for co-management, the ecosystem approach, natural resource governance, participatory management and monitoring, etc. No of training/workshops Capacity programs. Monitoring established assessment mechanisms Monitoring every 2 years GEF - Biodiversity 1.4. Develop and implement models for Benefit Sharing in marine management based on Ecosystem Service assessment and valuation, and build related capacity. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Center( WCMC) Implementation of the Nagoya Protocol Existence of at least one example per country on Payment for Ecosystem Services UNEP TEEB Nagoya Protocol Implementation Fund UNEP - TEEB 1.5 Establish a mechanism for enhanced regional collaboration in shared natural marine and coastal biodiversity management under SACEP. No of initiatives (e.g. Reactivation of the South Asia Coral Reef Task Force; joint working group on managing Resoures at Gulf of Mannar, Sundarbans etc) and type of activities carried out among countries Monitoring every 2 years GEF - Biodiversity 1.6 Revitalize the South Asia Coral Reef Task Force and national Task Forces. No of meetings held by the SACR Task Force and other Task force members Monitoring every 2 years 66

67 national task forces a year 1.7 [*Consideration: Include action: Create a regional database with updated information of the status and trends of coastal and marine ecosystems (mangroves, coral reefs, seagrasses, lagoons and estuaries)]. Existence of the database with timely updating 1.8 [*Consideration: Include action: Identify the main drivers causing seagrass loss, and develop specific actions to address them]. Seagrass study Monitoring every 2 years 1.9 [*Consideration: Include action: Enhance the capacity of SAS countries to develop and implement marine spatial planning and integrated coastal management]. No of capacity building activities held on MSP and ICZM and their effectiveness Number, type and effectiveness of MSP and ICZM plans developed and implemented UNEP, Environment and Coastal Departments Every 5 years 2 Prevention of Species Extinction GOAL 2: Globally threatened Marine and Coastal species (such as turtles, marine mammals, sharks, migratory shorebirds, seabirds, coral, sponges, mollusks, mangroves and seagrasses species) are protected and without risk of extinction within the SAS Region (Aichi Target 12) Desired Outcome: No extinctions of and reduced extinction risk among endangered marine and coastal species within the SAS region. Target 2: By 2020, all critically endangered and endangered species and the ecosystems they inhabit have been identified, including extent and status and there is improvement in [no further deterioration of] their conservation status as a result of measures for their protection. [*Consideration: Indicators: IUCN Red List, CITES, CMS; number, type and effectiveness of conservation plans created] Activity Indicator/s Partners Time Frame/Possible funding sources 67

68 2.1 Conduct surveys of critically endangered and endangered species, their distribution and threats to identify conservation measures needed Develop comprehensive recovery or management plans for priority species and Implement main conservation measures identified in the management/recovery plans. No of surveys National (MoE, Research Institutions, NGO/CBOs) No management/recovery plans developed/ No of workshops of International (CMS - IOSEA Marine Turtle, MoU on Dugongs and Sharks ; IOTC, BOB-IGO, BirdLife International; IUCN, WWF, CITES) Monitoring every 3 years GEF Biodiversity/International Waters 2.3. Form national and regional committees to promote inter-agency dialogue for specific species as needed. No of task force/ or other mechanisms established No of meetings held Monitoring every 2 years SACEP to implement 2.4. Establish principles and standards for tourism and other economic activities that use or affect endangered species. No of joint monitoring programmes held Monitoring every 3 years BOBLME SAP 2.5. Establish collaborative long-term monitoring programmes for transboundary species. No of monitoring programs developed for transboundary species 68

