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1 MICROGRIDS Promotion of microgrids and renewable energy sources for electrification in developing countries The sole responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors. It does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the European Communities. The European Commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.

2 INDEX INDEX i 1. Basic Project Data 1 2. Contact Information 2 3. Summary 3 4. Objectives 4 5. Summary of Results Promotion and Dissemination Training Analysis of Local Needs Design Of An Electrification Kit 7 6. Why Africa? 8 7. Why Senegal? Why Microgrids? Microgrids and Renewable Energies Promotion and Dissemination Potential Deployment for Microgrids for Rural Electrification Opportunities of Microgrids for Rural Electrification Benefit of Microgrids for Rural Electrification. How to Replicate the Microgrids Experience Last Conferences in Dakar and Bilbao Additional Activities Training Analysis of Local Needs Methodology Results 30 Socioeconomic data 31 Energy data 34 Economic data 39 Estimation of consumption 41 The potential of renewable energies 43

3 13. Design of an Electrification Kit Selection of energy sources Methodology Introduction Global sizing System layout Grid configuration System sizing Safety Tariff plan Operation and maintenance Kit Design Description of the procedure Load profile Results for Ndramé Results for the areas of Thies, Fatick and Kaolack Wind energy considerations Physical configuration Electrical configuration Financial considerations Errors to be Avoided Recommendations General issues Community implication Barriers Electrification kit design Lessons Learnt Conclusions 74

4 1. BASIC PROJECT DATA NAME Promotion of microgrids and renewable energy sources for electrification in developing countries LOCATION Senegal DURATION From 2006 January 1 st to 2007 December 31 st WHO ROBOTIKER (Spain) LIPSI-ESTIA (France) CERER-UCAD (Senegal) SEMIS (Senegal) ASER-ESP-PERACOD (Senegal) Regional Council of Dakar (Senegal) Ministry of Energy and Mines (Senegal) MAIN PURPOSE Promotion and dissemination of the use of micro-grids with high content of RES (Renewable Energy Sources) for the electrification of villages far away from the grid in Senegal MAIN RESULTS Mobilization of target agents Analysis of local elecrification needs Training of local people/ Construction of educational kit Design of an electrification kit 1

5 2. CONTACT INFORMATION ROBOTIKER (Spain, Project Coordinator) José Ángel Alzola Address: Parque Tecnológico, edif Zamudio, Spain Tel: Web: LIPSI-ESTIA (France) Haritza Camblong Address: Tecnopole Izarbel Bidart, France Tel: Web: CERER-UCAD (Senegal) Tidiane Niang Address: Université Cheikh Anta Diop B.P 5005 Dakar, Senegal Tel: Web: 2

6 3. SUMMARY Senegal is a country in West Africa which enjoys some of the highest levels of social and economic stability of the whole region. Nevertheless, due to its low per capita income (approximately 550 US dollars) and other social indicators, Senegal forms part of the List of Least Developed Countries listed by the UN (at position 158 of 174 states). To mention some siginificant figures, the literacy rate is around 40% and life expectancy around 56 years. Though many factors have contributed to create this situation, there is no doubt that the limited access to energy services is directly linked to poverty, especially in the countryside. 50% of the 12 million Senegalese live in rural areas, and 85% of them have no access to electricity. It is within this context that the Microgrids project aims to contribute towards the development of these policies. This project is part of the Intelligent-Energy Europe programme of the European Commission. Its objective is the promotion and dissemination of the use of microgrids with a high content of renewable energies (REs) for the electrification of settlements far from the electrical grid in Senegal. During the years 2006 and 2007 many activities have been carried out to contribute towards this direction: Training activities in Europe and Senegal to train energy sector professionals on the basic concepts related to RES, energy efficiency and micro grids. Implementation of an educational kit for didactical purposes. Specialised workshops, conferences and workshops in Dakar and in target rural areas (Thies, Fatick and Kaolack) to facilitate networking, transfer of know-how and sharing of experiences. Analysis through extensive surveying of the specific electrification needs of the target areas. Design of an electrification kit specially suited to the needs detected in the target areas. As a result, it can be said that the main objectives of the project have been reached: To increase the awareness of public and private sector energy stakeholders regarding the availability of cost-effective applications of renewable energy technologies. To strengthen stakeholder capacity to evaluate, plan, finance and implement renewable energy policies and projects 3

7 4. OBJECTIVES The main objectives of the project are the promotion and dissemination of the use of micro-grids with high content of RES (Renewable Energy Sources) for the electrification of villages far away from grid in Senegal. It involves the participation of several partners from a sub-saharan country, Senegal, interested in the application of RES to address the particular problems of rural poverty and sustainable development. The project aim is to help raise awareness about RES through the training of energy sector professionals, lecturers and training professionals, private sector companies and local authorities in Senegal in concepts related to RES, energy efficiency and micro grids. This formation will also include the necessary training so that these professionals can later carry out an analysis of the electrification needs of the Senegalese rural areas. The project builds a critical mass of human capital with up-to-date knowledge and expertise in the latest technologies for increasing the use of Promotion and dissemination of the use of microgrids with high content of RES for the electrification of villages in Senegal renewable energies, contributing to the main objective of the COOPENER programme. Operative objectives aim at training of energy sector professionals, lecturers and training professionals, private sector companies and local authorities in Senegal in Renewable Energy Sources (RES), energy efficiency and micro grids. Later they will carry out an analysis of the electrification needs of Senegalese rural areas. The European partners will then design a KIT with the components necessary to electrify a rural village, using the energy resources locally available and training the energy professionals from the developing country about all issues related to its installation and operation. The project seeks to increase the awareness of public and private sector energy stakeholders regarding the availability of cost-effective applications of renewable energy technologies, and to strengthen stakeholder capacity to implement renewable energy projects. Planners and technicians will be able to perform high quality and low cost preliminary feasibility studies for renewable energy projects in rural areas. 4

8 5. SUMMARY OF RESULTS 5.1. PROMOTION AND DISSEMINATION The Microgrids Website ( was started in June. It provides all the information needed by the general public, as well as restricted access areas for information exchange between partners. It has been updated according to the progress of the project. The triple Workshop Potential deployment of micro grids for rural electrification was held from December 18 th to 21 st 2006 with different sessions in the areas of Fatick, Kaolack and Thies. The Conference in Dakar Opportunities of Microgrids for Rural Electrification took place in Dakar in April 24 th 2007 under the patronage of the recently created Ministry of Renewable Energies, with extensive attendance of professionals of the public and private sector and visible presence in the media. The Coopener Contractor s meeting Energy Services for Poverty Alleviation in Developing Countries held in Berlin in on 6-7 March 2007 was attended by two representatives of the project, who also joined the "Africa-Europe Energy Forum - Towards an Africa-Europe Energy Partnership". The triple Seminary Benefits of Microgrids for Rural Electrification. The Microgrids experience was held from October 23 rd to 25 th 2007 with different sessions in the areas of Fatick, Kaolack and Thies. The Conference Benefits of Microgrids for Rural Electrification. The Microgrids experience took place in Dakar in October 30 th The Minister of Renewable Energies opened the sessions which gathered agents from all sectors. The Advanced Training Course in Microgrids was held form October 23 rd to 30 th The educational kit was used to Most of the events took place in Senegal since the aim is the mobilisation of all local agents involved in rural electrification 5

9 explain in Dakar and in the rural areas the possibilities of microgrids for rural electrification. The Conference Benefits of Microgrids for Rural Electrification. The Microgrids experience took place in Bilbao in November 15 th The Minister of Renewable Energies opened the sessions which gathered agents from all sectors. The Impact Report summarises the effect of the Microgrids project relating the dissemination and diffusion of microgrids for rural electrification in developing countries. The Replication Plan reviews the best practices identified during the project and establishes the steps to be followed when assessing the feasibility of microgrids in other areas TRAINING The course Basic Training in RES and Micro grids took place from June 12 th to June 15 th in ESTIA facilities (Bidart, France). Fifteen people from all Senegalese partner institutions took part in the event. A series of visits to energy facilities took place from June 15 th to June 17 th in the Basque Country. The tour included one complete microgrid installation, solar photovoltaic and wind energy research laboratories, ICE for alternative fuels manufacturing company, wind farm, micro-hydraulic facility, solar thermal installation and sewage farm. The seminar Technology Transfer on the Basic Seminar on RES took place from July 12 th to July 13 th at CESAG (Centre Africain d Etudes Superieures en Gestion) facilities (Dakar, Senegal), aimed at training Senegalese professionals of the energy sector. 29 people from Senegal took part in the event. Lack of local training is one of the main barriers for the long-term sustainability of microgrids for rural electrification An educational kit for renewable energies has been designed and constructed. It includes all the basic modules present in solar/wind hybrid installations. It has been the base for the training sessions in Senegal and it will be used in the future for educational purposes in Senegal. 6