69 2.6. Build capacity on taxonomy, endangered species legislation, ecotourism development etc. No of workshops/training held 3 Control of Alien Invasive Species GOAL 3: Marine Invasive Alien Species do not pose a threat to the native biota of the SAS Region Desired Outcome: The risk of introduction of marine and coastal IAS to South Asia is mitigated through management measures and safeguards, and alien species already introduced are controlled so as to prevent invasion. Target 3: By 2030, Marine and coastal IAS risks in SAS are identified, knowledge on control of transmission pathways is improved and countries adopt regionally coherent policies and practices for marine IAS prevention and control [*Consideration: Indicators: Number, type and effectiveness of mitigation plans, Biodiversity Indices, IMO Ratification and related activities] Activity Indicator/s Partners Time Frame/Possible funding sources 3.1. Ensure access to information on IAS, including establishment of regional data and information sharing mechanism and where possible drawing on and further developing existing databases such as GISD Database webpage SACEP to facilitate 1 year after approval Global Invasive Species Database l 3.2. Regional IAS risk assessment including identification of pathways for introduction and spread in the region. No surveys; Biodiversity developed Indices National: National maritime authorities. Research and tech. groups International: SACEP- Start now and have it ready by 2020 SASP; UNESCO- IOC; 69

70 3.3. Establish of a Regional collaborative mechanism on IAS, such as an Expert Task Force established under SACEP and in collaboration with relevant agencies such as IMO No of meetings Meeting reports IMO; IUCN Every 2 years 3.4. Establish regionally coherent approaches/guidelines for e.g. risk screening for commercial use of nonnative species (in aquaculture) and reducing risk of spread through marine species trade and tourism. No of countries which become party to new initiatives following the approached/guidelines developed Every year 3.5. Raise awareness about IAS among the general public as well as policy makers Survey to assess the understanding of MIS Number of policies that make reference to MIS (including risk analysis, prevention, control, and quarantine measures on introduced species for aquaculture). SACEP to facilitate Every 2 years IMO and FAO Awareness campaign about MIS for general public, for policy makers in charge of signing IMO Convention and the Aquaculture Industry 70

71 3.6. Ratification of the Ballast Water Convention by SAS countries and implementation of its provisions Number of SAS countries which have ratified the BW Convention IMO 4 Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture GOAL 4: Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture in SAS region underpin food security and economic development Desired Outcome: Fisheries and aquaculture in the South Asian Region are managed so as to support livelihoods and food security of coastal people as well as economic development, without compromising ecological integrity and inter-generational equity. Target 4: By 2030, all fisheries and aquaculture activities are developed and managed using an ecosystem approach and guided by a management plan, and by 2020 there are specific measures in place in each fishery to avoid by-catch, particularly of endangered and vulnerable species. [*Consideration: Perhaps include more quantitative information, such as: Overexploitation of fish stocks has been reduced by xx% and plans are in place for recovery of depleted species?]. [*Consideration: Indicators: FAO, UNEP, CMS, CITES state and trends reports, number, type and effectiveness of measures developed and implemented] Activity Indicator/s Partners Time Frame/Possible funding sources 4.1. Improve catch reporting and fisheries statistics, as well as environmental assessment of the effects of fishing. Trends of CPUE, biological parameters, MSY National: Environment/Fisheries Ministries and Departments; Research institution and academia Every 2 years BOBLME SAP 4.2. Combat illegal unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, with clear measures on how to address this issue at the regional and national levels National regulations and strategic plans to address IUU Develop National Plan of Action to combat IUU in line with International Plan of Action adopted by FAO International: BOBP IGO; IOTC, FAO; UNESCO-IOC BOBLME SAP Every 2 years 4.3. Implement measures that minimize by-catch, No of regulations and practices that are incorporated to reduce by- Every 3 years 71

72 waste and discard. catch, waste and discard FAO, BOBLME SAP Partnerships with private sector and certification schemes 4.4. Control/Minimize the impact of fishing gear on habitats, especially critical habitats, and endangered. No of regulations, MPAs FAO, BOBP-IGO, Departments of Fisheries Every 2 years Partnerships with private sector and certification schemes 4.5. Develop regional protocols on Monitoring Control and Surveillance (MCS). No and type of instruments created FAO, BOBP-IGO, Departments of Fisheries Every 5 years FAO, IMO, Port State Measures 4.6. Prepare recovery plans for all depleted species (with special focus on trans-boundary species). No of recovery plans Departments of Fisheries Every 3 years BOBLME SAP 4.7. Promote and build capacity for application of an ecosystem approach in fishery resource management. Number of transboundary and national stocks that have EA management plans FAO, BOBLME SAP, BOBP-IGO Every 3 years BOBLME SAP GEF International Waters 4.8. Drawing on global efforts where possible, develop regional guidelines on use of an ecosystem approach in aquaculture (including waste management and Regulations to control wild seed and feed. Aquaculture in place. Certification FAO, BOBLME SAP, BOBP-IGO 2 years from approval FAO, Partnerships with private sector and certification schemes 72