10 5.3. ANALYSIS OF LOCAL NEEDS The Analysis of Local Needs through extensive surveying yielded to the Final Report for Electrification Needs for Rural Areas which includes information such as socio-economic situation, energy needs, service level, existing electrical equipments and energy sources, power needs estimation, supply priorities, personal capacity to pay and renewable energy potential. Socio-economic information about the target communiyy is a must for implementing the project on a solid base 5.4. DESIGN OF AN ELECTRIFICATION KIT Standardization in developing countries is not as straightforward as in conventional facilities The report Design of an Electrification Kit starts from the Final Report for Electrification Needs for Rural Areas and builds a methodology for the design of isolated microgrids with high contents of renewable energy which is applied to the information gathered for the Senegalese areas of Thies, Fatick and Kaolack. Special focus is given to maintenance activities. 7

11 6. WHY AFRICA? Did you know that Africans consume a mere 0.3 to 0.6 toe/per capita?. By contrast North Americans consume an astounding 7.5 to 9 toe/per or between 12 and 30 times more energy on average. In brief, nowhere is the per capita level of energy consumption lower than in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is not an aim in itself but a first and clear indicator of how far from well-being and comfort parameters they are. Senegal currently has an installed electric generation capacity of 0.2 gigawatts. 70% of the population in sub-saharan Africa live in rural areas and less than 10% of these have access to reliable sources of energy Africa is endowed with resources vast enough to meet all its energy needs and this potential remains largely untapped Did you know that an estimated 70% of the population in sub-saharan Africa live in rural areas and less than 10% of these have access to reliable sources of electricity?. Senegal has a population of more than 10 million and more than half of these people live in rural areas. In 2001, 55% of urban households had access to electricity compared to only 7% of rural households. A mere 300 of Senegalese villages had access to a reliable source of electricity, whether through a connection to the national grid or from a local electricity generating company. Did you know that Africa is endowed with resources vast enough to meet all its energy needs and this potential remains largely untapped?. Hydroelectricity is by far the single biggest source of electricity in a number of countries. The region possesses some of the largest water courses in the world, the Nile, Congo, Niger, Volta and Zambezi river systems. The hydro potential of the Democratic Republic of Congo alone is estimated to be sufficient to provide three times as much power as Africa currently consumes. Oil and gas reserves are concentrated in the north and west. By contrast, virtually all of Africa's coal reserves are in the south. Geothermal resources are largely in the Red Sea Valley and the Rift Valley. Furthermore, though import of foreign energy sources grows day by day and ECOWAS has drawn up a 8

12 regional programme to use mini and micro-hydroelectric projects, the problem is not only the shortage and clear insufficiency of these energy sources but the fact that connecting them to a national grid can be costly and often impractical because many rural communities have low population densities and are situated in remote locations. So, in practice, alternative energy sources such as renewable energies are needed. Much of Africa is well exposed to sunlight. Solar energy could be particularly useful in areas far away from national grids. Alternatives include wind power, solar power, biomass, small diesel or petrol generators and energy conservation. The sun is a widely available resource that is bound to play a key role in the future of Africa 9

13 7. WHY SENEGAL? The penetration of a new technology must be accompanied by encouraging conditions that support and economically justify the process. For example, rising oil prices in the last years have been the cause of extensive promotion of new technologies for new energetic model, such as hydrogen and fuel cells. In the same way, when proposing the development of renewable rural electrification in developing countries, it is very important to assess the energetic situation in order to detect those supporting conditions that can make the difference between success and failure. Senegal makes extensive use of fossil fuels, which provide 60% of primary energy. Power generation, transportation and industry are responsible for this fact. Since Senegal is not an oil producer, all these products must be imported. During the first half of 2005, the value of oil imports doubled that of all Senegalese exports. This fact is a serious issue for the economy of the country since the situation is worsening as time goes by and oil prices keep on rising. During the first half of 2005, the value of oils imports doubled that of all Senegalese exports The remaining 40% of primary energy is obtained mainly through conventional exploitation of forests. Wood and charcoal are used by direct combustion for heating and cooking. As a result, natural resources are coming closer to an ecological disaster. Moreover, since 1995 the energy consumption growth rate has increased significantly and only 1% of energy is produced by renewable means (hydropower). All these questions demand immediate answers. Measures to be taken are quite similar to those proposed for developed countries: energy saving, diversification of sources and promotion of renewable energies. Senegal has been looking for solutions for a long time. In fact, activity around renewable energy potential started in the sixties. As an example of this early interest in RES, a new regulation was established in 1978 in order to promote solar systems in public energy supply contracts. Nowadays, existing RES facilities include: 10

14 Thousands of Solar Home Systems (about 50W). Several dozen Centralized Hybrid Systems (about 25 kw). Thousands of solar streetlights. Hundreds of solar pumps. Hundreds of solar-powered community services: education, health and communications. Some small scale wind pumps and parks in the coastal area. Aware of the importance of renewable energies and rural electrification for the future of the country, Senegal has recently been implementing a variety of actions to set clear strategies and develop well coordinated programmes. The most important measures undertaken are the following: Creation of the Biofuels and Renewable Energies Ministry. Creation of the Senegalese Agency for Rural Electrification (ASER). Creation of the Research and Studies Centre for RES (CERER). Elaboration of a Management Plan for Rural Electrification. Creation of the Rural Electrification Funds (FER) programme. Senegal is therefore a country where starting conditions and attitudes are fairly conductive to the development of renewable rural electrification. Renewable energies are not new in Senegal 11

15 8. WHY MICROGRIDS? The conventional system of energy generation and distribution corresponds to a centralised model with large production centres and extensive distribution networks to reach the users. The distributed generation model (DG), on the other hand, proposes small scale generation in the local vicinity of the final user. The distributed generation concept is based on the installation of small generators within the distribution network. The benefits obtained from including these small generators are due to the reduced distances between them to the points of consumption, which are less than for traditional generators which channel all their energy into the grid through the transport network. The installation of DG avoids the need to increase the capacity of the transport network but has the disadvantage that the electrical grid becomes two-way in as far as energy distribution, thereby increasing the complexity of its protection, control and management systems. The increased complexity of the management and regulation of electrical grids with GD can be minimised by grouping GD installations together into microgrids, so that the grid manager only Distributed generation diminishes losses and avoids the need to increase the capacity of the grid views one single control and monitoring interface. Different low power generation technologies may be used in a microgrid, some of which may be controlled by the type of fuel used (microturbines, diesel generators, fuel cell batteries), while the maximum power available to others is limited by external conditions, largely meteorological (photovoltaic panels, wind generators). Combining these two types of sources with a storage system results in an autonomous system which responds to the needs of the user group covered by the microgrid. Microgrids are especially suitable for employing renewable energies in developing countries. The renewable generators are generally small-scale, meaning that proximity to the user allows losses from the grid to be reduced. Microgrids have the following advantages over conventional small-scale individual systems (of around 50W): They allow energy to be efficiently shared for use. 12

16 They contribute to awareness raising and involvement of the local communities through the development of a common project. They allow the use of higher power electrical appliances and thereby foster the development of productive activity. Microgrids contribute to foster the involvement of the communities 13

17 9. MICROGRIDS AND RENEWABLE ENERGIES Electrification in developing countries is undoubtedly a key issue for progress. The significance of energy services in international development and cooperation aid has traditionally been quite limited when compared to other matters such us health or education. It can be said that the role of energy as a catalyst has been undervalued, since most of development related subjects are highly dependant on it: Poverty alleviation. Education. Health. Employment. Communications. Production capacity. Lack of opportunities for women. THE ULTIMATE AIMS To make energy available to everybody To foster social end economic development On the other hand, it is also true that other infrastructures such as water supply, roads, communications, market access or microcredits must be present in order to make use of the full potential of energy services. Once the significance of energy has been fully understood, the main objectives to be completed must be fully internalized: To make energy available to everybody. To direct efforts towards social and economic promotion of people. These objectives must be kept in mind in order to avoid deficient procedures in the electrification process. For example, when approaching the energy question in developing countries, most of the resources aim at the big problem: large generation plants, large distribution grids and large companies. But reality often shows that the rural population can be excluded in this process due to its inherent features: scattered habitat, low resources and difficult access to distribution grids. In this context, hybrid microgrids with high contents of renewable energies are a very promising option for rural electrification in developing countries since their advantages are quite remarkable: 14

18 Use of local energy resources. Substitution of fossil fuels, which contributes to sustainable development and economic balance of the country. Substitution of biomass obtained from natural forests as a way to avoid ecological disasters. Suitability for rural areas characterized by disseminated population, low energy consumption and difficult access to the distribution grid. In the same way as for developed countries, environmental issues must also be addressed. It has been said that energy development plans for Africa should ignore ecological drawbacks in favour of energy supply itself. This would be the best way to repeat the errors committed by the industrialized parts of the world. The sooner a problem is faced, the easier and more effective the solution. Renewable energies are a very good alternative to combat pollution, greenhouse gases and deforestation from an early stage in the electrification process and in educating people about this subject. Microgrids constitute the best context to integrate these energies into rural communities in an efficient and sustainable way. Microgrids and Renewable energies are a good combination to protect the natural resources 15

19 10. PROMOTION AND DISSEMINATION POTENTIAL DEPLOYMENT FOR MICROGRIDS FOR RURAL ELECTRIFICATION The objective of the first workshops carried out in the three target regions was to analyze the difficulties and needs for the spread of electrification systems in rural areas and to identify strategies and actions to fulfil these needs and remove these obstacles. The workshops were organised in Thies, Fatick and Kaolack in December The target groups were: Representatives of governmental organizations involved in rural electrification and renewable energies Representatives of citizens. Renewable energy technicians. The first contact with the local agents revealed their strong interest in electrification and a high level of involvement in the event In order to achieve the proposed objectives, the event consisted of the following tasks: 1. General information about the MICROGRIDS project was issued in order to make the people aware of the background. 2. A presentation on the Renewable Energy situation in Senegal was made covering subjects such as previous projects, main barriers, institutional policies and figures (cost, amortization, benefits ). 3. A working session was organized to identify all main parameters and difficulties related to electrification and regarding their particular area of activities. Taking all this information as a basis, possible solutions were proposed and evaluated. Discussion showed that many project on renewable energies have been started since eighties. However the results of these projects have been limited and have not, in general, leaded to long-standing approaches. Among these projects can be cited: The German cooperation (GTZ): PV power stations, mini power stations, pumping systems and familiar PV systems (FPS) in Kaolack, Fatick and Diourbel. 16

20 The Japanese cooperation (JICA): Senegalese-Japanese solar energy project (PSNES), carrying out of the national rural electrificaton plan, a pilot project installation (FPS) in Mar island of Fatick. Spanish cooperation (ATERSA, ISOPHOTON): FPSs installation in every region of Senegal, and above all in Fatick (Isophoton), streetlight and FPSs installation on 227 villages of Senegal. FONDEM NGO (Fondation Energie pour le Monde): solar electrification of Catholic private health centres of Senegal, particularly in Ziguinchor. In these workshops, discussions about the difficulties of expanding and perpetuating renewable energies lead to the proposal of some solutions to these difficulties. The barriers identified and solutions proposed have been tackled in subsequent actions. Thus, according to Senegalese experts, the main constraints and solutions to the development of micro-grids with high content of renewable energies in Senegal are: Administrative procedures are heavy. They must be streamlined. The tax system is restrictive. Some incentive measures have to be applied for the energy sector. The local or administrative authorities and the regional committees for the development are not sufficiently involved upstream of and downstream from the electrification projects. Governors, prefectures and other authorities must be involved in the projects. Beneficiaries, i.e. the population of non-electrified villages, are not involved in the financing of the project. They have to take part in the financing to be considered as partners. There are no maintenance systems. Training in maintenance of professionals associations must be encouraged to professionalize this field. Spare parts are not available. A toll-house must be created to ease the access to tools for the technicians in renewable energies. There are no monitoring systems to assess the projects. Project partners must carry out the monitoring and assessment of the project at medium and long term to facilitate the capitalisation of the projects. There are few continuing education procedures for local expertise. The local expertise must be strengthened through seminars and continuing education sessions. 17

21 Renewable energies are not included in the training programs. Renewable energies must be included in the school programs, especially in the scientific education OPPORTUNITIES OF MICROGRIDS FOR RURAL ELECTRIFICATION This conference was carried out in Dakar in April The objective of the conference was to meet Energy professionals and Energy policy makers in order to present: The results of the needs analysis for rural electrification; The development of opportunities through their activity by the installation of MICROGRIDS based on renewable energies. The support and implication of the recently created Ministry of Renewable Energies showed the commitment of Senegal with Microgrids project The target groups were therefore energy professionals and energy policy makers. The main activities of the conference entitled La politique des Energies Renouvelables du Sénégal et le projet Micro réseaux (Microgrids) were: 1. MICROGRIDS project presentation by European partners. Brief description of the last three events. 2. The rural electrification and renewable energy situation in Senegal, presented by the Renewable Energy Ministry. The following subjects were treated: the current institutional policies in this area, previous projects and the barriers to cross. 3. Results description of the study made in WP3 by the Senegalese partners (SEMIS/CERER) about the Analysis of local needs for electrification of rural areas. 4. An important session consisted in presenting the Final Report of the previous events-group: Barriers and Solutions for Potential Deployment for microgrids for Rural Electrification. 5. Opportunities of rural electrification for the companies concluded the conference with the participation of energy professionals, institutions and 18

22 Senegalese partners. Special attention was paid to the figures (cost, amortization, benefits). It must be noticed that just some weeks before the conference, the Government of Senegal created the Renewable Energies Ministry. The new minister Christian Sina Diatta took actively part in the conference and its organisation. The impact of the conference was very significant thanks to him. All experts and important decisions takers of institutions, universities, research centers and entrerprises concerned by renewable energies were present at the conference. Moreover, this event was very widely disseminated by TV, newspapers and radio. The impact of the Conference through the mass-media was extensive The discussions which closed the conference underlined: The need to alleviate administrative procedures. The need to ensure technical and financial maintenance of facilities resulting from projects. The opportunity to create a Financing Commission to support the penetration of Renewable Energies. New strategies: Introduction of Renewable Energies in school and Cyber Forums. 19

23 10.3. BENEFIT OF MICROGRIDS FOR RURAL ELECTRIFICATION. HOW TO REPLICATE THE MICROGRIDS EXPERIENCE The objective of these second workshops in the target regions was again to bring together Energy professionals and politicians from Fatick, Thies and Kaolak regions to: Disseminate Microgrids project results. Measure the Project acceptance by Senegalese agents. Identify the next step of the project: objectives, technological and financial means. The target groups were: Energy professionals. Politicians (Fatick/Thies/Kaolak). Energy agencies and companies. The final results concerning the analysis of the electrification needs in the rural areas investigated (Thies, Fatick and Kaolack) were presented and discussed. Then, the conceptual rural electrification Kit designed using the results of the rural electrification needs surveys was presented. In addition, the didactic Kit, designed to train Microgrids installation, maintenance and operating technicians, was demonstrated. These workshops have also allowed to be presented the Rural Electrification Funds created by decree N of 21 March A significant part of the time of the workshops has been reserved for discussions which have allowed the involvement of local personalities in relation to the rural electrification problem and renewable energies. In conclusion local governors and authorities have expressed their satisfaction with the results of Microgrids project. They have also expressed the eagerness of local population to have access to electricity. Workshops have allowed the main results of the Microgrids project to be spread. They have led to some debates about the permanence of the systems based in Renewable Energies in Senegal. Questions from Presidents of Rural Communities 20

24 and Regional services for development were answered from Senegalese institutions as ASER, the DE, ESP and private actors as SEMIS. Local media have disseminated the information given about the needs of rural electrification, the nature of exploitable energy resources and the specificity of Microgrids project s Hybrid Systems. Information media in rural areas also showed great interest in the events LAST CONFERENCES IN DAKAR AND BILBAO The conference in Dakar: la Politique des Energies Renouvelables du Sénégal et le Projet Micro réseaux (Microgrids) was held in October 2007 while the conference in Bilbao was held in November. 21