73 fish feed) Drawing on global efforts where possible, develop regional standards for sustainability certification of fishery and aquaculture products. Criteria for Regional Certification Standards created FAO, BOBLME, UNEP Partnerships with private sector Every 2 years follow up [*Consideration: Include action: Identify specific needs and develop and implement specific measures to limit by-catch of endangered and vulnerable species]. Studies developed on fisheries selectivity, FAO, BOBLME, Fisheries sector, UNEP, CMS Every 3 years follow up 5 Prevention of Marine Pollution GOAL 5: Marine Pollution, especially nutrient loading, is brought to sustainable levels in the SAS region Desired Outcome: Pollution loading from land and sea, and in particular nutrient loading, is brought to a level that does not degrade coastal ecosystems, threaten biodiversity, contribute to anoxia, or otherwise exacerbate ecosystem vulnerability to climate change and ocean acidification. Target 5: By 2020, nutrient use efficiency in agriculture is increased by 20%, and marine pollution from municipal wastewater and vessels is reduced by [*Consideration: have nutrient use efficiency targets been set at national levels or are such processes underway? how does the proposed target correspond to these?] [*Consideration: Include Indicator: GPA Indicators (Process, Stress Reduction, Environmental Status); Ports Environment Management Measures] Activity Indicator/s Partners Time Frame and possible funding sources 5.1. Update National Plans of Actions under GPA 5.2. Enhance the nutrient efficiency and Physiochemical parameters Government SACEP-SASP; UNEP-GPA, 2 years 73

74 recovery in agriculture, livestock, poultry and aquaculture sectors. GPNM; LOICZ South Asia Node; UNEP-GPA GEF 5.3. Improve treatment of sewage including enhancing nutrient recovery, through development of municipal secondary and tertiary treatment as well as other methods appropriate in rural areas Physiochemical parameters of nearshore waters (e-coli, BOD etc) 3 years Large coastal cities 5.4. Promote efficient solid waste management practices. No of programmes 3 years Large coastal cities 5.5. [*Consideration: Should specific actions on marine litter, including a status and source study be included?] Study conducted UNEP, SACEP, Environment Ministries 5.6. Develop and implement marine water quality standards for SA seas. No of regulations that affect effluent water standards in the region (nutrient levels in effluent discharged, No of sewers established, No of septic tanks in non-urban areas, etc.) UNEP, SACEP; 3 years UNEP-GPA 5.7. Improve disposal facilities for oils and other waste in major and minor sea ports/harbors and fish landing sites. Number of facilities for collecting and recovering oil and waste, Oil levels in main ports, Solid waste management measures in place. IMO 3 years UNEP-GPA IMO GEF 74

75 6 Effective and Equitable Governance of Marine and Coastal Protected Areas GOAL 6: Marine and Coastal Protected Areas in South Asia effectively conserve biodiversity and generate ecosystem service benefits to stakeholders. Desired Outcome: Marine and Coastal Protected Areas in South Asia form an ecologically connected network of well managed sites with the participation of all stakeholders including indigenous and local communities, and support ecosystem service provision of the marine and coastal environment also beyond protected area sites, Target 6: By 2020, countries have put in place measures for effective and equitable management of PAs, including management plans and periodic assessment of management effectiveness for all protected areas and other areabased conservation measures, and at least 10 % of coastal habitats have been incorporated in newly established protected areas through a participatory approach. [*Consideration: Include Indicator: MPA extent and management effectiveness; area/seasons/species covered] Activity Indicator/s Partners Time Frame and possible funding sources 6.1 [*Consideration: Include action: Identify the percentage of coastal (and marine) ecosystems already covered by MCPAs] Area covered UNEP, IUCN, SACEP Every 5 years 6.2. Establish regional standards/practices for assessing and enhancing management effectiveness of existing MCPAs, drawing on existing international, regional and national tools and measures Trends in extent of MCPAs, and management effectiveness 6.3. Identify vulnerable habitats and species (with particular attention to transboundary ecosystems) and develop area-based management measures for their protection. Gap analysis reports Marine Spatial Planning in place with regular reporting SACEP, IUCN, UNEP, BOBLME SAP, CITES, CBD 3 years GEF Biodiversity and International Waters 75

76 6.4. Establish a regional institutional network mechanism for and the creation of a Regional Network of MPAs and Protection of Transboundary and migratory species, based on past regional efforts under SACEP/SAS 6.5. Promote legislative and institutional reform to secure MCPA effectiveness and impact and guaranteeing equitable benefit sharing among stakeholders. MoU signed, Existence of the Regional Network, Coverage of Key Biodiversity Areas, Management Effectiveness (including equitable management) No of legislations and plans enacted Governance effectiveness indicators MoU drafted and operative 5 years GEF Biodiversity and International Waters Monitoring every 2 years 6.6. Organize exposure and exchange programs to learn from countries within the South Asian region, and also from other regions, to learn about effective management and governance measures. No of training and exchange programs carried out UNESCO - IOC 76

77 ANNEXES Annex 1: The international obligations of the SAS countries (National level participation of Conventions, Initiatives and other process - as of 10 th September 2014) Bangladesh India Maldives Pakistan Sri Lanka Conventions Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety Nagoya Protocol on Access & Benefit sharing (NIF) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) MoU on IOSEA Marine turtles MoU Dugong MoU Marine Sharks Central Asian Flyway The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food And Agriculture (IPGRA) 03/05/ /02/1994r 09/11/1992r 26/07/1994r 23/03/1994r 05/05/2004r 11/09/2003r 11/09/2003a 31/05/2009r 26/07/2004r 06/09/2011s 09/10/2012r 20/11/1981r 20/07/1976r 12/12/2012a 20/04/1976a 04/05/1979a 1/12/2005 1/11/1983 1/12/ /.09/ rs rs rs rs rs rs rs rs rs rs rs rs 14/11/2003r 10/06/2002r 02/03/2006a 02/09/2003a Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 21/09/ /02/ /11/ /10/1990 UNESCO World Heritage 03/08/198a 14/11/1977r 22/05/1986a 23/07/1976r 06/06/1980a Convention (WHC) UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 27/07/2001r 29/06/1995r 07/09/2000r 26/02/1997r 19/07/1994r (UNCLOS) Agreement on Part XI 27/07/ /06/ /09/ /02/ /07/1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement 05/11/2012r 19/08/200a 30/12/1998r 15/02/1996s 24/10/1996r IMO Environmental Related Conventions MARPOL 73/78 party party party party party OPRC Convention party party Ballast Water Management Convention -NIF party Other Initiatives, Programmes, projects Millennium Development Goals party party party party party RIO+20 The Future We Want party party party party party UNEP Global Programme of Action party party party party party For the Protection from Land Based Activities SACEP/South Asian Seas Action Plan party party party party party SAARC Coastal Zone Management party party party party party Center Bay of Bengal Large Marine party party party party Not a party Ecosystem Project Mangrove for the Future Imitative party party party party party Global Environmental Facility party party party party party 77

78 UNESCO Man and Biosphere Programme Indian Ocean Tuna Commission and its various Resolutions on Fisheries BIrdLife International Asia (NGO partners) Land Ocean Interaction in the Coastal Zone South Asia node International Coral Reef Initiative Wetland International party party party party party party Party NIF Not in Force; r- Ratification; s signatory; rs Range State Annex 2: Government and international organizations in SA supporting conservation, management and sustainable use of marine and coastal resources Countries Government authorities Roles of the organizations Bangladesh Ministry of Environment and Forests Conservation and management of natural environment including mangroves, wetlands, sea grass meadows and coral reefs Forest Department Conservation and management of mangroves, wetlands. Water Resources Planning Integrated Coastal Zone Management Organization IUCN Bangladesh Education, contributions to national efforts in conservation of living resources. India Ministry of Environment and Forests Conservation and management of natural environment including mangroves, wetlands, sea grass meadows and coral reefs Forest Department Conservation and management of mangroves, wetlands. Department of Animal Husbandry Dairying & Fisheries (DADF) Ministry of Earth Sciences (Centre for Marine Living Resources and Ecology Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Directorate; The National Institute of Ocean Technology; ESSO - Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services) IUCN India Promoting research and education on marine living resources. Reporting possible conservation & restoration measures. Dissemination of information and services for sustainable exploitation and management. Education, contributions to national efforts in conservation of living resources.. Maldives Ministry of Environment and Energy Coordination of matters related to the environment Environment Protection Agency Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture Marine Research Center Conservation and management of resources and a regulatory body responsible for IEE and EIA approvals management of fisheries Responsible for coral reef monitoring, fisheries research and monitoring of sensitive habitats. 78