25 The last conference in Dakar was a great success These final conferences of the MICROGRIDS project in Dakar and Bilbao have dealt with different subjects such as: Presentation to a large public of the MICROGRIDS project objectives. Dissemination of the results of the project (project assessment): Analysis of local needs, presentation of the Kits; conclusions of the precedent events (main parameters and difficulties related to rural electrification, possible solutions...). Funding for micro grids projects for rural electrification: example of PLE (Local Electrification Plan) and ERIL (Rural electrification issued from local initiative). Encouragement of energy agencies and energy professionals from Senegal to use the MICROGRIDS experience in the development of suitable solutions for electrification of remote areas. Involvement of the energy companies and investors to identify the financial and technological means for the next step after the end of the project. Debate on measures to highlight in order to bring the project to another level (a micro grid installation based on KIT architecture). 22

26 The presence of the Minister of Biofuels and Renewable Energies Mr. Christian Sina Diatta confirmed the interest of the country in microgrids and renewable energies The conference in Dakar has created synergies between specialists of rural electrification from different backgrounds. Nevertheless, it has been noted that the number of organization involved in the field of rural electrification and renewable energies is still not sufficient. This problem would be studied and taken into account in the project (Microgrids II) which would take over from Microgrids project. The success of this conference has proved that more and more people are interested in renewable energies and rural electrification. All partners and participants have underlined the need to extend the application field and partners of Microgrids, by carrying out a Microgrids II project which would apply the results of the first project and thus allow a durable and high quality rural electrification. The conference in Bilbao has allowed Spanish and French NGOs, educational centres and enterprises to be informed about Microgrids project results and to propose them to take part in rural electrification based on renewable energies in Africa. 23

27 10.5. ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES Additional diffusion activities include: Diffusion and distribution of leaflets at the International Conference on Electrical Equipment (Bilbao, November 2007) and in the IV Conference on Renewable energies and Human Development: Appropriate Technologies (Bilbao, November 2007). Writing of two papers for publication in Elsevier Renewable Energies. One of them is based on the analysis of local needs for rural electrification and the other one on the design of the electrification kit. A replication plan has been produced summarising the best and worst practices identified during the project and providing a series of advices and activities to be followed when assessing the feasibility of the application of microgrids for rural electrification. An impact report has also been produced summarising all the activities and supporting effects of the project on the promotion of microgrids for rural electrification. 24

28 11. TRAINING A four day training course in LIPSI-ESTIA was organised at the beginning of the project on concepts related to RES, energy efficiency and micro grids. During these sessions the attendees developed their abilities to: Train other persons. Analyse the electrification needs of the rural areas in their country. Take technological decisions on installing of micro grids. Dimension Hybrid Power Systems and micro grids according to the data site (consumption, meteorological data ). Raise awareness in the population and decision-makers to these systems in order that they will support all actions addressed to the development of micro grids containing hybrid power systems in stead of slowing down the deployment of this kind of project. Design micro grids development policies. Design adapted regulatory frameworks. The course included the following sessions such as: Introduction to microgrids. Electric resources management. PV development politics. Renewable energy sources. Conventional generators and energy storage systems. Power electronics modules. Standards and regulations for the connection to the distribution grid. Discussion on techno-economic parameters for the development of microgrids and renewable energy sources. Example of wind park project. This course was repeated in Dakar some months later. A two day study tour to energy related facilities was also made in Bilbao and its surroundings, including the following visits: TECNALIA facilities where a complete microgrid facility was visited. Oiz mountain wind farm. 25

29 Vitoria sewage farm and its generation plant fed by waste. Mini hydraulic facilities. Thermosolar installation. The training activities were reinforced by the construction of an educational kit. A training kit in the 200w range has been designed. It provides a platform for training on solar-wind systems. It consists of a complete (protections, solar panel, wind turbine, regulator, battery, inverter, loads) which includes measurement devices aimed at educational activities. It was constructed and tested in July 2007 and it was used for the Advanced training course on micro grids training sessions in October The kit was completed with a Guide for Teaching Practices which was the base for the training. It was left in Senegal for future training courses. Educational kit embedded in a case for transportability and micro wind-turbines. 26

30 12. ANALYSIS OF LOCAL NEEDS METHODOLOGY The methodology of the Microgrids project has been widely accepted among the target communities and this fact is mainly due to the key role that is given to the community itself. Actions that do not take local needs into account are bound to fail. It is projects and technologies which must fit people. One of the first steps to be taken is to gain some insight and interaction with the community. The need for this action and its crucial importance can be explained with quite a simple example. When talking about the implementation of SHS (Solar Home Systems in Senegal), Senegalese technicians confirm that evolution in manufacturing processes is becoming a problem for them. While the international trend is to increase the size of basic solar modules, this new dimension turns out to be too large for the needs of a typical rural home. This case shows the risk of approaching the problem from a technological point of view. Even if the base is a well proven technology coming from the developed world, it will be useless if it does not fit the reality of rural communities. The following problems can arise: Economic. Lack of resources to sustain the system. Operative. Inadequate solution or lack of knowledge and education from the people. Social. Lack of involvement from the community. Therefore, we must resist the temptation to take the technological resource as a starting point to implement a project. Let us turn it the other way round. It is the community itself which must state the needs and questions to be solved. The philosophy and methodology of the Microgrids project is perfectly aligned with this direction. Its aim is to offer solutions based, not so much on previously pre-established technological concepts, but on the real needs of rural communities. The only way to ensure the sustainability of the services is to combine deep knowledge of the local agents with technical expertise, management capacity and financial resources. 27

31 The main tool used in the Microgrids project to acquire this knowledge is the analysis of electrification needs of rural areas in Senegal. This type of report is a must for the evaluation of microgrids feasibility in one particular area. Several subjects, not only those directly related to energy, have been surveyed in order to get a well defined image of the community: Socio-economic parameters of the village, involving subjects such as: - Population and number of households. - Type of habitat (grouped, dispersed). - Employment and global economic activities. - Production facilities: wells, mills... Surveys have led to the generation of a data base that gathers village, household and technical information - Social infrastructure: health, education, administration, religion. - Infrastructure such as roads, communication facilities, water supply, access to markets and credit. Domestic use: - Economic activities. - Number of residents and emigrants. - Number of buildings in the household and distribution (number of rooms and layout). - Energy supply. Use of batteries in % of households. Medium distance to recharge them. Use of kerosene in % of households. Medium distance for kerosene supply. Use of diesel generators in % of households. Medium distance for diesel supply. - Current uses of energy: lighting (candles, kerosene), entertainment (radio/tv). Number of appliances and daily use in number of hours. - Energy use foreseen by the user in case of electrification. Power and energy estimations per household. 28

32 - Current costs of energy services. Substitutable expenses on candles, kerosene and batteries that could be used in the future as a payment to sustain a microgrid. - Costs that users would be willing to pay in a microgrid. - Familiarity of users with financial tools, especially with loans. Non domestic use: - Social infrastructure: health, education, administration, religion. - Public lighting. - Commerce. - Productive use: water pumping, mills, engines. - Power and energy estimations. Global data: - Global hourly consumption profile. - Supply priorities in case of shortage. - Estimation of renewable energies potential: solar, wind, biomass, hydraulic. - Fuel prices. - Economic data for equipment: purchase costs, operating and maintenance costs, engineering costs. Villages to be surveyed must be carefully selected according to the following criteria: Distance to the distribution grid further than 10 km. This is the reference figure which makes a microgrid cheaper than a conventional grid connection. Electrified and unelectrified samples. It is obvious that surveys must be focused on the unelectrified communities which will be the target of the action. Anyway, there are certain estimations which are difficult to carry out, such as future energy uses when the village is electrified. A specially sensitive parameter is the willingness to pay, since it is the main reference for the analysis of economic viability. In this case, data gathered in the 29