79 IUCN - Maldives supporting environmental conservation and addressing development challenges. Project Regeneration is aimed at enhancing resilience of social-ecological coral reef systems. This initiative is supported by USAID. Pakistan Climate Change Division Coordination of matters related to the environment. Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency Overall responsibility in the management of the environment including coastal and marine Sri Lanka IUCN - Pakistan WWF- Pakistan Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Department of wildlife Conservation Forest Department Central Environmental Authority Department of Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Marine Environment Protection Authority National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency IUCN Sri Lanka Education, contributions to national efforts in conservation of living resources. Coordination of matters related to the environment Management of fishery resources and conservation of species Conservation of coral reefs and management of marine protected areas Conservation of mangroves Mainly a regulatory body for granting IEE and EIA approvals. Also responsible for setting up environmental quality standards and safeguarding the environment. In charge of the coastal zone and is also a regulatory authority entrusted with granting approvals for IEE and EIA within the coastal zone. Responsible for controlling marine pollution from land based sources and from ships including control of invasive alien species. Responsible for research and monitoring of sensitive marine ecosystems and species. Also responsible for fisheries data collection and determining maximum sustainable yields of marine resources and monitoring water quality. Education, contributions to national efforts in conservation of living resources. Annex 3: National Legal framework for coastal and marine biodiversity conservation Main legislation Sectoral Frameworks Forestry Fisheries Other Bangladesh Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation (Amendment) Act, 1974 Forestry Act, 1927; Forest (Amendment) Ordinance, 1989 Marine Fisheries Ordinance, 1983; Marine Fisheries Rules, 1983 Environment Protection Act, 1995 India Wildlife Protection Act of 1972: Forest Act, 1927, Forest(Conservat Indian Fisheries Act, 1897; Marine Fishing Biological Diversity Act, 2002; Environment 79

80 ion) Act, 1980 Regulation Act, 1978; State Fisheries Acts Protection Act, 1995; Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 1991; Maritime Zones Act, 1976 Maldives Environmental Protection and Preservation Act of 1993 Fisheries Law of 1987 Pakistan Balochistan Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation and Management) Act (1974); Sindh Wildlife Protection Ordinance (1972, amended 1993) Forest Act 1927 The Pakistan Fisheries Ordinance, 1961 Environmental Protection Act, 1997 Sri Lanka Flora and Fauna Protection Ordinance, 1937 Forest Conservation Ordinance,2009 National Heritage and Wilderness Act 1988 Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act the No. 2 of 1996 Fisheries & Aquatic Resources (Amendment) Act, No.35 of 2013 Coast Conservation Act 1981 National Environment Act, 1981 Maritime Zones Act, 1976 Sources: MoFE/GgoB, 2005; Rajagopalan and Lakshmi, 2003; Annex 4: Species of Conservation Concern Recorded from the Coastal and Marine Ecosystems of South Asia Common English Name Scientific Name Global Conservation Status IUCN Red listing CITES and CMS Appendices Mammals Sei Whale Balaenoptera borealis EN CITES A 1/CMS A 1 Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus EN CITES A 1/CMS A 1 Fin Whale Balaenoptera physalus EN CITES A 1/CMS A 1 80