33 microgrids project have proved to be quite difficult to analyse, showing great variations for similar users in different villages. Furthermore, sometimes the willingness to pay does not steadily grow with the level of consumption in the households. This indicates that people can not accurately estimate the resources that could be dedicated for this service. Maybe this is due to the fact that current use is always Surveys in electrified villages offer valuable information about future uses in non-electrified villages based on prepayment (fuel, recharge of batteries) and never on periodical fees. The conclusion is that surveys must also be carried out in already electrified villages. This way, energy consumption and paying capacity are a reality that can be measured and taken as a reference for unelectrified villages. Different sizes in the typical range of the country must be explored to study the variation of all these parameters with growing population. The main problem with renewable rural electrification is the difficulty to sustain the project economically due to the low income level of the community. This fact makes it necessary to explore all mechanisms that can help to solve the problem. The analysis of productive activities which could be optimized or started up by means of electrification is then a key point. Economic activity is highly focused on agriculture, so post-processing of products will be the first subject to be considered. Further possibilities must also be explored such as the development of microenterprises through microcredits (for example, recharging stations for batteries). In the end it must be fully understood that the needs in developing and developed countries, as well as in urban and rural scenarios, are completely different and should therefore be addressed according to all these particularities RESULTS Extensive surveys were carried out in the regions of Thies, Fatick and Kaolak. A summary of the results is described in the rest of this section. 30

34 Location of target areas Socioeconomic data As shown in Table 1, the main activity carried out in the villages concerned is agriculture. In Fatick agriculture is the first activity for all families. Families have often a second, and sometimes a third activity. In general, the second activity is livestock farming and the third activity is commerce. Table 1 Data about socioeconomic activities in the three regions Type of villages Activity 1 Activity 2 Small villages Agriculture (89.8%) Livestock farming (57.1%), Commerce (12.2%), Agriculture (10.2%), No other activities Medium villages Agriculture (94.7%) Livestock farming (36.8%), Commerce (21.1%), Agriculture (5.3%), No other activities Kaolack region Large villages Agriculture (94.7%) Livestock farming (46.4%), Commerce (17.9%), Agriculture (7.1%), No other activities All the villages Agriculture (92.5%) Livestock farming (46.3%), Commerce (17.2%), Agriculture (7.5%), No other activities 31

35 Small villages Agriculture (100%) Livestock farming (37.5%), Commerce (50%), No other activities (12.5%) Medium villages Agriculture (100%) Livestock farming (31.66%), Commerce (14.16%), Craft (5.3%), Other / No other activities Fatick region Large villages Agriculture (100%) Livestock farming (42.85%), Commerce (14.28%), Masonry (7.1%), Other activities All the villages Agriculture (100%) Livestock farming (35.13%), Commerce (19%), Craft (4%), Other / No other activities Small villages Agriculture (92.7%) Livestock farming (31.7%), Commerce (17.1%), Agriculture (4.9%), No other activities Medium villages Agriculture (77.8%) Livestock farming (11.1%), Commerce (13.9%), Agriculture (19.4%), No other activities Thies region Large villages Agriculture (89.3%) Livestock farming (25%), Commerce (7.1%), Agriculture (10.7%), No other activities (46.4%) All the villages Agriculture (84.8%) Livestock farming (23%), Commerce (13.3%), Agriculture (11.4%), No other activities Table 2 shows the number of residents and emigrants per household. It is important to know the number of residents to estimate the electrical energy needs. Moreover, the emigrants are often the most important financing source of the families. Thus, the number of emigrants is normally linked to the purchasing power of families. It can be seen that, on average, there are more residents in Kaolack than in Fatick and even than in Thiès. In Kaolack and Thiès, the number of residents per family increases with the size of villages. Similar conclusions can be made about the number of emigrants per family. There is at least one emigrant per family in the three regions villages and the number of emigrants increases with the proximity of the capital of Senegal, Dakar, as it can be verified in the map. 32

36 Table 2 Number of residents and of emigrants by household Type of villages Mean number of residents by household Mean number of emigrants by household Small villages Medium villages Kaolack Large villages region All villages Small villages Medium villages Fatick Large villages region All villages Small villages Medium villages Thies Large villages region All villages Table 3 shows some statistics about housing in the studied regions. It can be seen that nearly every family has at least one secondary building close to the main building. In Kaolack and Fatick more than half of the families have at least four secondary buildings, and three in Thiès. The table also shows the existing distances between the different buildings. This information is useful to estimate the length of the electrical cable which would have to be installed if the village is electrified with a micro-grid. The statistics about the number of rooms per building allow the number of bulbs needed to light every room to be estimated. 33

37 Table 3 Statistics about housing: number of buildings per family Building Main Sec. 1 Sec. 2 Sec. 3 Sec. 4 % of households 100% 98.51% 94.03% 81.34% 61.18% Mean number of rooms by building Mean distance to the main building Kaolack region / % of households 100% 100% 97.29% 64.86% 56.73% Mean number of rooms by building Mean distance to the main building Fatick region / % of households 100% 95.24% 76.19% 53.33% 32.38% Mean number of rooms by building Mean distance to the main building Thies region / Energy data Inhabitants of non-electrified villages use three main kinds of lights or energy: Oil-lamps, candles. Batteries for torch, butane gas. Solar PV panels with batteries feeding bulbs. Some people use batteries charged in another village. As shown in table 4, more than 5 km have to be covered on average to get oil in the three regions. In Kaolack and Fatick, families who use batteries have to cover about 20 km on average to charge them. 34

38 Table 4 Constraints linked to the supply of energy Villages from Mean distance to buy the oil (km) Mean distance to charge the batteries (km) % of households concerned by the charge of the batteries Kaolack % Fatick % Thies % Table 5 gives some information about the electric equipments used by families in non-electrified and electrified villages. Table 5 Electric equipments in non-electrified and electrified household Equipments In the nonelectrified households In the electrified households Radio-cassette 83.58% 0.00% Radio 58.96% 40.00% B&W TV 3.73% 0.00% Colour TV 1.49% 73.33% Refrigerator 0.00% 60.00% Kaolack region Fan 0.00% 40.00% Video 0.00% 20.00% Freezer 0.00% 13.33% Parabolic antenna 0.00% 6.67% Mobile phone 0.00% 53.33% 35

39 Radio-cassette 33.78% 60% Radio 66.22% 26.66% B&W TV 6.75% 0% Colour TV 0.00% 80% Refrigerator 0.00% 20% Fatick region Fan 0.00% 53.33% Video 0.00% 46.66% Freezer 0.00% 6.66% Mobile phone 0.98% 53.33% DVD/CD Player 0.00% 6.66% Radio-cassette 43.60% 60.00% Radio 96.00% 33.00% Black and white TV 62.00% 26.70% Colour TV 20.00% 73.30% Freezer 0.00% 13.30% Thies region Fan 0.00% 26.70% Video 0.00% 20.00% Mobile phone 1.00% 60.00% Refrigerator 0.00% 6.70% Electric pump 0.00% 46.70% In non-electrified villages of Kaolack, most of people use radio-cassettes and radios. In Fatick more or less 10% of the families have a black and white television. In Thiès almost every family has a radio and 84% of the families have black and white televisions. 36

40 Compared to non-electrified household, electrified households generally use colour televisions, refrigerators, fans, videos and phones. It can be noticed that in Thiès, unlike in the other two regions, electricity is also used for power-driven pumps. The surveys have been carried out by different teams in each region. The questions were probably not asked in the same manner in the three regions. Some differences between data of different regions can be explained like this. Table 6 shows the Substitutable Energetic Expenses (SEE) for lighting. It corresponds to total money that households would save if they were electrified and they could use electricity instead of the other lighting systems they are using today. Table 6 Substitutable Energetic Expenses (SEEs) for lighting Large villages Medium villages Small villages All the villages Batteries (Fcfa) Candles (Fcfa) Kaolack region Oil (Fcfa) Total amount Without ISS With ISS Batteries (Fcfa) Candles (Fcfa) Fatick region Oil (Fcfa) Total amount Batteries (Fcfa) Candles (Fcfa) Thies region Oil (Fcfa) Total amount