81 Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus VU CITES A 1/CMS A 1 Hump whale (Arabian sea pop) Megaptera novaeangliae EN CITES A 1/CMS A 1 Indo Pacific Finless Porpoise Neophocaena phocaenoides VU CITES A 1 ssp. asiaeorientalis Ganges River Dolphin Platanista gangetica EN CITES A 1/CMS A. 11 Indus Blind Dolphin Platanista gangetica EN CITES A 1 Irrawaddy Dolphin Orcaella brevirostris VU CITES A 1 Indo-pacific Humpbacked Sousa chinensis NT CITES A. 1 Dolphin Short-finned Pilot Whale Globicephala macrorhynchus DD CITES A. 11 Melon-headed Whale Peponocephala electra LC CITES A. 11 Bridled Dolphin Stenella attenuata LR/cd CITES A 11/CMS A 11 Spinner/Long-beaked Dolphin Stenella longirostris DD CITES A 11/CMS A. 11 Rough-toothed Dolphin Steno bredanensis DD CITES A 11/CMS A 1 Southern Right Whale Eubalaena australis LC CITES A 1/CMS A 1 Minke Whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata LC CITES A 1/CMS A 1 Bryde s Whale Balaenoptera edeni DD CITIES A I/CMS AII Pygmy sperm whale Kogia breviceps - DD CITIES A II Dwarf sperm whale Kogia sima DD CITIES A II Killer Whale Orcinus orca DD CITES A II/CMS A I & II False Killer Whale Pseudorca crassidens DD CITES A II Pygmy Killer Whale Feresa attenuata DD CITES A II Melon-headed whale Peponocephala electra LC CITES A II Risso's Dolphin Grampus griseus LC CITES A II Fraser s dolphin Lagenodelphis hosei LC CITES A II Dugong Dugong dugon VU CITES A 1/CMS A1 Bengal tiger Panthera tigris tigris EN CITES A 1 Asian Elephant Elephas maximus EN CITES A 1 Indian Wild Ass Equus hemionus ssp. Khur VU CITES A 1 & 11/CMS A 11 Leopard Panthera pardus EN CITES A 1 Indian Smooth-Coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata VU CITES A 11 Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus EN Oriental Small-clawed Otter Aonyx cineria VU Waders and Sea birds Christmas island Frigatbird Fregata andrewsi CR CITES A 1 Red-Breasted Goose Branta ruficollis VU CITES A 11/CMS A 1 &11 Oriental White Stork Ciconia boyciana EN CITES A 1/CMS A.1 Spotted Greenshank Tringa guttifer EN CITES A 1/CMS A 1& 11 Spoon billed sand piper Eurynorhynchus pygmeus CR CMS A 1& 11 Christmas island Frigatbird Fregata andrewsi CR CITES A 1 Masked Finfoot Heliopais personata EN Lesser Adjacnt Leptoptilos javanicus VU Hooded Crane Grus monacha VU CITES A 1/CMS A 1 &11 Dalmatian Pelican Pelecanus crispus VU CITES A 1/CMS A 1 &11 Indian Skimmer Rynchops albicollis VU Greater Adjutant Leptoptilos dubius EN Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus VU Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris VU 81

82 Reptiles Saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus LR/Ic Mugger crocodile Crocodylus palustris VU CITES App.1& 11 Olive Ridley Turtle Lepidochelys olivacea VU CITES App. 1 Leather back Turtle Dermochelys coriacea CR CITES App. 1 & 11/CMS APP. 1 & 11 Hawksbill Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata CR CITES App. 1 & 11/CMS APP. 1 & 11 Green Turtle Chelonia mydas EN CITES App. 1/CMS App. 1& 11 Logger head Turtle Caretta caretta EN CITES App. 1 & 11/CMS APP. 1 & 11 Batagur terrapin Batagur baska CR CITES App. 1 & 11/CMS APP. 1 & 11 Indian tent turtle Kachuga tecta Asian Giant (Frog-faced) turtle Pelochelys cantorii EN Softshell Turtle Indian soft shelled turtle Lissemys punctata Aspideretes gangeticus Peacock marked soft shelled turtle Aspideretes hurum Common Indian monitor Yellow monitor Varanus bengalensis Water monitor Varanus flavescens Indian rock python Varanus salvator Asiatic (Indian) Rock Python Python molurus NT Fish Humphead /Napoleon wrasse Rhincodon typus VU Giant Grouper Cheilinus undulates EN Banded Eagle Ray Epinephelu lanceolatus VU CITES App. II Largetooth Sawfish Pristis pristis CR CITES App. II Largetooth Sawfish Pristis microdon CR CITES App. II Knifetooth Sawfish Aetomylaeus nichofii VU CITES App. II Grey Nurse Shark Anoxypristis cuspidate EN Pondicherry Shark Carcharias taurus EN Queen Triggerfish Carcharhinus hemiodon CR Whale Shark Rhincodon typus VU CITES App 11 Great Oceanic white tip Carcharinus longimanus VU CITES App 11 Great hammerhead shark Sphyrna mokarran EN CITES App 11 Smooth hammerhead shark Sphyrna zygaena VU CITES App 11 Scalloped hammerhead Sphyrna lewini En CITES App 11 Great White shark Carcharodon carcharias VU CITES App 11 Ganges shark Balistes vetula VU Fossil Shark Glyphis gangeticus CR Triggertail Seahorse Hemipristis elongates VU Common Seahorse Hippocampus comes VU Headhodge Seahorse Hippocampus kuda VU 82