41 In Fatick and Thiès the SEEs decrease with the size of the village. Moreover, taking data as a whole, the trend is that SEEs decrease with proximity to Dakar. This is probably due to the fact that lighting systems are cheaper as the distance to Dakar decreases. In some villages, households have Individual Solar Systems (ISS). It can be remarked that in these villages, SEEs are logically lower. Four service levels have been defined to facilitate the estimation of domestic electrical energy needs (see table 7). The first level considers only 2 or 3 lamps and a radio, while the fourth level takes into account more than 8 lamps, one radio, one colour television, one video and other devices such as refrigerator or fans. Table 7 Definition of service levels Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level Lamps 3-5 Lamps 6-8 Lamps More than 8 Lamps Radio Radio Radio Radio Black and white TV or Radiocassette Black and white TV or Radiocassette Colour TV 1 device Video and other devices Table 8 shows the distribution of households per Service Level (SL). Table 8 Distribution of household per Service Level (SL) SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 Number of households Percentage of households Number of households Percentage of households Kaolack region 2.30% 35.30% 30.80% 31.60% Fatick region 4.06% 27.03% 35.13% 33.78% 38

42 Number of households Percentage of households Thies region 0% 1.69% 13.21% 81.13% In Kaolack the number of families who would like to have a 2, 3 or 4 SL is more or less the same. The collected data is similar in Fatick, even if in general, people of this region are rather more demanding. The service level demand is much higher in Thiès where more than 81% of households declare that if their village was electrified, they would take out a subscription corresponding to the fourth level. It can also be noticed that very few households are situated in the first SL whatever the region is. Economic data The following figure shows the sum the household are Willing To Pay (WTP) per service level. In general, fortunately, families who want a higher SL are willing to pay more. There is, however, a small contradiction in Kaolack where families who would like SL 2 are willing to pay less than those who would like to have SL WTP (FCFA) Kaolack Fatick Thies 0 SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 Service level A comparison between the SEE for lighting and the WTP is made for each region in Table 9. 39

43 Table 9 Comparisons of the SEE (for lighting) and the WTP SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 SEE Kaolack region WTP SEE Fatick region WTP SEE Thies region WTP In Thiès households declare to be willing to pay more than their substitutable energy expenses. This declaration seems to be coherent. This fact is also more or less true for Fatick except for SL 1 families who declare they spend quite a lot on lighting. They may be families who spend too much money in comparison with their purchasing capacity. In Kaolack households declare they are willing to spend less money than their SEE. Compared to the other two regions, it is true that their SEEs are higher and it is probable that their incomes are lower. Some questions in the surveys were prepared to see if households are used to taking out loans. Actually, if micro-grids are to be installed in the non-electrified villages, it is important to see whether local population would be willing to take out loans to pay for part of the installation. The next figure shows that some families of the three regions are used to taking out loans and that the majority of loans are lower than 400 thousand Francs CFA (656 F CFA = 1 ). % of households [0->100[ [100->200[ [200->300[ [300->400[ [400->500[ > 500 Amount of loan (thousands of FCFA) Kaolack Fatick Thies 40

44 Estimation of consumption Some data obtained from the interviews can be used to estimate the electrical energy needs of each village. This estimation is necessary to do a proper dimensioning of the micro-grids to be installed in the villages concerned. Table 10 Hypotheses made for the estimation of the subscribed power and the consumed energy per household for each SL Number Power (W) Operation time (h/d) Daily consumption (Wh/d) Monthly consumption (kwh/month) Low energy lamps Radio SL1 Total Economic lamps Radio SL2 B&W TV Total Economic lamps Radio B&W TV SL3 Refrigerator Total Economic lamps Radio B&W TV SL4 Video Freezer Total

45 The electrical energy needs can not be directly obtained from the surveys. First, some hypotheses have to be done to estimate the power subscribed and the energy consumed per household for each SL. Table 10 gives the list of hypotheses which have been made to do this estimation. Thus, for SL 1, the subscribed power per household would be of 48 W and the consumed energy in one month is estimated at 5.22 kwh. For SL 4, the values are 411 W and kwh. The different SLs affect only the energy consumption of the household. They do not take into account other shared loads such as public lighting or pumping. Other hypotheses have to be made to estimate the electrical consumption of these shared loads, and thus to calculate the overall estimated electrical consumption. Concerning public lights, it could consist of a streetlight of 100 W working 10 hours per day, hence consuming 1 kwh per day. Moreover, considering the experience of rural electrification, we can take one streetlight for 15 households. Concerning the social infrastructure (school, health centre and mosque), shops, etc., consumption can be estimated to be similar to that of SL 2, that is, a subscribed power of 243 W and a consumed energy of 2439 kwh per day. For pumping and other uses of motors, consumption is determined considering a load of 3 kw working 4 hours per day, corresponding to a total consumption of 12 kwh per day. These hypotheses, along with those of the above table 10 and with data from table 8 concerning the distribution of household per SL, allow the estimation of the electrical needs for the different sizes of village in the three regions (Table 11). The estimated electrical energy needs are lower in Kaolack than in the other regions. The lower estimation is made for a village of 250 inhabitants of Kaolack, where the subscribed power would be of 5.97 kw and the consumed energy would be of kw per day. The highest estimation is made for a village of 1500 inhabitants in Fatick, where the subscribed power would be of kw and the consumed energy would be of kw in a day. The micro-grids which would be installed in these villages should be dimensioned to be as cheap as possible. This cost could be reduced by minimising the storage system (normally batteries) capacity or the power of the additional generator (for instance diesel generator). The risk of this strategy is that sometimes, demand could be higher than supply. In this event, the population would have to accept the interruption of power supply for some loads. 42

46 Table 11 Estimation of electrical energy needs per size of village and per region Small villages Medium villages Large villages Population Person/households Households Total power demand (kw) Energy demand (kwh/d) Kaolack region Person/households Households Total power demand (kw) Energy demand (kwh/d) Fatick region Person/households Households Total power demand (kw) Energy demand (kwh/d) Thies region The potential of renewable energies The potential of some renewable energy sources has been estimated by collecting corresponding data in each region. The resources studied are biogas obtained from animal wastes, wind energy and solar energy. 43

47 The next figure shows the potential of biogas for the three regions. Most of the biogas would be obtained from bovine waste. The waste coming from equines, goats and sheep also show a significant potential for the production of biogas. The global amount of biogas which could be obtained from this animal waste is really important. For instance, more than 400 m 3 of biogas could be obtained per day from cattle waste in Kaolack. However, this data has to be put into perspective. Currently, livestock is very dispersed in Senegal. Hence, it is difficult to collect the wastes. Moreover, after collecting the waste, it has to be processed to obtain biogas. Thus, considering all these remarks, the use of animal waste to generate electricity does not seem to be efficient enough to be taken into account as a resource for rural electrification. Biogas production (m3/d) Bovine Sheep Goats Poultry Horses Kaolack Fatick Thies Donkeys Biogas potential in target regions Because of its geographical situation, solar energy potential is very important in Senegal. On average the country gets 3000 hours of sunshine a year. It corresponds to a total energy average of 5.8 kwh/m 2 per day. Fig. 7 shows the daily radiation in the three regions. The trends are the same: the radiation is maximal in April and May and minimal in December and January, but it is really very high throughout all the year. 44

48 Daily radiation (kwh/m2/d Kaolack region Clearness index Daily radiation (kwh/m2/d Fatick region Clearness index Daily radiation Clearness index Daily radiation Clearness index 7 Thies region 1.0 Daily radiation (kwh/m2/d) Clearness index Daily radiation Clearness index Solar potential in target regions This solar potential can be used to generate electricity with PV panels. This technology is still relatively expensive but very appropriate for isolated sites such as rural villages distant from the Senelec grid. Moreover, the price of the panels is decreasing. In the future, solar thermodynamic power stations would be able to produce cheaper electrical energy, though this technology is not still mature. Wind energy is the renewable energy that has experienced the highest degree of development during the last two decades. It is now very competitive in relatively windy sites. Some global, but not very precise studies have been carried out in Senegal to analyse the wind energy potential. The average wind speed in the three regions considered is between 3 and 5 m/s, most of the time more than 4 m/s According to these data, wind energy is not very useful, though wind speed can be higher in places, near a river, the sea or on a hill. The first wind farm will probably be installed rather soon by a European company in such a site with good wind. Thus, contrary to PV panels, wind energy will not be competitive in every non-electrified rural village, though it could be in some particularly windy villages. 45

49 Wind speed (m/s) 5 4,5 4 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 Kaolack region Wind speed (m/s) 5 4,5 4 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 Fatick region Thies region Jan Apr Jul Oct Year Jan Apr Jul Oct Year Jan Apr Jul Oct Wind speed (m/s) Year Wind potential in target regions 46

50 13. DESIGN OF AN ELECTRIFICATION KIT SELECTION OF ENERGY SOURCES Available energy sources have been analysed in order to define the configuration of the kit. Next figure shows the advantages and disadvantages of the different energy sources considered in the analysis. Texts in red and green show key considerations that support the final decision for each case. SOLAR Renewable Great potential in Senegal Regular distribution Costs Need for batteries GENERADOR DIESEL GENERATOR DIESEL Availability Fácilmente disponibles Low initial investment Coste inicial bajo Easy installation and Fáciles de instalar y transportar transportation Necesidad Fuel de costs combustible Mantenimiento Maintenance Noise Ruido and y polución pollution WIND Renewable Space/power ratio Previous wind analysis Location close to resource Variability/Cost Irregular distribution in Senegal BIOMASS BIOMASA Renovable Renewable Gran potencial en Senegal Great potential in Senegal Dificultad para la recogida Difficult gathering Necesidad de tratamiento Need for previous processing previo para el uso en microrred Energy sources chart selection Solar photovoltaic (SPV) energy presents a great potential in Senegal, with more than 3000 hours of solar radiation per year all through the country. Along with its renewable nature, this fact makes SPV the energy of the future in Senegal. Therefore it is considered as the preferred source for the kit, although its high costs can be a problem for the financing scheme. The disadvantages of diesel generators (DGs) are well known: fuel costs, need for regular maintenance operations and nuisance such as noise and pollution. This technology is cheap and easily available on the other hand. In fact, it is quite 47

51 suitable for hybrid systems with SPV, since it compensates costs in terms of power and can be used as backup for unexpected low insolation or high demand periods. The problem with wind energy in Senegal is the irregularity of its distribution, which is mainly concentrated in the coast. Besides, economic efficiency demands previous analysis on wind distribution. Wind energy is then considered as a second option specially suited for certain areas. Biomass potential in Senegal is huge in terms of human, animal and industrial waste. However, since there are no appropriate means for biomass collection and processing at the present time, it has been discarded for this study. Solar PV and diesel generators are complementary sources in tems of costs and performance METHODOLOGY 4.1 Introduction GLOBAL SIZING Household Small Community Large Community TECHNICAL PARAMETERS SYSTEM SIZING Renewable Energy Non Renewable Energy Storage ECONOMIC PARAMETERS SYSTEM LAYOUT Load positioning Generator positioning Grid KIT GRID CONFIGURATION Monophasic/Triphasic Wiring section SAFETY People Facilities TARIFICATION Installed power Consumed energy OPERATION & MAINTENANCE Periodic procedures Staff Methodology for the definition of the kit 48

52 The figure shows the successive steps to be taken for the design of the electrification kit: 1. Global sizing of the target community. 2. System layout with physical location of load, generator and distribution grid. 3. Grid configuration as far as number of lines and conductor section is concerned. 4. System sizing including renewable and/or non-renewable generators as well as energy storage facilities. 5. Safety considerations for people and facilities. 6. Tariff plan. 7. Operation and maintenance procedures. 4.2 Global sizing The first step to be taken is to define the range of community sizes to be covered by the modular concept. In Senegal, 85% of non-electrified villages have less than 500 inhabitants. Additionally, for small villages (less than 100 inhabitants) the use of Solar Home Systems (SHS) is more efficient. Therefore the analysis will focus on small and medium sized communities corresponding to a range between 100 and 750 people. Larger communities up to inhabitants should be served by the use of two or more kits in parallel configuration. 4.3 System layout The figure in the next page shows the procedure to be followed to establish the layout of the system through the following steps: 1. Physical location of users: domestic users, public services, shops and industries. 2. Definition of distance and load for each user. Loads for different users are classified in four possible service levels, ranging from 50 to 400w. The loads must be characterized not only in terms of power, but also in terms of time of use so in the end a global hourly load profile can be established for the village. 3. Plan for future expansion through growing consumption and new users. 49

53 4. Location of the generator. The source of energy must be placed close to the largest loads in order to minimize power losses. Other factors to be considered are availability of land for the facility and, in the case of a diesel generator, separation from households in order to avoid noise and proximity to roads for easy fuel supply. 5. Finally, the layout of the distribution grid will be traced. Costs must be minimised while maintaining appropriate voltage drops and power losses. Safety and reliability issues must also be considered. Users location Loads and distances CONDITIONS: Voltage drop and power loses Safety / Reliability Costs 400w 100w Forecast for the future 200w 200w Location of generator Distribution grid 400w 100w 200w 3000w G 400w CONDITIONS: Close to large loads Space availability Noise Fuel Supply Procedure for the definition of system layout 4.4 Grid configuration The first question to be solved is whether the grid will be monophasic or triphasic. Monophasic schemes are simpler to design and install. Triphasic grids permit the connection of larger loads and, since losses are smaller, they are more economical in terms of wiring costs. The inconvenience is a more complex design process in which loads must be balanced between the three branches in order to obtain better results. 50

54 The next table shows a relative comparison of wiring costs for the same working conditions. Even in a 50% unbalanced system, monophasic costs double those of the triphasic configuration. Relative cost comparison between monophasic and triphasic configurations Configuration Balanced 50% unbalance MONOPHASIC 3 2 TRIPHASIC (4 WIRES) 1 1 The next step is the calculation of the optimal wiring size. The electrical resistance of the wire is the origin of two negative effects: Voltage drop that affects the quality of service with consequences such as lower level of lighting or problems with engine operation. Power loses due to consumption by the wire itself. Since these effects are inversely proportional to the cross section of the wire, it is very important to properly define this size. First of all acceptable limits must be fixed for voltage drop and power losses. Five per cent can be a good reference point since it does not have important effects on quality of service and generator sizing. Then a calculation method must be applied to relate voltage drop and power loses to the length and configuration of the predefined layout. Simplified methods Triphasic wiring is less expensive than monophasic due to the lower level of losses in the distribution line allow the use of direct formulas when the load can be considered to be concentrated at the end or evenly distributed through the grid. If this is not the case, more complex algorithms must be used for the processing of each individual position of the loads. In any case, it must be said that a more expensive wire can be more economically efficient in terms of power loses throughout the life of the project. 51

55 4.5 System sizing This task refers to the optimization of the size of energy generators and storage systems. This process is carried out with the help of a software package called HOMER through the following steps: 1. Input of Energy Resource Information describing solar and wind profiles and fuel costs. 2. Input of Components Information including initial costs, operation and maintenance cost, replacement costs, lifetime, efficiency, range of sizes to be analysed Input of Load Information such as hourly load profile, loses in the distribution grid and deferrable loads. A techno-economic analysis must be carried out in order to offer a good quality of service with minimal life-cycle costs 4. Input of Economic Information such as interest and lifetime of the project. 5. HOMER simulates the proposed configurations for the different ranges of sizes previously indicated. This is done by making energy balance calculations for each of the 8,760 hours in a year. A techno-economic analysis is carried out by: Determining whether a configuration can meet the electric demand. Estimating the cost of installing and operating the system over the lifetime of the project. Finally HOMER displays a list of configurations sorted by lifecycle cost that can be used to compare system design options. 4.6 Safety Safety elements must be included in the design process so that the effects of potential hazards on people and facilities are avoided or minimised. Overload conditions are due to the demand being larger than the rating of the system. Large currents produce overheating, an increase in voltage drop that diminishes quality of service and finally damage to the components. Short circuits are 52

56 much more severe events. In this case currents are extremely high. Damages can affect the distribution line itself and a fire can even be started. In order to prevent these situations, current limiting devices must be used on both generation and consumption sides. Fuses and Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs) are the most habitual tools for the implementation of this functionality. Personal safety is extremely important in the context of previously non-electrified communities. The lack of familiarity with this kind of systems increases the probability of accident. Contact with live wires or devices are the most frequent incidents to be avoided. Therefore, extensive efforts must be dedicated to user education and to ensure the suitability of the installation. Additional measures include the use of Residual Current Devices (RCDs) that stop the system in the case of current flowing out of the distribution grid and proper user facilities grounding. 4.7 Tariff plan Safety of people must be given special attention since target groups are not necesarily used to this kind of installations Charging by contracted power simplifies billing procedures and reduces costs. The drawback is that this way energy saving is not fostered Conventional tariff-setting procedures include a fixed quantity in terms of maximum power available and a variable quantity proportional to energy consumed. This scheme stimulates saving since costs grow along with consumption. Additionally, system planning is facilitated through the availability of precise information on loads. However, in the context of developing countries the cost of measuring devices and the complexity of fee collection management can prevent this option from being economically appropriate. The alternative to charge according to power contracted. In this way costs are lowered since payment management is simplified and the control devices are the same as those used for safety: 53