83 Devil Fish Hippocampus spinosissimus VU Tawny Nurse Shark Mobula mobular VU Sharptooth Lemon Shark Nebrius ferrugineus VU Freshwater Sawfish Negaprion acutidens VU Shark Ray Pristis zijsron EN Common Shovelnose Ray Rhina ancylostoma VU Whitespot Giant Guitarfish Rhinobatos typus VU Smoothnose Wedgefish Rhynchobatus djiddensis VU Leopard Shark Rhynchobatus laevis VU Bigeye Tuna Stegostoma fasciatum VU Porcupine Ray Thunnus obesus VU Whitecheek Shark Urogymnus asperrimus VU Carcharhinus dussumieri NT Invertebrates Giant clam Tridacna squamosa Black coral Antipatharia True stoney corals Family: Acroporidae, Astrocoeniidae, Pocilloporidae Alveopora fenestrate Catalaphyllia jardinei Acanthastrea brevis Physogyra lichtensteini Pectinia alcicornis Acropora hemprichii References: VU VU VU VU VU VU Annex 5a: Important Bird Areas (IBAs) located within the coastal zone Total IBAs located near to the coastline Threatened bird species recorded IBAs Bangladesh (Ganges- Brahmaputra-Meghna delta; Pelecanus philipensis, Leptoptilos javanicus, Leptoptilos dubius, Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Haliopasis personata, Eurynorhynchus pygmeus, Tringa guttifer, Rynchops albicollis, Tringa guttifer Gyps bengalensis, Gyps indicus, Pelicanus crispus, Pelecanus philipensis, Aquila clanga, Aquila heliaca, Falco naumanni, Grus antigone, Rynchops albicollis, Parus nuchalis, Saxicola marorhyncha, Tringa guttifer Anous tenuirostris Pelicanus crispus, Pelecanus philipensis, Leptoptilos javanicus Ref: Bird life International,

84 Annex 5b: Percentage of Threatened Migratory birds by region Migratory birds know no political borders, and they are a shared resource among the different countries they migrate to during their life time. No action in one country alone can save these migratory birds. It is a group of birds that need joint action among countries and their peoples. It is a group of birds that need regional action for conservation in its breeding, wintering and lay over sites along its flyways. Of the nine flyways of the world, the Central Asian and the East Asia and Australasian Flyways which straddle the different South Asian Countries has the most number of globally threatened birds. This reflects a challenge and an opportunity that can be addressed together by the people of South Asia. A jointly developed and implemented programme on flyways and migratory birds conservation would be helpful to bring ordinary people together and also government institutions as well. The promotion of citizen science to monitor birds along the flyway will encourage ordinary people, students, birdwatchers and local communities to contribute to this programme across the region. A good example of this citizen science is what the Indian Bird Conservation Network (IBCN) does. It be an opportunity for governments, international organisations, corporations and other stakeholders to work together considering their own contexts and capacities. These organizations and other people can participate in flyway wide events such as the Welcome to the Birds events that reaches out to people from all walks of life and help make people aware of migratory birds and their flyways. Migrant watch in Sri Lanka is an example of a series of events that promotes migratory birds and flyways. Such a programme is ideal to promote network among people. This can also be a way of generating data from a regular and sustained source which will be important for tracking and assessing the impact of conservation actions 84