57 Fuses. Low cost and availability are the main advantages in this case. On the other hand, several disadvantages can be mentioned: low accuracy, the need to replace the fuse after any overcharge and the high probability of fraud by short-circuiting. Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs) are a solution for all these problems, but cost and availability must be considered in each particular case. 4.8 Operation and maintenance The success of a microgrid project is highly dependent on the existence of suitable operation and maintenance procedures. This issue can threaten the sustainability of the facility if it is not properly addressed. On the other hand, it is a very suitable field to promote local involvement through training for local technicians and management by local organisations. In order to minimise costs, one technician may be responsible for the running of several microgrids. Tasks to be performed include: Implementation of periodic maintenance procedures for the different modules. Control of fuel availability and supply. Regular inspections of generator plant and distribution grid. Preventive maintenance based on the detection of abnormal working parameters (noises, high consumption, etc.) can avoid damage to the system. Payment management according to a previously established procedure. User advice on energy efficiency: low consumption devices and reactive power compensation KIT DESIGN 5.1 Description of the procedure As a previous step the reference load profile and estimations of electrical energy needs are presented. The complete design process is done for Ndramé, a typical village in the area of Kaolack. Results are then extended to all the different village sizes and areas. Finally, physical and electrical configurations are shown. 54

58 5.2 Load profile Next figure shows the typical distribution of loads along the day in a 750 inhabitant Senegalese village. Hourly load profile for a 750 inhabitant village The shape of the profile is dominated by domestic consumption, with a primary peak in the late evening-night and two secondary peaks in the early morning and midday. Industrial and pumping uses are mainly distributed at off-peak times for household consumption. Pumping could be more evenly distributed from 1h to 5h a.m., but the effect on system performance would not be considerable due to the large 24 kw peak. This shape is used for the different sizes of villages to be analysed, with the next table showing the absolute values obtained from the estimations included in the analysis of electrification needs. Estimation of electrical energy needs per size of village and per region Small villages Medium villages Large villages Population

59 Power (kw) Kaolack Energy (kwh/d) Power (kw) Fatick Energy (kwh/d) Power (kw) Thies Energy (kwh/d) Results for Ndramé Ndramé is a 350 inhabitant village located in the area of Kaolack. Its size and its grouped configuration are quite representative of the typical village between 100 and 500 inhabitants. The analysis starts by taking the map of the village, locating the position of users, establishing the level of service of each user, locating the generator and routing the distribution grid. The next figure shows the original aerial view of Ndramé and the results of this process. Yellow symbols indicate shops and the red ones correspond to public buildings. The green G stands for generator, located in the outside of the village but close to the loads. Numbers indicate level of service, being 4 the largest one. Distribution line in yellow follows the main streets trying to minimise distances and keep the load balance between the different branches. Layout of the system for Ndramé 56

60 Next table shows voltage drop and power losses in monophasic and triphasic configurations for different cross-sections from 13 to 34mm 2. The first two monophasic options provide a fairly poor performance. It must be noticed that even the smaller triphasic wiring obtains better results than the largest monophasic one at a lower cost. Voltage drop, power loss and price comparison between different wiring options Conf VD(V) VD(%) P(kW) P(%) Grid Grid (meters) ($) MONO 13 24,6 10,7 0,66 14, MONO ,9 0,41 8, MONO 34 10,5 4,5 0,25 5, TRI 13 6,2 2,7 0,25 5, TRI ,7 0,15 3, TRI 34 2,6 1,1 0, The next table shows the cost of the wires and the sizing of the system for the different configurations. It can be seen that the size of the generator is not affected by the configuration. However, power losses produce an increase in fuel consumption for the lower performance configurations. 57

61 System size for different wiring options Conf PV (kw) GEN (kw) Batt (*) Conv (kw) Initial Capital ($) Life Cycle Cost ($) Diesel (l/yr) TRI , , TRI , , TRI , , MONO , , MONO , , MONO , , Triphasic configuration offer better performance with extra costs that are not very important compared to the global lifecycle costs *Batteries are considered in units of 600Ah-12V Triphasic configurations offer better performance with extra costs that are not very important compared to the lifecycle cost. Moreover, triphasic configurations permit the use of larger loads for productive uses. This capability is perfectly aligned with the objective of promoting the socio-economic development of rural communities. Therefore, this kind of configurations should be preferred. All this calculations have been carried out with a maximum annual capacity shortage of 1%. The next figure shows the sensitivity to this parameter. The aim is to check whether a reduction in the availability of the system would also reduce its cost. According to the results, it is necessary to go beyond 10% to obtain noticeable savings. This could have negative effects not only on domestic life but also on post-electrification economic growth. 58

62 Sensibility to capacity shortage Capacity shortage (%) PV (kw) GEN (kw) Batt (*) Conv (kw) Initial Capital ($) Life Cycle Cost ($) COE ($/kwh) Diesel (l/yr) , , , , , , , , , , , , , , *Batteries are considered in units of 600Ah-12V 5.4 Results for the areas of Thies, Fatick and Kaolack Calculations have been applied for the three regions and for different village sizes according to the electricity needs already shown. In order to stay close to market conditions, growing size for the different modules has been fixed at 5kW steps. In any case, due to high costs that make them responsible for about 70% of initial capital, PV panels should be more precisely calculated for each individual village. Diesel generator minimum size has been fixed at 5kW, which is the boderline for the wide availability of triphasic modules. The next table shows the results of this process: 59

63 System sizing per size of village and per region Location Population ( + ) PV (kw) GEN (kw) Batt (*) Conv (kw) Initial Capital ($) Life Cycle Cost ($) COE ($/kwh) Diesel (l/yr) K , , ,181 F , , T , , K , , F , , T , , K , , F , , T , , K , , F , , T , , K , , F , , T , , * Batteries are considered in units of 600Ah-12V + K: Kaolak, F:Fatick, T: Thies According to these figures, the following considerations can be construed: 60

64 Due to the high Senegalese solar potential and high fuel prices, PV panels are more economically efficient in the long term, that is, considering the life cycle of the project. A diesel-only facility would be much cheaper in terms of initial capital, but in this case life cycle costs would be multiplied by 4. The need for suitable financing tools that allow the start-up of the projects is thus made clear. Due to the high Senegalese solar potential and high fuel prices, PV panels are more economically efficient in the long term Most of the energy has a renewable origin. As a result, diesel consumption is limited facilitating the fuel supply logistics and protecting the viability of the project from oil prices variability. A 5 kw generator is sufficient for villages up to 750 inhabitants. PV panel sizes vary from 10 to 45 kw. 5.4 Wind energy considerations Wind energy has not been included in the main study due to the irregularity in its geographical distribution and the need to carry out previous wind speed analysis to identify appropriate locations. Anyway, calculations have also been done for a 6kW commercial wind turbine. The conclusion is that economic feasibility starts at 4m/s wind speed, where life cycle costs of a system including 1 wind turbine equals that of a PV-diesel facility. With higher values, such as those that can be found on the coast (5m/s), 7% savings in life cycle cost can be obtained for good wind locations. 5.6 Physical configuration The kit would be implemented in a standardized container (3,5m x 2,5m) where modules can be added in steps of 5 kw. In this way, it is suitable for housing different configurations for different sizes of villages. The next figure shows two examples for a 350 inhabitant village on the left and a 750 inhabitant village on the right. Larger cases up to 1500 inhabitants would be implemented by two kits working in parallel. 61

65 Physical configuration 5.5 Electrical configuration The next figure shows the electrical scheme of the electrification kit. Electrical configuration The main features can be summarised as follows: Photovoltaic panels are connected to the AC bus through an inverter with Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) for optimised efficiency. The bank of batteries is controlled by a bidirectional charger that controls the charging process towards the batteries and provides AC power towards the grid. This configuration allows charging from PV panels and 62